Bomhard - Prehistoric Language Contact On The Steppes

Prehistoric language
contact on the steppes:

The case of Indo-European
and Northwest caucasian
Allan R. Bomhard
Florence, SC USA
2023
PREHISTORIC
LANGUAGE CONTACT
ON THE STEPPES
THE CASE OF INDO-EUROPEAN
AND NORTHWEST CAUCASIAN
By
Allan R. Bomhard
FLORENCE, SC USA
2023
Bomhard, Allan R. (1943— )
Prehistoric Language Contact on the Steppes: The Case of

Indo-European and Northwest Caucasian
By Allan R. Bomhard
(1) Indo-European; (2) Northwest Caucasian; (3) language

contact (2023).
© 2023 by Allan R. Bomhard (see below).
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PREHISTORIC LANGUAGE CONTACT ON THE STEPPES: THE
THE CASE OF INDO-EUROPEAN AND
NORTHWEST CAUCASIAN1
Allan R. Bomhard
Florence, SC USA
ABSTRACT: There have been numerous attempts to find relatives of Proto-Indo-European, not the least of
which is the Indo-Uralic Hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, Proto-Indo-European and Proto-
Uralic are alleged to descend from a common ancestor. However, attempts to prove this hypothesis have
run into numerous difficulties. One difficulty concerns the inability to reconstruct the ancestral
morphological system in detail, and another concerns the rather small shared vocabulary. This latter
problem is further complicated by the fact that many scholars think in terms of borrowing rather than
inheritance. Moreover, the lack of agreement in vocabulary affects the ability to establish viable sound
correspondences and rules of combinability. This paper will attempt to show that these and other
difficulties are caused, at least in large part, by the question of the origins of the Indo-European parent
language. Evidence will be presented to demonstrate that Proto-Indo-European is the result of the
imposition of a Eurasiatic language — to use Joseph Greenberg’s term — on a population speaking one
or more primordial Northwest Caucasian languages.2
INTRODUCTION
What exactly is Proto-Indo-European, and where did it come from? Which

languages did it come into contact with, and can evidence of such contact be
ascertained? Moreover, what was the impact of that contact on the phonology,
morphology, and lexicon of Proto-Indo-European? These are important questions,
not only for understanding the prehistory of Proto-Indo-European itself, but also for
the bearing that the answers to these questions have on the ability to determine the
language or languages with which Proto-Indo-European is most likely related.
Let us begin with some basic premises:
1. The most likely homeland of speakers of the unified Indo-European parent

language was located to the north of and between the Black and Caspian Seas
(see figure 1). This scenario is supported not only by linguistic evidence, but
also by a growing body of archeological and genetic evidence. The Indo-
Europeans have been identified with several cultural complexes existing in that
area between 4,500—3,500 BCE. The literature supporting such a homeland is
both extensive and persuasive (many of these works are listed in the references
at the end of this paper). Consequently, other scenarios regarding the possible
Indo-European homeland, such as Anatolia, have now been mostly abandoned.
1
A preliminary version of this paper was presented at the Conference on “The Precursors of Proto-Indo-
European: The Indo-Hittite and Indo-Uralic Hypotheses” held at Leiden University, Leiden, The
Netherlands, 9—11 July 2015. The original version of that presentation was published in 2016 in Mother
Tongue, under the title “Prehistoric Language Contact on the Steppes: The Case of Indo-European and
Northwest Caucasian”. A revised, corrected, and expanded version was published in 2019 in the Journal
of Indo-European Studies 47.1/2:9—124, under the title “The Origins of Proto-Indo-European: The
Caucasian Substrate Hypothesis”, with comments and discussion by John Colarusso, Frederik Kortlandt,
Johanna Nichols, Kevin Tuite, Oleg Balanovsky, and David W. Anthony. For the current version (2023),
I have reverted to the title used in Mother Tongue.
2
I would like to thank John Colarusso for his comments and suggestions on an early draft of this paper. I
also would like to thank Kevin Tuite for encouraging me to explore this subject in depth.
© Allan R. Bomhard, 2023; Open-access under the terms of https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0

2 Allan R. Bomhard
2. Proto-Indo-European had neighbors: Uralic languages were spoken to the

north, Caucasian languages were spoken to the south, and Altaic and several
so-called “Paleosiberian” languages were spoken to the east. Further south, in
and around the Fertile Crescent, Semitic languages were spoken. Though it is
not known what languages lay to the west, it is known that Indo-Europeans
were not the first inhabitants of Europe, and Basque survives to this day as the
sole remaining language from before the Indo-Europeanization of Europe.
3. By about 3,500 BCE, Proto-Indo-European had already split up into several
distinct dialects, which, in turn, had begun to spread westward, southward, and
eastward, away from the original core (see figure 2).
4. The first dialect to separate from the main speech community was Anatolian.
No doubt, the next to leave was Tocharian.
5. Proto-Indo-European was a highly inflected language, and its grammatical
structure has been reconstructed in great detail — except for particles,
conjunctions, and certain quasi-adverbial forms, all words were inflected. The
basic structure of inflected words was as follows: root + suffix (one or more) +
inflectional ending. A notable morphophonemic characteristic was the
extensive use of a system of vocalic alternations (“Ablaut” in German) as a
means to mark morphological distinctions. Verbs were strongly differentiated
from nouns. For nouns and adjectives, three genders, three numbers, and as
many as eight cases have been reconstructed (mainly on the basis of what is
found in Classical Sanskrit), though it is doubtful that all of these features were
ancient — it is indeed possible to discern several distinct chronological stages
of development (cf. Bomhard 2021.1:139—146 and 1:688—691; Lehmann
2002). The traditional reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European verbal system
sets up two voices, four moods, and as many as six tenses. Syntactically, Proto-
Indo-European seems to have had many of the characteristics of an SOV
language, though there must, no doubt, have been a great deal of flexibility in
basic word order patterning. Finally, Proto-Indo-European clearly had a
nominative-accusative type structure, at least in its later stages of development.
Figure 1: According to Villar (1991:15), the following map shows the location of
Indo-European-speaking people at about 5,000—4,500 BCE, while the
hatched area above the Caspian Sea indicates the earliest probable
location of the Indo-Europeans.
Indo-European Homeland

Prehistoric Language Contact on the Steppes 3
Figure 2: The early dispersal of the Indo-European languages (cf. Anthony 2013:7):
Indo-European
Homeland
Note: According to Anthony, the first three migrations out of the Indo-European
homeland were (the insert compares the phylogeny proposed by Ringe—
Warnow—Taylor 2002):
1. Anatolian;
2. Tocharian;
3. (a) Celtic;
(b) Germanic.
But, there is more. It has long been recognized that the form of Proto-Indo-
European reconstructed in the standard handbooks is not the earliest form that can
be recovered. That form of Proto-Indo-European contains the remnants of
successive earlier stages of development. Recent scholarship, particularly over the
past three decades or so, has turned its attention more and more to investigating the
prehistoric development of Proto-Indo-European. As a result, several prominent
linguists have proposed that Proto-Indo-European may have been an active-type
language at an earlier period of development, while others have thought more in
terms of an ergative-type structure. Moreover, it is becoming increasingly evident
that the complicated morphological system reconstructed by the Neogrammarians
for Proto-Indo-European, mainly on the basis of Sanskrit and Greek, was a later
development. The relative simplicity of the Hittite morphological system is now
seen to be an archaism.
The phonological system has also attracted considerable attention, especially
the system of stops. Here, mention may be made of the so-called “Glottalic Theory”
4 Allan R. Bomhard
(cf. Salmons 1993; Bomhard 2016a), according to which the traditional plain voiced
stops (*b, *d, *g, *gʷ) are reinterpreted as glottalics (*p’, *t’, *k’, *k’ʷ), with a
possible gap at the bilabial point of articulation, or, if not an outright gap, at least a
very low frequency of occurrence (see figures 3 and 4). One thing is certain, Proto-
Indo-European had a history, and, little by little, that history is being uncovered.
Figure 3: The glottalic reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European consonant system

according to Gamkrelidze—Ivanov (1995.1:5—70):
Traditional Gamkrelidze—Ivanov
I II III I II III
(b) bʰ p = (p’) bh/b ph/p

d dʰ t = t’ dh/d th/t
g gʰ k = k’ gh/g kh/k
gʷ gʷʰ kʷ = k’u̯ gu̯h/gu̯ ku̯h/ku̯
Notes:
1. Gamkrelidze—Ivanov reinterpret the traditional plain voiced stops (series I) as
glottalics (ejectives);
2. They make no changes to the traditional voiced aspirates (series II);
3. They reinterpret the traditional plain voiceless stops (series III) as voiceless
aspirates;
4. They point out, however, that the feature of aspiration is phonemically
irrelevant in a system of this type, the choice between the aspirated and
unaspirated variants being mechanically determined by the paradigmatic
alternations of root morphemes.
Figure 4: Reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European phonological system during

its latest period of development according to Bomhard (2021.1:61):
Obstruents: I pʰ tʰ kʸʰ kʰ kʷʰ

II bʰ dʰ gʸʰ gʰ gʷʰ
III (p’) t’ k’ʸ k’ k’ʷ
s
Laryngeals: ʔ (= ə̯₁) h (= ə̯₄) ‿

ħh (= ə̯₂)
‿
ʕɦ (= ə̯₃)
ʔʷ (= ə̯₁ʷ) ħ‿hʷ (= ə̯₂ʷ)
Resonants: m/m̥ n/n̥ l/l̥ r/r̥ w/u y/i
Vowels: e o a (i) (u) ə

ē ō ā ī ū

Notes:
1. Series I is voiceless aspirated; series II is voiced aspirated; and series III is
glottalized (ejectives).
2. Voiced aspirates (series II) may have already developed, or at least started to
develop, at this stage, but this is uncertain. They are really only needed in order
to account for developments in Armenian, Indo-Iranian, Greek, and Italic.
3. The glottalics (series III) became deglottalized just prior to the emergence of
the non-Anatolian Indo-European daughter languages. The resulting system
was as follows:
Obstruents: I pʰ tʰ kʸʰ kʰ kʷʰ

II bʰ dʰ gʸʰ gʰ gʷʰ
III (p) t kʸ k kʷ
4. The palatalovelars may already have started to become phonemic at this stage,
at least in the ancestors of those daughter languages (the “satəm” languages) in
which the labiovelars were delabialized. They did not become phonemic in the
ancestors of the so-called “centum” daughter languages.
As we delve further into the prehistory of Proto-Indo-European, we begin to see

that, in its earlier stages of development, Proto-Indo-European is characterized by a
mix of phonological, morphological, and lexical features which link it, ever so
tenuously, with other languages of northern Eurasia — to cite one example,
similarities in pronoun stems are particularly striking. Though these links hint at
some sort of distant linguistic relationship, proof has remained elusive. There is
something about Proto-Indo-European that sets it apart. In many respects, it is
typologically divergent from the other languages of northern Eurasia. For example,
it is the only reconstructed language of the region with a series of voiced aspirates.
Its root structure patterning is different, as are its nominal case system and
complicated verbal structure. Its system of vowel gradation is more akin to what is
found in Kartvelian. Its vocabulary is also distinctive. If Proto-Indo-European is, in
fact, distantly related to other languages of northern Eurasia, then the differences
which set it apart from them require an explanation.
As was mentioned at the beginning of this paper, the homeland of Proto-Indo-
European was situated north of and between the Black and Caspian Seas. This was
undoubtedly the final homeland — it was where Proto-Indo-European developed its
unique characteristics. However, it is probable that this was not the original
homeland of the speakers of what was to become Proto-Indo-European. In a paper
published in 1997, Johanna Nichols argued that the earliest Indo-European speech
community was located in Central Asia (note also Uhlenbeck 1937; Kozintsev 2019
and 2020). Nichols proposes that Pre-Proto-Indo-European spread westward across
the steppes, eventually arriving on the northeastern shores of the Black Sea.
However, it should be noted that aDNA evidence indicates that the population of the
Pontic-Caspian region at this time was an admixture of the local steppe population
deriving either from the Caucasus or the region to its south. I would place the Pre-
6 Allan R. Bomhard
Indo-Europeans in the area north of the Caspian and Aral Seas at about 7,000 BCE,
and I would date their initial arrival in the vicinity of the Black Sea at about 5,000
BCE — this is somewhat earlier than the date Nichols assigns. No doubt, the
immigration occurred in waves and took place over an extended period of time.
Though it is not known for certain what language or languages were spoken in the
area before the arrival of Indo-European-speaking people, it is known that the Pre-
Indo-Europeans were not the first inhabitants of the area — several chronologically
and geographically distinct cultural complexes have been identified there. This is an
extremely critical point. The contact that resulted between these two (or more)
linguistic communities is what produced the Indo-European parent language.
Fortunately, there are clues regarding who may have been there when the Pre-
Indo-Europeans arrived on the shores of the Black Sea. In a series of papers written
over the past forty years or so, John Colarusso has explored phyletic links between
Proto-Indo-European and Northwest Caucasian. Colarusso has identified similarities
in both morphology and lexicon — enough of them for Colarusso to think in terms
of a genetic relationship between Proto-Indo-European and Northwest Caucasian.
(The Northwest Caucasian family tree is shown in figure 5.) He calls their common
ancestor “Proto-Pontic”, which he dates to roughly 10,000 BP (9,000 to 7,000
BCE). (The Proto-Pontic phonological system is shown in figure 11.)
Figure 5: The Northwest Caucasian family tree:
Proto-Northwest Caucasian
Proto-Circassian Proto-Abkhaz-Abaza
†Ubykh
Adyghe Kabardian
Abaza / Tapanta Abkhaz
Notes:
1. Ubykh is now extinct;
2. Abaza is also called Tapanta (T’ap’anta);
3. Chirikba (1996a) considers Hattic to have been a Northwest Caucasian
language;
4. The Adyghe (also called “West Circassian”) branch of Circassian is made up of
many dialects, the most important of which are Temirgoy, Bžedux, and
Šapsegh;
5. Kabardian is also called “East Circassian” — East Circassian also includes
Besleney.

The phonological system reconstructed for Common Abkhaz by Chirikba

(1996a:58—59 and 1996b:xi) is as follows (his transcription has been retained;
where different, the symbols used in this paper are shown in parentheses):
Figure 6: Common Abkhaz phonological system:
Stops Affricates Spirants Resonants Glides
Labial: b p p’ (v) f m w
p’º
Dental: d t t’ ʒ c c’ z s n r
dº tº t’º
Dental- ʒ́ ć ć’ ź ś
Alveolar: ʒ́º ćº ć’º źº śº
Alveolar: ǯ č č’ ž š
ǯº čº č’º žº šº
ǯʹ čʹ č’ʹ žʹ šʹ
Palatal: j
Lateral: l
Velar: g k k’
gº kº k’º
gʹ kʹ k’ʹ
Uvular: q q’ γ (= ɣ) x̌
qº q’º γº (= ɣº) x̌º
q’ʹ γʹ (= ɣʹ) x̌ʹ
Pharyngeal: ɦ ħ
ɦº ħº
Vowels: a ə
The phonological system reconstructed for Proto-Circassian by Kuipers

(1975:4) is as follows (his transcription has been retained; where different, the
symbols used in this paper are shown in parentheses) (see also Chirikba 1996a:
110—111):
Figure 7: The Proto-Circassian phonological system:
Labials: pʰ p: b p’
Dental Stops: tʰ t: d t’
Dental Affricates/Sibilants: cʰ c: ʒ c’ s z
Alveolopalatals: s̹ (ś) z̹ (ź) s̹ ’
(ś’)
Alveolopalatals: labialized: c̹ ʰº c̹ :º ʒ̹ º
(ćʰº) (ć:º) (ʒ́º)
8 Allan R. Bomhard
Palatals: čʰ č: č’ šʰ š: ž
Palatals: palatalized: čʰʹ č:ʹ ǯʹ č’ʹ šʰʹ š:ʹ žʹ
Laterals: λ l λ’
Velars: kʰ k: g k’ x ĝ
(ɣ)
Velars: labialized: kʰº k:º gº k’º xº
Uvulars: qʰ q: q’ x̌ ǧ
Uvulars: labialized: qʰº q:º q’º x̌º ǧº
Pharyngeal: ħ
Others: h, y, w, m, n, r
Vowels: a ə
Note: The Proto-Circassian voiced velar fricative *ĝ (*ɣ) is from an earlier voiced
velar fricative *ɣ, on the one hand, and from an earlier voiced pharyngeal
fricative *ʕ, on the other hand.
The Ubykh phonemic system is discussed at length by Vogt (1963:13—33). Cf.

Colarusso 1975 for a comprehensive treatment of Northwest Caucasian phonology
in general. See also Hewitt 2005:94—102.
Finally, it may be noted that Chirikba (2016:9—11) reconstructs the early
Proto-Northwest Caucasian phonological system as follows (his transcription has
been retained):
Figure 8: The early Proto-Northwest Caucasian phonological system:
Consonants: b pʰ p’
d tʰ t’ m w
ʒ c c’ z s n
ǯ č č’ ž š r
Ł ƛ ƛ’ L λ l
g kʰ k’ ĝ x j
ɢ qʰ q’ γ χ
ʔ ʕ H
Vowels: i ü u
e ö ə o
a

Note: Cf. Colarusso (1989:28) for a slightly different reconstruction. The biggest
difference between Colarusso and Chirikba is that Colarusso reconstructs a
four-way contrast in the system of stops and affricates of (1) voiceless
aspirated, (2) plain voiceless, (3) voiced, and (4) glottalized (ejectives), thus
(using the dentals for illustration): *tʰ, *t, *d, *t’. Colarusso also
reconstructs a smaller set of vowels than Chirikba.
At this point, it might be helpful to reproduce the sound correspondences

between the various branches of Northwest Caucasian, as proposed by Chirikba
(1996a:174—178):
Figure 9: Northwest Caucasian sound correspondences:
Common Common Ubykh Common Abkhaz

Northwest Circassian
Caucasian
*b *b b *b
*p *pʰ/*p: p *p
*p’ *p’ p’ *p’
*d *d d *d
*dº *d dº *dº
(*dºʹ *d dº *ʒ́)
*t *tʰ/*t: t *t
*tº *tʰ/*t: tº *tº
(*tºʹ ? (*tʰ/*t:) tº *tº)
*t’ *t’ t’ *t’
*t’º *t’ t’º *t’º
*g *gʹ gʹ *g
*gʹ *gʹ gʹ *gʹ
*gº *gº gº *gº
*gºʹ *gº gʹ *gº
*k *kʰʹ/*k:ʹ kʹ *k
*kʹ *kʰʹ/*k:ʹ kʹ *kʹ
*kº *kʰº kº *kº
*kºʹ *kʰº kʹ *kº
*k’ *k’ʹ k’ʹ *k’
*k’ʹ *k’ʹ k’ʹ *k’ʹ
*k’º *k’º k’º *k’º
*k’ºʹ *k’º k’ʹ *k’º
*ɢ *q: q’ *ɦ
(*ɢʹ *q: ? *γʹ)
*ɢº *q’º/*q:º q’º *ɦº
(*ɢºʹ *q’º q’ʹ *ɦº)
*q *qʰ/*q: q *q

10 Allan R. Bomhard
*qʹ ? qʹ *x̌ʹ
*qº *qʰº/*q:º qº/ꝗº/ꝗ *qº
*qºʹ *qʰº x̌ʹ *ħ
*q’ *q’ q’/ꝗ’ *q’
*q’ʹ *q’ q’ʹ/ꝗ’ *q’ʹ
*q’º *q’º q’º/ꝗ’º *q’º
*q’ºʹ *q’º q’ʹ/ꝗ’ *q’º
*ʒ *ʒ ʒ *ʒ
*c *c:/*cʰ c *c
*c’ *c’ c’ *c’
*ʒ́ *ʒ/*ź ʒ́ *ʒ́
*ʒ́º *ʒ́º ʒ́º *ʒ́º/*ź
*ć *s ć *ć
*ćº *ćʰº/*ć:º ćº *ćº
*ć’ *ś’/*c’ ć’/c’/ć *ć’/*ć
*ć’º *ś’º ć’º *ć’º
*ǯ *ǯ ? *ǯ
*ǯʹ *ǯʹ ǯʹ *ǯʹ
*ǯº *c: ʒ *ǯº
(*ǯºʹ *žʹ šº *ʒ́)
*č *čʰ/č: č *č
*čʹ *čʰʹ/č:ʹ čʹ *čʹ
(*čº *š ? *čº)
*č’ *č’/*č’ʹ č’ *č’
*č’ʹ *č’ʹ č’ʹ *č’ʹ
(*č’º *č’ʹ č’ʹ *č’º)
*f *f f *f
*z *z z *z
*zº *žʹ ź *žº
*s *s s *s
*sº *s šº *ś
*ź *ź ź *ź
*źº *źº źº *źº
*ś *ś ś *ś
*śº *śº śº *śº
*ž *ž ž *ž
*žʹ *žʹ žʹ *žʹ
*žº *ž žº *žº
*žºʹ *ź/*žʹ žº/ź *žº
*š *šʰ/*š: š *š
*šʹ *šʰʹ/*š:ʹ šʹ *šʹ
*šº *šʰ/*š: šº *šº
*šºʹ *ś (/*šʰʹ) šº *šº
*Ł *tħ L *l
*ƛ *š:ʹ/*šʰʹ ś *x̌

(*ƛʹ *čʰʹ šʹ *x̌)

(*ƛº *č:/*čʰ ćº *ćº)
(*ƛºʹ *č:ʹ ǯʹ *žº)
*ƛ’ʹ *λ’ ƛ’ *šʹ
*Lʹ *L L *žʹ
*λ *λ λ *š
*λʹ *λ λ *šʹ
*λº *xº/*x šº *š
*λºʹ *xº śº *š
*ĝ *ĝ ɣ/ɣ– *ɣ
*ĝʹ *ĝ ź *ɣʹ
*x *x šʹ (/-x) *x̌
*xʹ *x šʹ *x̌ʹ
*xº *xº x(º) *x̌º
*xºʹ *xº x *x̌
*ɣ *ɣ ɣ/ɣ – *ɣ
*ɣʹ *ɣ ɣʹ *ɣʹ
*ɣº *ɣº ɣº/ɣ–º *ɣº
*ɣºʹ *ɣº ɣʹ *źº
*x̌ *x̌ x̌/x̌ *x̌
*x̌ʹ *x̌ x̌ʹ *x̌ʹ
*x̌º *x̌º x̌º *x̌º
*x̌ºʹ *x̌º x(º) *x̌ʹ
*ʕ *ɣ ɣ/ɣ – *ɦ
*ʕʹ *ɣ ɣʹ *ɦ
*ʕº *ɣº ɣº *ɦº
*ʕºʹ *ɣº ɣʹ/ɣ *ɦº, *ɦ
*H *ħ x̌/x̌ *ħ
*Hʹ *x̌/*ħ x̌ʹ *ħ
*Hº *x̌º x̌º/x̌, x̌º/x̌ *ħº
*Hºʹ *x̌º x̌ʹ *ħº/*ħ
*m *m m/m *m
*n *n n *n
*l *L L *l
*r *d-/*t:-, *-r- L-/d-/-r- *r-/*l-/*-r-
*w *w w *w
*j *y j *j
*a *a a *a
*ǝ *ǝ ǝ *ǝ
The following sound correspondences can be provisionally established between

Proto-Indo-European, Common Abkhaz, and Proto-Circassian (these sound corres-
pondences are based upon the examples given in this paper):

12 Allan R. Bomhard
Figure 10: Sound correspondences:
Proto-Indo-European Common Abkhaz Proto-Circassian

*pʰ *p *pʰ, *p:
*tʰ *t, *c, *ć, *č, *čʹ *tʰ, *t:, *cʰ, *c:, *čʰ, *č:, *čʰʹ, *č:ʹ
*kʰ *k, *kʹ, *q *kʰ, *k:, *qʰ, *q:
*kʷʰ *kº, *qº *kʰº, *k:º, *qʰº, *q:º
*pʰVs- *psV- *PsV-
*pʰVH₂- *px̌V-
*p’ *p’ *p’
*t’ *t’, *c’, *ć’, *č’, *t’, *c’, *č’, *č’ʹ
*č’ʹ
*k’ *k’, *k’ʹ, *q’, *q’ʹ *k’, *q’
*k’ʷ *k’º, *q’º *k’º, *q’º
*bʰ *b *b
*bʰVs- *bzV-, bžV- *PzV-
*dʰ *d, *ʒ, *ʒ́, *ǯ, *ǯʹ *d, *ʒ, *ǯ, *ǯʹ
*gʰ *g, *gʹ, *ɣ, *ɣʹ *g, *ǧ, *ɣ
*gʷʰ *gº, *ɣº *gº, *ǧº
*s *s, *ś, *š, *šʹ, *z, *s, *ś, *š, *šʰ, *šʰʹ, *š:,
*ź, *ž, *žʹ *š:ʹ, *z, *ž, *žʹ
*H₁ (= *ʔ) *Ø *Ø, *h
*H₄ (= *h) *Ø *Ø
*H₂ (= *‿
ħh) *ħ, *x̌, *x̌ʹ *ħ, *x, *x̌
(< *ħ)
*H₃ (= *‿
ʕɦ) *ɦ (< *‿
ʕɦ < *ʕ) *ĝ (< *ʕ)
(< *ʕ)
*w *w *w
*y *j *y
*m *m *m
*n *n *n
*n̥ *a *a
*l *l *l, *λ
*r *r *r
*a, *e, *o *a, *ǝ *a, *ǝ
*i, *u *ǝ *ǝ

Figure 11: The phonological system reconstructed for “Proto-Pontic” by Colarusso:
Consonants: pʰ p b - m w
tʰ t d t’ n r l
cʰ c ʒ c’ s z
čʰ č ǯ č’ š ž y
ƛʰ ƛ λ ƛ’
kʰ k g k’ x̂ ĝ
qʰ q - q’ x ɣ
ḥ ʕ
ʔ h
Vowels: i u
e ə o
a
Before discussing Colarusso’s theories, it would be helpful to outline some of

the salient characteristics of the Northwest Caucasian languages, just as we did for
Proto-Indo-European above. One of the most noteworthy features of the Northwest
Caucasian languages is their large consonant inventories and relatively small vowel
inventories. Vowel gradation is a notable charateristic. (The phonological systems
of the individual Northwest Caucasian languages are discussed in great detail by
Colarusso in his 1975 Harvard University Ph.D. dissertation and by Hewitt in his
2005 Lingua article, “North West Caucasian”; see also Polinsky [ed.] 2020,
especially Chapter 9 on “The Northwest Caucasian Languages” by Peter Arkadiev
and Yury Lander.) The Northwest Caucasian languages are agglutinating languages,
with ergative clause alignment. In general, noun morphology is simple. Nouns are
marked for case, number, and definiteness, but not gender (Abkhaz and Abaza /
Tapanta are exceptions). Demonstratives are characterized by three degrees of
deixis: (1) proximate, (2) intermediate, and (3) distant (Ubykh, however, has only
two degrees of deixis). Postpositions are the rule. A particularly notable feature of
the Northwest Caucasian languages is their highly complex (polysynthetic) verb
systems. Gerundive and participial forms are also widely used. Word order is SOV.
The lexicon is analyzable into a small number of short roots.
Let us now take a closer look at Colarusso’s proposals. First, he makes
significant changes to the reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European phonological
system. He calls his new reconstruction “Fortified Proto-Indo-European” (see figure
12 on the following page). It consists of three series of stops (voiceless aspirated,
plain voiced, and glottalized); palatalized, plain, and labialized velars; a series of
plain and labialized postvelars; and eleven laryngeals, including labialized varieties.
Colarusso posits only two vowels for “Fortified Proto-Indo-European”: *ə ~ *a
(plus tonal stress). He claims that his revisions present a typologically more
accurate form of Proto-Indo-European, and, in this, he is most definitely correct,
whether one agrees or not with the details of his reconstruction.

14 Allan R. Bomhard
Figure 12: “Fortified Proto-Indo-European” phonological system as reconstructed

by Colarusso (1992a:23):
Consonants: pʰ b - m w
tʰ d t’ s n r l
kʰʸ gʸ k’ʸ
(kʰ g k’)
kʰʷ gʷ k’ʷ
qʰ - q’ x ɣ
qʰʷ - q’ʷ xʷ ɣʷ
ḥ ʕ
ḥʷ ʕʷ
ʔ h
ʔʷ
Vowels: ə ~ a (plus tonal stress)

Note: Colarusso assumes that the laryngeals were lost in stages. The earliest
laryngeals to be lost were *ʔ, *h, and *ʔʷ. The loss of these laryngeals
between preceding short vowels and a following obstruent gave rise to
“inherently” long vowels. The remaining laryngeals underwent various
changes and were eventually lost altogether prior to the emergence of the
non-Anatolian daughter languages. Some laryngeal reflexes persisted in
Anatolian.
Next, Colarusso investigates morphological similarities, beginning with a series

of nominal suffixes, which he claims are common to Proto-Indo-European and
Northwest Caucasian. Next, he lists several other endings, such as participles,
abstracts, cases, etc. After discussing these endings, he moves on to demonstrative
and personal pronouns. He finishes his examination of morphology with particles
and verbal endings and suffixes (figures 13—17).
Figure 13: Nominal suffixes which Colarusso (1992a:26—30) claims are common
to Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Northwest Caucasian:
Proto-Indo-European Proto-Northwest Caucasian
1. Athematic *-Ø Athematic stems

2. Thematic *-e/o- Thematic stems
3. Adjectives in *-(e)w- Predicative and adverbial *-u, *-(ə)w
4. Adjectives in *-yo- Adjectives in *-ĝa-
5. Abstract adjectives in *-iyo- Adjectives in *-ya-
6. Opposition with other stems: *-yo- Enclitic copula *-gʸa- ‘and’
7. Used in oblique cases: *-en- Oblique case, genitive formant *-n- or
*-m-

8. Secondary NPs: *-no- Derivational suffix *-nə-

9. Participle endings *-eno-, *-ono- “Pro-tense” *-ən- (replaces tense in
concatenated or subordinated
[“dependent”] forms)
10. Old kinship suffix *-(t)er- Participle *X-tʰ-ər
11. Heteroclitic *-r-/*-n- *-(ə)r in absolutive, *-əm- or *-ən- in
oblique cases
12. Comparative *-yes-/*-yos-, Comparative *-y-ćʰ,
superlative *-is-t(h)o- superlative *-y-ćʰ-(də)da
13. Agents in *-ter-, *-tel- Instrumental (Abaza) -la-
14. Instrumentals in *-tro-, *-tlo-, Instrumental *-la- (same as no. 13)
*-dhro-, *-dhlo-
15. Nominal action suffix *-men- Old affix *-ma
Figure 14: Participles, abstracts, case forms, etc. common to Proto-Indo-European

and Proto-Northwest Caucasian (cf. Colarusso 1992a:30—32):
Participles, abstracts, etc.
1. Active participle *-ent-, *-ont-, *-n̥ t- Old participle endings: Abaza -n;
Ubykh -nə, -na, plus (Circassian)
durative -tʰ-
2. Perfect active participle *-we/os-, Aspect suffix *-w(a)-
*-we/ot-
3. Feminines and abstracts in *-ā, *-y-ā *-xa ‘woman’
(< *-eA, *-y-eA)
4. Collectives in *-yā Collective *-ĝa
Case forms
5. Accusative *-m/*-n Oblique: Circassian -m, Ubykh -n

6. Genitive/ablative *-(e/o)s Old genitive *-š
7. Genitive (thematic) *-o-s(y)o *-š-y-a > *-šʸ oblique of pronouns in
West Circassian
8. Ablative (thematic) *-ō Ubykh -xʸa, Abkhaz-Abaza -xʸa
‘place’
9. Dative *-ey- Directive-dative *-y(-a)
10. Locative *-i Old Bžedux dative of pronouns -y
11. Instrumental *-ē, *-ō *-ə-a > *-ǝ̄, *-a-a > *-ā, with *-a the
same as in the thematic ablative

16 Allan R. Bomhard
Figure 15: Anaphoric, deictic, and relative stems and personal pronoun stems (cf.
Colarusso 1992a:32—33):
1. Anaphora: *so-, *to- *śa ‘what’, *tʰə ‘where’

2. Deixis: *-w- > Sanskrit asau *wə- ‘that (near hearer)’
3. Relative: *yo- Abkhaz-Abaza y- relative initial verbal
index
4. Nominative first person personal *m- ‘that near me’
pronoun *egō, oblique *-(e)m
5. Second person personal pronoun *tu *w- (< *tʰw-) (f.) ‘you’
Figure 16: Preverbs and particles (cf. Colarusso 1992a:33—35):
1. *perH- ‘before’ (< ‘front’) *pʰa-r-(a-y-) ‘front-along- (dat.-dir.-)’

2. *en- ‘in’ (< ‘interior, inside’) Abaza -n- in n-c’a-ra ‘in-place-inf.’ =
‘to place inside’
3. *et- ‘without, outside’ (< ‘exterior, Abaza -t- ‘from inside out; from below
outside’) upwards’ (cf. t-ga-ra ‘out-drag-inf.’ =
‘to drag something out’)
4. Final *s Old oblique in *-š
5. *r̥ ‘and’ *-ra ‘and’
6. *ge ‘because; terminus’ Dative-instrumental *-y-k’
Figure 17: Verbal endings and suffixes (cf. Colarusso 1992a:35—40):
1. Athematic: Sanskrit ád-mi Basic verb athematic: *-tʰ- ‘to be’;

‘I am eating’; *-w-k’- -valence-kill-, Ubykh
Thematic: Sanskrit Ø-s-k’ʷ-q’á ‘it-I-kill- past’ = ‘I
rod-ā-mi ‘I am crying’ killed it’;
Verbs with stem final -a- showing
thematic conjugation: West Circassian
psaaƛa ‘word’, t-zara-psaƛa-a-ɣa ‘we-
reciprocal-converse-thematic V-past’ =
‘we talked’
2. Intensive reduplication: Sanskrit West Circassian -śa-śa- ‘fall-fall’ = ‘to
dediṣ-te ‘he teaches and teaches’ Fall (as of leaves)’
3. Proto-Indo-European themes with
*-ē-, *-ō-, *-ā-:

I. *-ē- (< *-eH₁-) stative sense *-q’a-V- affix for action of intimate
concern to the speaker
II. *-ā- (< *-eH₂-) iterative sense *-x- iterative
III. *-ō- (< *-eH₃-) indicating excess *-q’ʷa ‘excess’
4. Causative-iterative: *-eyo-, *-ī-, *-y- Ubykh -aay- ‘again, finally’
5. Sigmatic aorist: *-s- Circassian -z- stative or accomplished
past participle with past pt.
6. *n-infix presents Ubykh -n dynamic present
7. Primary active 3rd plurals in *-n-; Ubykh 3rd plural -na-
extended by *-ti > *-(e/o)-n-ti
8. Middle voice in *-dh- Abaza optative of self-interest
s-č’a-n-da ‘I-eat-dep.-middle’ = ‘O, if
I could eat!’
9. Perfects in *-k-, *-g-, *-gh- *-q’a past
10. Optative in *-yē-, *-yə- *-əy- optative, concessive
11. Primary, active, present, athematic *-i *-y- present
12. Relic impersonals in *r (cf. Sanskrit *-ra optional present
śe-re ‘they are lying down’; Old Irish
berir ‘he is carried’; Umbrian ier ‘one
goes’)
13. Futures in *-(H)s(y)e-/*-(H)s(y)o- *-š- future
14. Intensives in *-sk(e/o)- *-śx̂ o > Proto-Circassian *-śx̂ ʷə
15. Augment *e- (marks the past) *ʔ(a) > Proto-Circassian *q’(a)
Colarusso ends his study by listing twenty “conventional cognates” between

Proto-Indo-European and Northwest Caucasian. As a result of my own research, I
have come up with over 300 potential lexical parallels (including some suggested by
Colarusso) between Proto-Indo-European and Northwest Caucasian — no doubt,
there are many more. These lexical parallels are listed at the end of this study.
Note: Not all of the supporting evidence is provided here, and the etymological
dictionaries listed in the references at the end of this study should be consulted for
more information.
I believe that Colarusso’s work has enormous merit, though not all of his
proposals are convincing. However, rather than view these similarities as evidence
of genetic relationship, I prefer to see them as evidence that there was prolonged
and substantial contact between Proto-Indo-European and Northwest Caucasian. As
a result of the socio-cultural interaction with and resultant borrowing from
Caucasian languages, especially primordial Northwest Caucasian languages, Proto-
Indo-European developed unique characteristics that set it apart from the other
languages of northern Eurasia. Though Proto-Indo-European remained a Eurasiatic
language at its core (cf. Bomhard 2021; Greenberg 2000—2002), the interaction
had a profound impact on the phonology, morphology, and lexicon of Proto-Indo-
European (technically, this is known as “contact-induced language change”) and
gave it a distinctive, Caucasian-like appearance. Cf. Kortlandt 1990 and 2018;
Uhlenbeck 1937.

18 Allan R. Bomhard
But, there is more. One of the most significant byproducts of this study is that it
provides empirical support for the Glottalic Model of Proto-Indo-European
consonantism (cf. Bomhard 2016a; Gamkrelidze—Ivanov 1995.I:5—70; Salmons
1993) as well as the interpretation of the traditional plain voiceless stops as
voiceless aspirates. Though we cannot say for certain on the basis of this study
whether voiced aspirates existed in Proto-Indo-European at the time of contact with
Northwest Caucasian languages, there is nothing to indicate that they did. Indeed,
the most straightforward explanation is that voiced aspirates arose at a later date in
the Disintegrating Indo-European dialects that gave rise to Indo-Iranian, Armenian,
Greek, and Italic. Nevertheless, for the sake of conformity with the traditional
reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European consonant system, voiced aspirates are
shown in the Proto-Indo-European forms used in the comparison with Northwest
Caucasian.
Another important insight that can be gleaned from this study is that the Pre-
Proto-Indo-European morphological system changed dramatically as a result of
contact with Northwest Caucasian languages — in certain respects, it became more
complicated. At the same time, some of the earlier morphology must have been lost.
In his 2002 book entitled Pre-Indo-European, Winfred P. Lehmann suggested that
three endings represented the most ancient layer of the Proto-Indo-European case
system — these endings were: *-s, *-m, and *-H (= * H₄). According to Lehmann,
*-s indicated an individual and, when used in clauses, identified the agent; *-m used
in clauses indicated the target; and *-H supplied a collective meaning. Lehmann
further maintains that the remaining case endings were based upon earlier adverbial
particles that came to be incorporated into the case system over time. That this has
indeed taken place is especially clear in the case of the dual and plural endings in
*-bʰi- and *-mo-, which were incorporated into the Proto-Indo-European case
system after Hittite and the other Anatolian daughter languages had split from the
main speech community. This study indirectly corroborates Lehmann’s views,
though details of how and when the individual case endings traditionally
reconstructed for Proto-Indo-European arose still need to be worked out — it may
be noted that a good start has recently been made in this direction by the Czech
scholar Václav Blažek (2014) and, before him, by Beekes (1985), Erhart (1993),
Haudry (1982), Kim (2010), Kuryłowicz (1964), Shields (1982), and Specht (1944),
among others (see also Kulikov 2012).
This paper is only a beginning. More rigorous studies must be undertaken to
determine the extent to which Pre-Proto-Indo-European was transformed through
contact with Northwest Caucasian from a typical Eurasiatic language to the proto-
language reconstructed in the standard handbooks on the basis of a direct
comparison of the extant daughter languages. The improved understanding of the
complex origins of Proto-Indo-European that will emerge from these studies will
provide a more solid basis for comparison with other languages. ■

The remainder of this paper lists a selection of the potential lexical parallels I have
uncovered to date between Proto-Indo-European and Northwest Caucasian (it
includes several lexical parallels previously proposed by Colarusso). The Abkhaz
entries are taken from Chirikba’s 1996 book A Dictionary of Common Abkhaz, and
the Circassian entries are from Kuipers’ 1975 book A Dictionary of Proto-
Circassian Roots. Several other works have also been consulted. The Indo-
European material is taken from the standard etymological dictionaries listed in the
references at the end of this paper. The Proto-Indo-European reconstructions are in
accordance with the Glottalic Model of Proto-Indo-European consonantism.
Notes:
1. Since the sole purpose of this study is to show that there was “prolonged and
substantial contact between Proto-Indo-European and Northwest Caucasian”,
no attempt has been made to trace the prehistoric development of either Proto-
Indo-European or Proto-Northwest Caucasian here. For Indo-European, good
places to start are Lehmann’s 2002 book Pre-Indo-European, the writings of
Frederik Kortlandt (2010a), and Gamkrelidze—Ivanov’s 1995 two-volume
monograph Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and
Historical Typological Analysis of a Protolanguage and a Proto-Culture, and
for Northwest Caucasian, Chirikba’s 2016 paper “From North to North-West”,
together with Colarusso’s 1975 Ph.D. dissertation The Northwest Caucasian
Languages: A Phonological Survey (republished in 2014, with corrections and
emendations) and his 1989 paper “Proto-Northwest Caucasian (or How to
Crack a Very Hard Nut)”.
2. One of the principal points made in Chirikba’s 2016 paper “From North to
North-West” is that Northwest Caucasian was transformed over time from a
typical North Caucasian branch to a separate phylum in its own right — one
that was markedly different from the branch(es) that went on to form the
Northeast Caucasian languages. Here, one cannot help thinking that the contact
between Pre-Proto-Indo-European and Pre-Proto-Northwest Caucasian might
have had an equally transformative effect (“contact-induced language change”)
on what was to become Proto-Northwest Caucasian.
3. It is beyond the scope of this study to delve into the question of the genetic
relationship between Northwest and Northeast Caucasian. Here again, see
Chirikba’s paper mentioned above (together with the references cited therein)
as well as Sergej A. Starostin and Sergej L. Nikolayev’s 1994 monograph A
North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary, especially the Introduction.
4. Sergej Starostin published a paper in Russian in 1988 (republished in English in
2009) with a somewhat similar goal but using different data and including both
Northwest and Northeast Caucasian (mostly Northeast Caucasian). One of his
conclusions, in particular, agrees with that reached in this study and is worth
repeating:
Although between the PNC [Proto-North Caucasian] and PIE [Proto-

Indo-European] systems sufficiently regular phonetic correspondences can
be established, the character of the shared vocabulary does not eliminate
20 Allan R. Bomhard
doubts that the common character of these lexemes is not the result of an
original kinship but rather the result of borrowings…
However, the current study differs from Starostin’s findings in that it shows
that it was specifically Proto-Northwest Caucasian or, better put, what was to
become Proto-Northwest Caucasian that was in prolonged and substantial
contact with Proto-Indo-European and not Proto-Northeast Caucasian and
certainly not Proto-North Caucasian.
5. Many of the conclusions reached in this paper were foreseen by Uhlenbeck.
LEXICAL PARALLELS BETWEEN

PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN AND NORTHWEST CAUCASIAN
Note: The following lexical parallels are arranged by semantic fields, on the model
of Carl Darling Buck’s A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal
Indo-European Languages (1949).3
I. Particles
1. (1) Proto-Indo-European *ʔen- ‘in, into, among, on’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Greek ἔν, ἔνι,
ἐνί ‘in, on, among, into, and besides’; Latin in (Old Latin en) ‘in, on, among,
into, on to, towards, against’; Oscan en ‘in’; Old Irish ini-, en-, in- ‘in, into’;
Welsh in ‘in’; Breton en ‘in’; Gothic in ‘in, into, among, by’, inn ‘into’; Old
Icelandic í ‘in, within, among’, inn ‘in, into’; Old English in ‘in, on, among,
into, during’, inn ‘in’; Old Frisian in ‘in’; Old Saxon in ‘in’; Old High German
in ‘in’; Old Prussian en ‘inside, within’; Old Church Slavic vъ(n) ‘in(to)’. (2)
Proto-Indo-European locative singular ending *-n: Greenberg (2000:150)
considers various evidence for a locative ending in *-n. The most convincing
evidence he cites is the Vedic pronominal locatives asmín ‘in that’, tásmin ‘in
this’, and kásmin ‘in whom?’. In these examples, the pronoun stem has been
enlarged by an element -sm(a)-, to which a locative ending -in has been added.
Since the final -n is missing in the cognate forms in Iranian, Burrow (1973:271)
considers this to be a secondary formation, unique to Sanskrit. However, as
Greenberg rightly points out, the Vedic forms can be compared with Greek
pronominal datives in –ι(ν) such as Lesbian ἄμμιν, ἄμμι ‘to us’. Benveniste
(1935:87—99) also explores locative forms in -n in Indo-European — he
(1935:88) cites the following examples from Sanskrit: jmán, kṣāmán ‘in the
earth’, áhan ‘on [this/that] day’, udán ‘in the water’, patan ‘in flight’, āsán ‘in
the mouth’, śīrṣán ‘in the head’, hemán ‘in winter’, akṣán ‘in the eye’.
Northwest Caucasian: (1) Common Abkhaz *nə locative: South Abkhaz a-nə́-z-
aa-ra ‘to be (on something)’. (2) Common Abkhaz locative *nə, *-n-. (3)
3
This arrangement was suggested to me by James P. Mallory.

Common Abkhaz -nə ‘place, country’ in, for example: Abzhywa aps-nə́
‘Abkhazia’; Sadz aps-nə́ ‘Abkhazia’; Ahchypsy aps-nə́ ‘Abkhazia’.
2. Proto-Indo-European *ʔey-tʰ- ‘then, next’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁) (only in Greek): Greek εἶτα
(Ionic, Boeotian, Messenian εἶτεν) ‘and so, therefore, accordingly; then, next’,
ἔπ-ειτα (Ionic, Doric ἔπ-ειτε(ν)) ‘thereupon, thereafter, then; afterwards,
hereafter’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ajta ‘again’: South Abkhaz ajta

‘again’; Abaza / Tapanta jata-r-k’ºa-x̌ ‘again’.
3. Proto-Indo-European *ʔo-pʰh(-i) ‘in front of, before, towards’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁; *h =

*ə̯₄): Latin ob ‘towards; about, before, in front of, over; for, because of, by
reason of’, op- in optimus ‘best’ (< ‘foremost’); Venetic op (< *opi) ‘because
of, for’; (?) Oscan úp, op (preposition with ablative) ‘at, near, close to’.
Notes:
1. The above forms are sometimes derived from Proto-Indo-European
*ʔepʰi/*ʔopʰi ‘at, by’, but this seems unlikely given the semantics of the
Latin and Venetic forms, which point instead to ‘in front of, before,
towards’ as the base meaning of their Proto-Indo-European ancestor (cf.
Ernout—Meillet 1979:454; Untermann 2000:799—800).
2. The position of Venetic is uncertain. Some scholars have stressed the
features it shares with the Italic languages, while others have stressed the
features it shares with the Celtic languages. Still others consider Venetic to
be an independent branch of Indo-European.
3. Oscan úp, op (preposition with ablative) ‘at, near, close to’ may belong
here or it may be a derivative of Proto-Indo-European *ʔepʰi/*ʔopʰi ‘at, by’
(cf. Untermann 2000:800).
4. As in Northwest Caucasian, the above Proto-Indo-European form is in all
likelihood a combination of *ʔo+pʰh(-i). The second component, namely,
*pʰh(-i), is preserved in the following: (1) Proto-Indo-European (extended
form) *pʰeh-s- [*pʰah-s-] (> *pʰās-) ‘to puff, to blow; to reek (of), to smell
(of)’ (Slavic only) (*h = *ə̯₄): Russian paxnútʹ [пахнуть] ‘to puff, to blow’,
páxnutʹ [пахнуть] ‘to smell (of), to reek (of)’; Czech páchnouti ‘to be
fragrant’; Polish pachnąć ‘to smell (of)’; (2) perhaps also: Proto-Indo-
European (extended form) *pʰeh-k’- [*pʰah-k’-] (> *pʰāk’-) ‘face, surface’
(Indo-Iranian only) (*h = *ə̯₄): Sanskrit pā́ ja-ḥ ‘face, surface’; Khotan Saka
pāysa- ‘surface’. All of these forms can be derived from an unattested
Proto-Indo-European root *pʰeh- [*pʰah-] ‘nose, face’ (> ‘front,
beginning’, as in Northwest Caucasian [below]). It is on the basis of these
forms that a second laryngeal (*h [= *ə̯₄]) is reconstructed in *ʔo-pʰh(-i) ‘in
front of, before, towards’.

22 Allan R. Bomhard
Northwest Caucasian:
A. Common Abkhaz *a+pə ‘before, in front’ (*pə ‘nose’) in: (1) Common
Abkhaz Common Abkhaz *á+pə-x̌ ʹa ‘at the front, earlier, at the
beginning’; (2) *a+pə́-x̌ ʹa ‘earlier, previously, before’; (3) Common
Abkhaz *a+p-qá ‘ahead, before, earlier; at first’; (4) Common Abkhaz
*pə́-n-ć’a (< *pə ‘nose’, *-n- locative, *-ć’a) ‘nose’ > Abaza / Tapanta
pə́nc’a ‘nose’; Abkhaz a-pə́nc’a ‘nose’; Ashkharywa a-pə́nc’a ‘nose’. Cf.
Bomhard 2019:42—43, no. 40.
B. Ubykh faċ’á ‘nose, tip’.
C. Circassian: (1) Proto-Circassian *pʰa ‘nose, front, beginning’: Bžedux pʰa
‘nose, front, beginning’; Kabardian pa ‘nose, front, beginning’; (2) Proto-
Circassian *pʰa in *napʰa ‘face’: Bžedux nāpʰa ‘face’; Kabardian nāpa
‘face’.
4. Proto-Indo-European *ʔotʰ(i)- ‘back, away (from)’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Lithuanian

(pref.) at- ‘back’; Latvian (pref.) at- ‘back’; Old Prussian (pref.) at-, et- ‘back,
away’; Old Church Slavic (prep.) otъ ‘from’; Russian (prep. with gen.) ot(o)
[от(о)] ‘from, out of, for, against'; Czech (prep.) od(e) ‘from, away from’.
Note: The Balto-Slavic forms are usually compared with the following, all
pointing to Proto-Indo-European *ʔetʰi, with a wide range of meanings in the
various daughter languages: Sanskrit áti ‘beyond, over; very, exceedingly’; Old
Persian atiy- ‘beyond, across’; Avestan aiti ‘over, back’; Greek ἔτι ‘moreover,
further, still’; Gaulish eti ‘also, further’; Latin et ‘and’; Gothic iþ ‘but’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *áta- in *áta-k’ǝ ‘to answer, to

respond’ (*k’ǝ = ‘to catch, to grab, to hold’): South Abkhaz ata-k’-ra ‘to
answer, to respond’.
Notes:
1. Chirikba (1996b:4) does not give a meaning for *áta- — it may have been
something like ‘back, away (from)’.
2. Assuming semantic development as in Gothic and-hafjan ‘to answer’ (and-
‘along, through, over’; anda- ‘towards, opposite, away from’ + *hafjan ‘to
lift’ [< Proto-Indo-European *kʰapʰ- ‘to seize, to grasp, to hold’, preserved
as such in Gothic *haftjan ‘to hold fast’; cf. Latin capiō ‘to take, to
seize’]).
5. Proto-Indo-European *ʔoy-wo- ‘one, a certain one, the same one’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁):
Sanksrit evá ‘so, just so, exactly so; like; indeed, truly, really; just, exactly,
very, merely, only, even, at the very moment, immediately, scarcely, still,
already, etc.’; Avestan aēva- ‘one; (adv.) thus, so’; Old Persian aiva- ‘one’;
Greek οἶος ‘alone, only, single; the only one’; Tocharian B -aiwenta ‘group’ (?)
(only in compounds).

Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ajə́-wa ‘part of something, example,

similar, like’ (*ajə- reciprocal prefix, *wa ‘similar’): Bzyp ajə́-wa ‘part of
something, example, similar, like’; Abzhywa aj-wa ‘part of something,
example, similar, like’. Note also: Common Abkhaz *aj-pšə́ ‘like, as, similar’
(*aj- ‘together’, *pšə ‘to look’): South Abkhaz ajpš ‘like, as, similar’;
Ashkharywa ajpš-nə ‘like, as, similar’.
6. Proto-Indo-European *‿ ʕɦō̆- (prefix) ‘near, near to, close to, towards’ (*‿ ʕɦ =
*ə̯₃): Sanskrit ā- (prefix) ‘near, near to, towards, from all sides, all around’, ā
(separable adverb) ‘near, near to, towards; thereto, further, also, and’, ā
(separable preposition with accusative or ablative) ‘near to, up to, to, as far as’;
(with ablative) ‘away from, from; out of, of, from among’; (with locative) ‘in,
at’; Greek (prefix) ὀ- ‘close by, near, with’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ɦa- (< *‿ ʕɦa- < *ʕa-) ‘hither, near to’
in, for example, *ɦa-ś-k’ʹa ‘recently, nearby’: Bzyp aa-śk’ʹá ‘recently, in the
nearby’, áa-śk’ʹa-ra ‘to move closer (hither)’; Abzhywa aa-sk’ʹá ‘recently, in
the nearby’, áa-sk’ʹa-ra ‘to move closer (hither)’.
Note: According to Chirikba (1999:157): “… for Proto-Circassian I reconstruct

the voiced pharyngeals *ʕ, *ʕʷ. In my view, in Common Circassian and
in Ubykh they merged with the uvular *ɣ, *ɣʷ [note: Kuipers writes *ǧ,
*ǧº], while in Common Abkhaz they changed into *ɦ, *ɦʷ (i.e. the
weakened variants of *ʕ, *ʕʷ).” A similar development for *‿ ʕɦ (= *ə̯₃)
can be posited for Post-Anatolian Proto-Indo-European (cf. Bomhard
2021.1:76): *‿
ʕɦ > *ɦ > *h > *Ø initially before vowels (except in Pre-
Proto-Armenian, where *‿ ʕɦ [and *‿ħh (= *ə̯₂)] appears as h initially
before vowels, as illustrated by the following example: Proto-Indo-
European *‿ʕɦowi-s ‘sheep’ > Armenian hov-iw ‘shepherd’, but Sanskrit
ávi-ḥ ‘sheep’; Greek ὄɩ̈ ς, οἶς ‘sheep’; Latin ovis ‘sheep’; etc.) ⸺ *‿ʕɦ,
however, is preserved initially before vowels in the Anatolian Indo-
European daughter languages: Hittite (nom. sg. or pl. ?) ḫa-a-u-e-eš
‘sheep’; Luwian (nom. sg.) ḫa-a-ú-i-iš ‘sheep’; Hieroglyphic Luwian
hawis ‘sheep’; Lycian χava- ‘sheep’.
7. Proto-Indo-European *bʰē̆/*bʰō̆ emphatic particle: Gothic ba (encl. ptc.) ‘if,

even though’; Avestan bā ‘truly’; Greek φή ‘as, like as’; Lithuanian bà ‘yes,
certainly’; Old Church Slavic bo ‘for’; Russian (dial.) bo [бо] ‘if, for, because’.
A. Common Abkhaz *ba interrogative particle: South Abkhaz ba
interrogative particle used in echo-questions, as in d-aá-j-t’ ‘he came’ ~ d-
aá-j-t’ ba? ‘did he?’ // ‘are you saying that he has come?’; it also occurs,
for example, in j-abá ‘where?’ (< j(ə) ‘it’ + *a deixis of place + *ba

24 Allan R. Bomhard
interrogative element) and j-an-bá ‘when?’ (< *an ‘when’ + *ba

interrogative element).
B. Ubykh -ba verb suffix indicating uncertainty.
8. Proto-Indo-European *gʰi- enclitic particle of unknown meaning: Sanskrit hí

enclitic particle: ‘for, because, on account of; assuredly, certainly; indeed’;
Greek -χι in: οὐ-χί, μή-χι ‘not’, ναί-χι ‘yea, verily; aye, yes’.
A. Common Abkhaz *-gʹə ‘and, even, too’: Abkhaz -gʹə ‘and, even, too’, as in
wə́j-gʹə ‘he/she too’.
B. Ubykh -gʹə enclitic particle.
9. Proto-Indo-European *He‿ ħh - (> *ā-) ‘to, towards, up to, in the direction of’
(Indo-Iranian only) (*‿ħh = *ə̯₂): Sanskrit ā: as a prefix to verbs, ā- indicates
movement to or towards; as a separable adverb, ā indicates ‘near, near to,
towards; thereto, further, also, and; especially, even’; as a separable preposition
with accusative or ablative, ā indicates ‘near to, up to, to, as far as’; Old Persian
ā ‘to’; Avestan ā ‘hither, towards’; Khotan Saka (preverb) ā- ‘towards’. For
more information, cf. Mayrhofer 1986—2001.1:157—158.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ax̌ ʹǝ́ (postposition) ‘to, in the

direction of’: South Abkhaz ax̌ ʹ (postposition) ‘to, in the direction of’; Abaza /
Tapanta ax̌ ʹǝ́-la (postposition) ‘to, in the direction of’.
10. Proto-Indo-European *hen- [*han-](/*hn̥ -) in *hen-tʰero- [*han-tʰero-], *hen-

yo- [*han-yo-] ‘other’ (*h = *ə̯₄): Sanskrit ántara-ḥ ‘different, other, another’,
anyá-ḥ ‘other, different’; Avestan anyō ‘other’; Khotan Saka aña- ‘other’;
Gothic anþar ‘other, second’; Old English ōþer ‘other, second; one of two’;
Old Frisian ōther ‘second one (of two)’; Old High German andar ‘other,
different, second’ (New High German ander); Lithuanian añtras ‘other,
second’; Old Prussian antars ‘second, other’.
Notes:
1. Some scholars consider these forms to be derived from Proto-Indo-
European *ʔeno-/*ʔono, *no- demonstrative pronoun: ‘this, that’ (see
above), while others consider them to be derived from a separate stem.
Here, the second alternative is favored.
2. The bare stem may be preserved in Greek in the conditional particle ἄν ‘if,
whether’.
A. Common Abkhaz *a- in: (1) Common Abkhaz *a-čá ‘other’: South
Abkhaz ačá ‘other’; Abaza / Tapanta ačá ‘other’; Ashkharywa ačá ‘other’;
Bzyp (indef. sg.) ačá-k’ ‘other’; (2) Common Abkhaz *a-gʹǝ́-j(ǝ) ‘another,

the other’ (*a, *jǝ deictics, *gʹǝ ‘and’): South Abkhaz agʹǝ́j ‘another, the
other’; Abaza / Tapanta agʹǝ́j ‘another, the other’; (3) Common Abkhaz *d-
ačá ‘other, another’: South Abkhaz dačá ‘other, another’; Ashkharywa
dačá ‘other, another’; Abaza / Tapanta dačá ‘other, another’.
B. (?) Proto-Circassian *ha ‘that’: Bžedux ā-r ‘that’; Kabardian ha-r ‘that’.
Note: Proto-Indo-European *n̥ is reflected as *a in Northwest Caucasian.
11. Proto-Indo-European *hew- [*haw-] ‘and, but, also’ (*h = *ə̯₄): Gothic auk
‘but, also’; Old English ēac ‘and, also’; Latin aut ‘either…or’, au-tem ‘but, on
the other hand, indeed’; Oscan aut ‘but, or’; Greek αὖ ‘again, on the contrary’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *hawa ‘but’: Kabardian hawa ‘but’.
12. Proto-Indo-European *-k’e particle of unknown meaning: Greek γε (Doric γα)

enclitic particle, serving to call attention to the word or words which it follows,
by limiting or strengthening the sense — added to the 1st sg. personal pronoun:
ἔγωγε (Laconian ἔγωγα), ἔμοιγε, also added to demonstrative pronouns: κεῖνός
γε, τοῦτό γε, etc. and (rarely) to interrogative pronouns: τίνα γε; Gothic -k
added to the 1st and 2nd sg. personal pronouns: (acc. sg.) mi-k (< *me+k’e)
‘me’, (acc. sg.) þu-k (< *tʰu+k’e) ‘you’; Tocharian B -k(ä) strengthening
particle, B -ke intensifying particle; Hittite -k added to the 1st and 2nd sg.
personal pronouns: (acc. sg.) am-mu-uk ‘me’, (acc. sg.) tu-uk ‘you’. Note:
Adams (2013:166) prefers derivation of Tocharian B -k(ä) from Proto-Indo-
European *-g(h)u, though he notes that the etymology is uncertain and lists other
possibilities, including the one suggested here.
A. Common Abkhaz *-q’a directional postposition ‘to/in the place’ in, for
example, *a-q’a: South Abkhaz áq’a-ra ‘this much, about (of size,
quantity)’, z-aq’á ‘how much (relative and interrogative)’; Ashkharywa
áq’a-ra ‘this much, about (of size, quantity)’; Abaza / Tapanta áʔa-ra ‘this
much, about (of size, quantity)’, z-ʔa-rá(-ha) ‘how much (relative and
interrogative)’, locative prefix q’a- in q’a-ć’ºax̌ -ra ‘to hide’.
B. Common Circassian *q’ə- local preverb and *q’a local element, found in
*λə-q’a ‘trace’, *q’a-gºə ‘courtyard’, *gʹə-q’a ‘emplacement, place where
something is placed’.
C. Ubykh *q’a ‘place’, found in *q’a:la ‘place’ (only used in compounds,
such as blə́q’a:la ‘in seven places’), λa-q’a ‘trace’ (cf. Common Circassian
*λə-q’a ‘trace’), q’a-ʒ ‘to approach a place’ (-ʒ ‘to reach’).
Note: For a detailed discussion of the Northwest Caucasian forms cited above,
cf. Chirikba 1996a:218.

26 Allan R. Bomhard
An alternative comparison may be with the following Northwest Caucasian

forms:
A. Common Abkhaz *-q’ʹa in *-ć’º-q’ʹa affirmative suffix: ‘precise, accurate’.

B. Common Circassian *-q’a affirmative suffix in *ś’-q’a ‘to know’: Šapsegh
ś’q’ă ‘to know’.
Note: Chirikba (1996a:219—220) reconstructs Common Northwest Caucasian

*-q’ʹa affirmative suffix.
13. Proto-Indo-European *mē negative/prohibitive particle: ‘no, not’: Sanskrit mā́

prohibitive particle: ‘not, that not’; Armenian mi prohibitive particle: ‘do not!’;
Greek μή ‘not’; Tocharian A/B mā ‘not, no’ (simple negation and prohibition);
Albanian mos (< *mē+kʷʰe) prohibitive particle: ‘do not!’.
A. Proto-Circassian *mə- negative prefix: Bžedux mə- negative prefix;
Kabardian mə- negative prefix.
B. Common Abkhaz *m(ə)- ~ *m(a)- negative prefix, in, for example,
(reduplicated) *ma(-wə)-ma-wə ‘no’ (< *ma negation + *-wə adverbial
suffix): South Abkhaz mamáw, mawmáw ‘no’; Abaza / Tapanta mamáw,
mmaw ‘no’.
C. Ubykh -m(a)- negative affix.
14. Proto-Indo-European *mo- encltic particle: ‘and, but’ (only in Anatolian):

Hittite -ma enclitic clause conjunctive particle: ‘and, but’; Palaic -ma enclitic
particle: ‘but’; Lycian -me sentence particle.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ma ‘and, but; either…or’: Abaza /

Tapanta ma ‘but’; South Abkhaz ma ‘or, or else’, ma … ma ‘(n)either … (n)or’.
15. Proto-Indo-European *-mos dative-ablative plural ending, *-mi(s) instrumental

plural ending (only in Germanic and Balto-Slavic). For more information, cf.
Leskien 1876; Prokosch 1939:240—241.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Northwest Caucasian *-ma instrumental suffix

(cf. Chirikba 1996a:304). Note: Chirikba compares the following Circassian
and Ubykh instrumental suffixes with Common Abkhaz *ma ‘hand’. However,
this comparison is doubtful:
A. Proto-Circassian *-ma instrumental suffix.
B. Ubykh -ma instrumental suffix.
16. Proto-Indo-European (sentence particle) *ne-/*no- ‘well, so; than, as’: Sanskrit
ná ‘like, as’; Greek (enclitic particle) -νε; Armenian na ‘then’; Latin nam
‘certainly, for, well’, (enclitic particle) -ne ‘then?; whether’; Lithuanian nè,

nègi, nègu ‘than’; Latvian ne ‘than’; Old Church Slavic *ne in neže ‘than’;
Czech než ‘than’. Note also: Tocharian A (a particle which characterizes certain
indefinite and relative pronouns) -ne, B ([intensifying] particle) nai ‘indeed,
then, surely’; Lithuanian néi ‘as’; Greek (affirmative particle) ναί ‘really, yes,
truly’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *na- ‘thither’ in: (1) South Abkhaz
nas (< *ná-sə: *na- ‘thither’, *sə ‘to go’) ‘then, afterwards’ (see below); (2)
Bzyp naq’ (< *ná-q’a) ‘thither’, nax̌ ʹə́ (< *n-a+x̌ ʹə́: *na- ‘thither’, *a+x̌ ʹə́
directional postposition) ‘there’; (3) Common Abkhaz *a-ná ‘there’: South
Abkhaz aná ‘there’; Abaza / Tapanta aná-ʔa ‘there’; (4) Ashkharywa anas
‘yes’ (with the interrogative connotation ‘well, then’).
17. Proto-Indo-European *ne/o-+*se/o- ‘then, for, because’: Hittite na-aš-šu,

na-aš-šu-ma, na-aš-ma ‘either, or’; Latin nisi ‘if not, unless; except that, save,
only; but, than; except, because’; Lithuanian nès, nė͂s, nėsà ‘then, namely; for,
because’.
Note: This etymology was proposed by Mann (1984—1987:839), who

reconstructs Proto-Indo-European *nes-. However, in each case (Latin,
Lithuanian, and Hittite), we are clearly dealing with a compound form
(as in Common Abkhaz *ná-sə cited below). For more information on
Hittite na-aš-šu, cf. Puhvel 1984— .7:62—64; Kloekhorst 2008:596—
597 (Hittitte na-aš-šu < *no-sue), and, for Latin nisi, cf. Walde 1927—
1932.II:170; Ernout—Meillet 1979:441—442 (Latin nisi < *nĕ sī);
Sihler 1995:79 (Old Latin ne sei ‘unless’). According to Endzelin (cited
by Fraenkel 1962—1965.II:496), Lithuanian nès, nė͂s, nėsà is from *ne
est ‘is it not so?’, as in French n’est-ce pas? See also Smoczyński
2007.I:422—423.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ná-sə ‘then, afterwards’ (*na

‘thither’, *sə ‘to go’): South Abkhaz nas ‘then, afterwards’; Ashkharywa nas,
(Kuv) anas ‘yes’ (with the interrogative connotation ‘well, then’).
18. Proto-Indo-European *pʰer-/*pʰor-/*pʰr̥ - base of prepositions and preverbs with

a wide range of meanings such as ‘in front of, forward, before, first, chief,
forth, foremost, beyond, etc.’: Sanskrit páraḥ ‘far, distant’, puráḥ ‘in front,
forward, before’, purati ‘to precede, to go before’, prá ‘before, in front’, práti
‘towards, near to, against’, pratarám ‘further’, prathamá-ḥ ‘foremost, first’;
Greek πέρᾱν, πέρην ‘across, beyond, on the other side’, παρά, παραί ‘beside’,
πάρος ‘before’, πρό ‘before’, πρότερος ‘before, in front of, forward’, πρῶτος
‘first, foremost’, πρόμος ‘chief, foremost, first’, πρόκα ‘forthwith’, πρός, προτί
‘from’; Latin per ‘through, along, over’, prae ‘before, in front’, prior ‘former,
first’, prīmus ‘first, foremost’, prō ‘before, in front of’; Gothic faur ‘for,
before’, frauja ‘master, lord’, fairra ‘far’, faura ‘before, for, on account of,

28 Allan R. Bomhard
from’, fram ‘from, by, since, on account of’, framis ‘further, onward’, frumists
‘first, foremost, best, chief’, fruma ‘the former, prior, first’, frums ‘beginning’;
Old Icelandic for- ‘before’, fjarri ‘far off’, fram ‘forward’, fyrr ‘before,
sooner’, fyrstr ‘first’; Old English feorr ‘far’, feorran ‘from afar’, for, fore
‘before’, forma ‘first’, fram ‘from’, frum ‘first’, fyrst, fyrest ‘first’, fyrmest
‘first’; Old Frisian for ‘before’, fara, fore ‘before’, ferest ‘first’, forma ‘first’,
vorsta, fersta ‘prince’; Old Saxon for, fur ‘before’, for(a), far ‘before’, forma
‘first’, furi ‘before’, furist ‘first, foremost’, furisto ‘prince’; Old High German
furi ‘before, for’, fora ‘before’, furist ‘first’, fir(i)- ‘opposite’; Lithuanian prõ
‘through, past, by’, priẽ ‘at, near, by’, priẽš ‘against’; Hittite pa-ra-a ‘forth’, pí-
ra-an ‘before, forth’; Luwian pár-ra-an ‘before, in front’, pa-ri-ya-an ‘beyond;
exceedingly, especially’; Lycian przze/i- ‘front, foremost’, pri ‘forth; in front’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *pə-ra ‘through’: South Abkhaz

a-par-ħºa, a-pəra-ħºa ‘apron’ (< a-pə́ra-ħºa-ra ‘to tie up through’); Abaza /
Tapanta pra-psá ‘curtain; apron’ (< *pəra-psa ‘to throw through’).
19. Proto-Indo-European *pʰos- ‘behind, after; afterwards, subsequently, at a later

time’: Latin post (adv.) ‘behind, in the rear; after, afterwards, subsequently;
shortly afterwards; (prep.) behind, after’; Sanskrit (adv.) paścā́ ‘being behind,
posterior, later; afterwards; behind, at the back, after; at a later time,
subsequently, at last’; Greek (dial.) πός ‘at, to’; Lithuanian pàs ‘near, at, by, to,
with’; Old Church Slavic pozdě ‘late’; Russian pózdij [поздий] ‘late, tardy’;
Tocharian B päst (unstressed, and later, byform of pest) ‘away, back’, postäṁ
‘finally, afterwards; later’, postanu ‘later, latter; last’.
A. Proto-Circassian *pʰasa ‘early, long ago’: Bžedux pʰāsa ‘early, long ago’;
Kabardian pāsa ‘early, long ago’.
B. Common Abkhaz *pása: South Abkhaz a-pása ‘early, earlier’; Abaza /
Tapanta pása ‘early, earlier’.
20. Proto-Indo-European *sem-/*som- ‘together, together with; one’ (originally ‘to

gather together’): Sanskrit sa (< *sm̥ -) ‘with, together with, along with’, sám
‘with, together with, along with, together, altogether’, sa-trā́ ‘together, together
with’, sámana-ḥ ‘meeting, assembly, amorous union, embrace’, samūbhá-ḥ
‘heap, collection’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *sama ‘heap’: Bžedux sāma ‘heap’;

Kabardian sāma ‘heap’.
21. Proto-Indo-European ablative singular ending *-tʰos, which has survived in

relic forms in Sanskrit, Latin, Greek, and perhaps Armenian (cf. Sihler 1995:
246—247). Sihler gives the following examples: Sanskrit -tas in agra-tás ‘in
front’ (ágra- ‘point, beginning’); Latin -tus in in-tus ‘within’, fundi-tus ‘from

the ground’; Greek -τος in ἐν-τός ‘within’, ἐκ-τός ‘outside’. Another example is
Sanskrit mukhatás ‘from the mouth’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ta ‘from inside out; from below,
upwards’: Abaza / Tapanta t- in, for example, t-ga-ra ‘to drag something out’
(cf. ga-rá ‘to carry, to bring, to take’).
22. Proto-Indo-European *t’o‿ ħh- (> *t’ō-) (adv.) ‘also, too, in addition to’ (*‿ħh =
*ə̯₂): Old English tō (prep.) ‘to, into, too’; (adv.) ‘besides, also, too; thereto,
towards, in the direction of; in addition to, to such an extent; moreover,
however’; Old Frisian tō (prep./adv.) ‘to, until, for, against; in, at, on, according
to’; (adv.) ‘too’; Old High German zuo, zua, zō (prep.) ‘to, towards, up to, unto;
at, on, in’; (adv.) ‘too, too much’ (New High German zu); Latin dō- in dōnec (<
*dō-ne-que) ‘as long as, while; until, up to the time at which’; Lithuanian da,
do (prep./prefix) ‘yet, still’; Old Church Slavic do (prep. gen.) ‘up to, until’;
Russian do [до] (prep. gen.) ‘to, so far, as far as, till, until’; Czech do (prep.)
‘into, up to’; Serbo-Croatian (prep.) dȍ ‘to, until’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *c’a-ħá ‘more than’: Ashkharywa

c’aħa ‘more than’.
Note: Common Abkhaz *c’ = Proto-Indo-European *t’.
II. Pronoun Stems, Deictic Stems
23. Proto-Indo-European demonstrative stem *ʔe-/*ʔo-, *ʔey-/*ʔoy-/*ʔi- (< *ʔe-

/*ʔo-+-y/i-) ‘this, that’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Hittite enclitic demonstrative particle (nom.
sg.) -aš, (acc. sg.) -an, (n. sg.) -at ‘he, she, it’; (dat. sg.) e-di, i-di, e-da-ni ‘to or
for him, her, it’; Sanskrit ayám ‘this’ (gen. sg. m./n. a-syá, á-sya; f. a-syáḥ),
idám ‘this’, (f.) iyám ‘she, this’, á-taḥ ‘from this, hence’ (< *e-to-s), (n.) e-tát
‘this, this here’, ihá ‘here’, e-ṣá (f. e-ṣā) ‘this’; Old Persian a- ‘this’, aita-
‘this’, ima- ‘this’, iyam this’, idā ‘here’; Avestan a- ‘this’, aētat̰ ‘this’, ima-
‘this’, iδa ‘here’; Latin is, ea, id ‘he, she, it; this or that person or thing’; Oscan
eiso- ‘this’; Old Irish é ‘he, they’, ed ‘it’; Gothic anaphoric pronoun is ‘he’, ita
‘it’; Old Icelandic relative particle es (later er) ‘who, which, what’; Old Saxon
et, it ‘it’; Old High German er, ir ‘he’, ez, iz ‘it’; Lithuanian jìs (< *is) ‘he’.
A. Common Abkhaz *a demonstrative pronoun: ‘this’ (only in compounds)
(this is but a sampling): (1) Common Abkhaz *a-bá ‘this’; (2) Common
Abkhaz *a-bá-tǝ ‘these’; (3) Common Abkhaz *a-ba-ná ‘there’; (4)
Common Abkhaz *a-ba-rá ‘here’; (5) Common Abkhaz *a-bá-ra-t(ǝ)
‘these’; (6) Common Abkhaz *a-ba-rǝ́-jǝ ‘this’; (7) Common Abkhaz
*á-tǝ ‘these’; (8) Common Abkhaz *a-dǝ́-na ‘something, this, that’; (9)
Common Abkhaz *á-ɦa ‘here (it is)’; (10) Common Abkhaz *a-ma-ná

30 Allan R. Bomhard
‘there’; (11) Common Abkhaz *a-ma-nǝ́-jǝ ‘that’; (12) Common Abkhaz

*a-ná ‘there’; (13) Common Abkhaz *a-rá ‘here’; (14) Common Abkhaz
*a-wa ‘that’; etc.
B. Ubykh a- definite article: ‘the’, also pronominal prefix of the 3rd person
singular and plural.
24. Proto-Indo-European demonstrative pronoun *ʔobʰo- (< *ʔo-+-bʰo-) ‘this, that’

(*ʔ = *ə̯₁) (Anatolian only): Hittite (nom. sg.) a-pa-(a-)aš ‘that one; he, she, it’,
a-pí-ya ‘then, there’; Palaic (acc. sg.) (-)ap-a-an ‘that one’; Luwian (nom. sg.)
a-pa-a-aš ‘this (one); he, she, it; they’; Hieroglyphic Luwian (nom. sg.) á-pa-sa
‘that (one)’; Lycian (nom. sg.) ebe ‘this (one)’; Lydian (nom sg.) bis ‘he’.
Northwest Caucasian: (1) Common Abkhaz *a-bá- (< *a+ba) ‘this’ (only in
compounds); (2) Common Abkhaz *a-bá-tǝ ‘these’; (3) Common Abkhaz
*a-bá-n-tə, *a-ba-ná-tə ‘those’; (4) Common Abkhaz *a-bá-śa ‘thus’; (5)
Common Abkhaz *a-bá-n(a), *a-ba-ná ‘there’; (6) Common Abkhaz *a-ba-nə́-
jə ‘this’; (7) Common Abkhaz *a-bá-ra-t(ǝ), *a-ba-rá-t(ǝ) ‘these’; (8)
Common Abkhaz *a-bá-r(a), *a-ba-rá ‘here’; (9) Common Abkhaz *a-ba-rá-
ɦa, *a-bá-ɦa-r(a) ‘here’; (10) Common Abkhaz *a-ba-rá-śa ‘thus, this way’;
(11) Common Abkhaz *a-ba-rǝ́-jǝ ‘this’; (12) Common Abkhaz *a-ba-wa-śa
‘thus’; (13) Common Abkhaz *a-ba-wə́-jə ‘this’; (14) Common Abkhaz *a-ba-
wá-t(ə) ‘these’.
25. Proto-Indo-European demonstrative stem *ʔeno-/*ʔono (< *ʔe-+-no-/*ʔo-+

-no-), *ne-/*no- ‘this, that’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Sanskrit (instr. sg.) (m./n.) anéna, (f.)
anáyā ‘this, that’; Avestan ana- demonstrative pronoun; Latin (conj.) enim ‘for;
truly, certainly; but then’; Old Icelandic enn, en, et ‘the’, inn, in, it ‘the’, hinn,
hin, hit (< *kʰe-+*ʔeno-) ‘the’ (also demonstrative pronoun ‘that; the former,
farther, the other’); Armenian na ‘that; he, she, it; him, her’, -n definite article;
Lithuanian anàs ‘that’; Old Church Slavic onъ ‘he, she, it’; Hittite (nom. sg.)
an-ni-iš ‘that’.
A. Abkhaz: (1) Common Abkhaz *a-ná ‘there’; (2) Common Abkhaz *a-nə́-
y(ə) ‘that’; (3) Common Abkhaz á-na-tə, a-ná-tə ‘those, they’; (4)
Common Abkhaz á-na-śa, a-ná-śa ‘thus, that way’; (5) Common Abkhaz
*an-ɦa ‘there, thither’; (6) Common Abkhaz *a-ma-nə́-jə ‘that’ (*a-ma-ná
plus deictic *jə); (7) Common Abkhaz a-də́-na ‘something, this, that’
(combination of deictics *a, *də, *na); (8) Common Abkhaz *a-má-na-t(ə)
‘those’ (*a-ma-ná plus plural *-tə); (9) Common Abkhaz *a-ma-ná ‘there’
(combination of deictics *a, *ma, *na).
B. Ubykh ana- pronominal stem found in several isolated forms, such as anán
‘there’. Also, na:- pronominal prefix of the 3rd person plural: ‘they’.

26. Proto-Indo-European *ʔyo- relative pronoun stem (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Greek ὅς, ἥ, ὅ
‘which’; Phrygian ιος ‘which; this’; Sanskrit yá-ḥ ‘which’.
A. Common Abkhaz *ja- demonstrative and relative/interrogative stem in: (1)
Common Abkhaz *ja(-rá) ‘he (male/human); it (non-human); this, the very
same’: Abaza / Tapanta ja-rá ‘he; it; this, the very same’; South Abkhaz
ja-rá ‘he (male/human); it (non-human); this, the very same’; Ashkharywa
ja-rá ‘he; it; this, the very same’. (2) Common Abkhaz *ja-wá(-ja) ‘why?’:
Bzyp jawá(j) ‘why?’; Abaza / Tapanta jawá ‘why?’. (3) Common Abkhaz
*j-an-b-ák’ºə ‘when?’: Bzyp j-an-bə-k’º ‘when?’; Abaza / Tapanta j-an-b-
ák’ºə-w ‘when?’.
B. Ubykh -y enclitic particle in interrogative sentences (cf. šʹə́-y? ‘who?’,
waná sá:kʹa-y? ‘what is this?’, etc.). Also ya-, ya:- verbal prefix of the 3rd
person, yə- proximate pronoun prefix, yəná proximate pronoun.
27. Proto-Indo-European *dʰe- deictic particle — only preserved as a deictic suffix

in the daughter languages (identical to the following entry): Sanskrit -dha- in
ádha, ádhā (< *ʔe-dʰe-) ‘now; then, therefore; moreover, so much the more;
and, partly’; Gāthā Avestan adā ‘then, so’; Old Persian ada- ‘then’; Greek
-θε(ν) in, for example, πρόσ-θεν (poetic πρόσ-θε) (Doric and Aeolic πρόσ-θα)
‘before, in front’, ὄπισ-θεν (also ὄπισ-θε) (poetic ὄπι-θεν) ‘behind, at the back’
(for more information, cf. Lejeune 1939).
A. Proto-Circassian (reduplicated) *d(a)da ‘very, just, exactly’: Bžedux dada
‘very, just, exactly’; Kabardian dəda ‘very, just, exactly’.
B. Ubykh dá ‘now’.
28. Proto-Indo-European *dʰe- deictic particle — only preserved as a deictic suffix

in the daughter languages (identical to the preceding entry): Sanskrit ihá (< *ʔi-
dʰe-) ‘here’, kúha ‘where?’ (< *kʷʰu-dʰe); Pāḷi idha ‘here’; Avestan iδa ‘here’;
Old Persian idā ‘here’; Greek ἰθᾱ- in, for example, ἰθᾱ-γενής (Epigraphic ἰθαι-
γενής) ‘born from a lawful marriage; aboriginal, indigenous’ (that is, ‘born
here’), -θα/-θεν in ἔν-θα ‘there, then; where, when’, ἔν-θεν ‘thence, thereupon,
thereafter; whence’; (?) Latin ibī (< *ʔi-dʰey) ‘there’, ubī (< *kʷʰu-dʰey)
‘where’; Old Church Slavic (adv.) kъde (< *kʷʰu-dʰe) ‘where’. Note: The Latin
forms could also be from *ʔi-bʰey and *kʷʰu-bʰey, respectively.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *da(-rá) ‘they’: South Abkhaz da(-rá)

‘they’; Ashkharywa da(-rá) ‘they’; Abaza / Tapanta da(-rá) ‘they’; Sadz da-rá
// da-r ‘they’. Note: According to Hewitt (2005:104, §3.3), “Only Abkh-Aba
has a full set of personal pronouns, for the sister-languages employ one of their
demonstratives (usually 3rd person deictic) in the 3rd person.”

32 Allan R. Bomhard
29. Proto-Indo-European *mo- demonstrative stem (only attested in relic forms in

Brittonic Celtic): Welsh ýma (poetical ýman) ‘here’; Breton ama, aman̄ , -ma,
-maˉn ‘here’, (Vannetais) ama, amann, amenn ‘here’; Cornish yma, omma, -ma,
-man ‘here’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *mə ‘this’: Kabardian mə ‘this’;

Bžedux mə ‘this’.
30. Proto-Indo-European 2nd singular personal endings: (primary) *-s-i, (second-

dary) *-s ‘you’: Sanskrit (primary) -si, (secondary) -s; Avestan (primary) -si,
(secondary) -s; Hittite (primary) -ši, (secondary) -š; Greek (primary) -σι,
(secondary) -ς; Old Latin (primary/secondary) -s; Gothic (primary/secondary)
-s; Old Church Slavic (primary) -si/-ši; Lithuanian (primary) -si. Note: The
active primary endings in Proto-Indo-European were derived from the
secondary endings through the addition of a particle *-i indicating ‘here and
now’ to the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd persons singular and the 3rd person plural.
Common Northwest Caucasian *śºa ‘you’ (pl.):

A. Common Abkhaz *śºa(-rá) ‘you’ (pl.): Bzyp śºa(-rá) ‘you’ (pl.);
Ashkharywa śºa(-rá) ‘you’ (pl.); Abzhywa šºa(-rá) ‘you’ (pl.); Abaza /
Tapanta šºa(-rá) ‘you’ (pl.); Sadz šºa(-rá), šºa(-r) ‘you’ (pl.).
B. Proto-Circassian *śºa ‘you’ (pl.); Kabardian fa ‘you’ (pl.). Note: Kuipers
(1975:31) writes *şºa.
Note: Common Northwest Caucasian *śº is represented as *s in Proto-Indo-

European.
31. Proto-Indo-European *so- demonstrative pronoun stem: ‘this, that’: Avestan

ha- demonstrative pronoun stem; Sanskrit sá-ḥ, (f.) sā (also sī) demonstrative
pronoun; Greek ὁ, (f.) ἡ demonstrative pronoun and definite article; Old Latin
(m. singular) sum ‘him’, (f. singular) sam ‘her’, (m. plural) sōs, (f. plural) sās
‘them’; Gothic sa, (f.) sō (also si) ‘this, that; he, she’; Old Icelandic sá, sú
‘that’; Old English sē̆ ‘that one, he’, (f.) sēo ‘she’; Dutch zij ‘she’; Old High
German (f.) sī̆, siu ‘she’ (New High German sie); Hittite ša connective particle,
-še 3rd person singular enclitic pronoun ; Tocharian A (m.) sa-, (f.) sā-, B (m.)
se(-), (f.) sā(-) demonstrative pronoun.
A. Abkhaz: Adyghe sǝd(ā) interrogative pronoun: ‘what?’.
B. Ubykh sá interrogative pronoun: ‘what?’, sá:kʹa interrogative pronoun:
‘what?’.
C. Circassian: Kabardian sǝt interrogative pronoun: ‘what?’; Bžedux śǝ-d
interrogative pronoun stem: ‘what?’. Note: The origin of initial ś- in
Bžedux śǝ-d is unknown.

32. Proto-Indo-European *we-/*wō̆- ‘you’ (dual and pl.): Sanskrit vas ‘you’ (acc.
pl.), vām (acc.-dat.-gen. dual); Avestan vā ‘you’ (nom. dual), vaēm (nom. pl.),
vā̊ (encl. acc. pl.); Latin vōs ‘you’ (nom.-acc. pl.), vestrum (gen. pl.); Old
Church Slavic vy ‘you’ (nom. pl.), vasъ (acc.-gen.-loc. pl.).
A. Proto-Circassian *wa ‘you’ (sg.): Bžedux wa ‘you’ (sg.); Kabardian wa
‘you’ (sg.).
B. Common Abkhaz *wa(-rá): South Abkhaz wa-rá ‘you’ (male/human, non-
human); Ashkharywa wa-rá ‘you’ (male/human, non-human); Abaza /
Tapanta wa-rá ‘you’ (male/human, non-human).
33. Proto-Indo-European *wo- in *ʔe-+-wo-/*ʔo-+-wo- demonstrative pronoun:

‘that’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Sanskrit (gen. dual) avóḥ ‘that’; Avestan ava- ‘that, yonder’;
Old Persian ava- ‘that’; Old Church Slavic ovъ ‘someone, someone else, other’
(ovъ…ovъ ‘the one…the other’); Old Czech ov ‘that’; Polish ów ‘that’; Serbo-
Croatian òvāj ‘that’; Bulgarian óvi ‘that’.
Notes:
1. Derksen (2008:384) reconstructs Proto-Indo-European *h₂eu-o-, with
initial *h₂-. However, I prefer to see the first component as the same found
in: (1) the Proto-Indo-European demonstrative pronoun *ʔe-/*ʔo-, *ʔey-
/*ʔoy-/*ʔi- ‘this, that’, (2) the Proto-Indo-European demonstrative pronoun
*ʔeno-/*ʔono (< *ʔe-+-no-/*ʔo-+-no-) ‘this, that’, and (3) the Proto-Indo-
European demonstrative pronoun *ʔobʰo- (< *ʔo-+-bʰo-) ‘this, that’.
2. The Proto-Indo-European deictic stem *we-/*wo- may be preserved as a
relic form in Tocharian B wa ‘therefore, nevertheless’ (unstressed). The
underlying Tocharian B form is /wā/, with long vowel (cf. Adams
2013:624). For the semantics, note Common Abkhaz *wa-śa ‘thus, this
way’ (no. 3 below) and *a-wá-śa ‘thus, this way’ (no. 4 below).
3. Proto-Indo-European *ʔe-+-wo-/*ʔo-+-wo- ‘that’ and Common Abkhaz
*a-wa ‘that’ (no. 2 below) are formed in exactly the same way.
A. (1) Common Abkhaz *wa ‘there’: South Abkhaz wa ‘there’; Ashkharywa
wa ‘there’. (2) Common Abkhaz *a-wa ‘that’ (deictics *a, *wa): Abaza /
Tapanta awa ‘that’. (3) Common Abkhaz *wa-śa ‘thus, this way’ (deictic
*wa, instrumental suffix *-śa): Bzyp wəś ‘thus, this way’; Abzhywa wəs
‘thus, this way’; Ashkharywa wəsa // was // wəs // wasa ‘thus, this way’.
(4) Common Abkhaz *a-wá-śa ‘thus, this way’: Ashkharywa awas //
awəs(a) ‘thus, this way’; Abaza / Tapanta awás(a) ‘thus, this way’; (5)
Common Abkhaz *wa-q’a ‘thither, there’ (*wa ‘this’, *-q’a directional
postposition): South Abkhaz wáq’a ‘thither, there’; Ashkharywa wáq’a
‘thither, there’. (6) Common Abkhaz *a-wá-q’a ‘there’: Ashkharywa
awaq’a ‘there’; Abaza / Tapanta awáʔa ‘there’. (7) Common Abkhaz *wə-

34 Allan R. Bomhard
ba-rá (*wa, *ba, *ra): South Abkhaz wəbrá ‘here’. (8) Common Abkhaz
*wa-ɦa ‘there’ (*wa, *ɦa): South Abkhaz wáā ‘there’; Ashkharywa waá
‘there’.
B. Ubykh wa- distant pronoun (always compounded with the following
noun): ‘that yonder’, waná (*wa, *na) independent distant pronoun: ‘that
younder’.
III. Family Relationship, Kinship Terms
34. Proto-Indo-European *ʔabʰ- ‘father, forefather, man’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Gothic aba
‘man, husband’; Old Icelandic afi ‘grand-father, man’; Faroese abbi ‘grand-
father’; Old English personal names Aba, Abba, Afa.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *abá ‘father’: South Abkhaz ab

‘father’; Ashkharywa ába ‘father’; Abaza / Tapanta ába/abá ‘father’. Note also:
(1) *aba ‘father’ in Common Abkhaz *aba-pśá ‘stepfather’: Bzyb áb-pśa,
áabə-psa ‘stepfather’; Abzhywa ab-psa ‘stepfather’; Ashkharywa aba-psa
‘stepfather’; Abaza / Tapanta aba-psá ‘stepfather’; (2) *ab(a) ‘father’ in
Common Abkhaz *áb-qºə́-nda ‘brother-in-law’: Abzhywa ábx̌ ºənda ‘brother-
in-law’; Bzyb ábxºənda (indef. sg. bx̌ ºə́-nda-k’) ‘brother-in-law’; Ashkharywa
ábqºənda ‘brother-in-law’; Abaza / Tapanta abqºə́nd ‘brother-in-law’; (3)
*ab(a) ‘father’ in Common Abkhaz *áb-qºa ‘father-in-law’: Bzyb ábxºa
‘father-in-law’; Abzhywa ábx̌ ºa ‘father-in-law’; Ashkharywa ábqºa ‘father-in-
law’; Abaza / Tapanta ábqºa ‘father-in-law’; (4) *abá ‘father’ in Common
Abkhaz *ab-ja-šʹá ‘uncle (father’s brother)’ (< *abá ‘father’, *ajašʹá ‘brother’):
South Abkhaz áb-jašʹa ‘uncle (father’s brother)’; Ashkharywa ab-jašʹa ‘uncle
(father’s brother)’; Abaza / Tapanta ab-ašʹa ‘uncle (father’s brother)’; (5) *abá
in Common Abkhaz *ab-ja-ħº-šʹá ‘aunt (father’s sister)’: South Abkhaz áb-
jaħºšʹa ‘aunt (father’s sister)’; Ashkharywa ab-ax̌ šʹa ‘aunt (father’s sister)’;
Abaza / Tapanta ab-ax̌ šʹa ‘aunt (father’s sister)’.
35. Proto-Indo-European *ʔan(n)o-s, *ʔan(n)i-s, *ʔan(n)a ‘mother’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁) (also

*na-na- ‘mother’): Luwian (nom. sg.) an-ni-iš, a-an-ni-iš ‘mother’; Hittite
(nom. sg.) an-na-aš ‘mother’; Palaic (nom. sg.) an-na-aš ‘mother’; Lycian
(nom. sg.) ẽni ‘mother’; Lydian (nom. sg.) ẽnaś ‘mother’; Latin anna ‘foster-
mother’; Greek (Hesychius) ἀννίς· ‘grand-mother’, νάννα, νάννας ‘aunt’;
Sanskrit nanā́ familiar expression for ‘mother’.
A. Proto-Circassian *n(a) ‘mother’: Bžedux nə, yāna ‘mother’, nāna
‘mamma, granny’; Kabardian hana ‘mother’, nāna ‘mamma, granny’.
B. Common Abkhaz *anə́: South Abkhaz an ‘mother’; Ashkharywa an
‘mother’, (indef. sg.) anə́-k’; Abaza / Tapanta anə ‘mother’. Note also: (1)
*anə́ ‘mother’ in Common Abkhaz *an-pśa ‘stepmother’: Bzyp án-pśa
‘stepmother’; Sameba ána-psa ‘stepmother’; Ashkharywa an-psa ‘step-

mother’; Abzhywa án-psa ‘stepmother’. (2) *anə́ ‘mother’ in Common

Abkhaz *án-qºa ‘mother-in-law’: Bzyp án-x̌ ºa ‘mother-in-law’; Abaza /
Tapanta án-qºa ‘mother-in-law’; Ashkharywa án-qºa ‘mother-in-law’;
Abzhywa án-x̌ ºa ‘mother-in-law’. (3) *anə́ ‘mother’ in Common Abkhaz
*án-qºə-pħa ‘sister-in-law’: Bzyp án-x̌ º-pħa ‘sister-in-law’; Ashkharywa
án-qºə-pħa ‘sister-in-law’; Abzhywa án-x̌ º-pħa ‘sister-in-law’. (4) *anə́
‘mother’ in Common Abkhaz *an-šʹá ‘uncle’ (‘mother’s brother’): South
Abkhaz án-šʹa ‘uncle’ (‘mother’s brother’); Abaza / Tapanta (Gumlo[w]kt)
an-šʹá ‘uncle’ (‘mother’s brother’); Ashkharywa an-šʹa ‘uncle’ (‘mother’s
brother’). (5) *anə́ ‘mother’ in Common Abkhaz *an-ħºšʹá ‘aunt’
(‘mother’s sister’): Ashkharywa an-x̌ šʹa ‘aunt’ (‘mother’s sister’); Abaza /
Tapanta án-x̌ šʹa ‘aunt’ (‘mother’s sister’).
C. Ubykh ná (def. ána) ‘mother’.
36. Proto-Indo-European (reduplicated) *bʰā-bʰā- (no laryngeals!) used to indicate

various family relationships: ‘mommy, daddy, etc.’ (nursery word): Old Church
Slavic baba ‘nurse’; Russian bába [баба] ‘mother, country woman, married
peasant woman’; Czech bába ‘grandmother, midwife, old woman’; Serbo-
Croatian bȁba ‘grandmother, midwife, nurse, mother-in-law’; Lithuanian bóba
‘old woman’; Latvian bãba ‘old woman’; Middle High German babe, bōbe ‘old
woman’ (Slavic loanwords), buobe ‘boy’. Note also Italian babbo ‘dad, daddy’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *bába used to indicate various family

relationships: ‘mommy, daddy, etc.’ (nursery word): South Abkhaz bába
‘daddy’; Ahchypsy bába ‘daddy’; Ashkharywa bǝba ‘mommy’.
37. Proto-Indo-European (reduplicated) *dʰē-dʰē- (no laryngeals!) ‘older relative

(male or female): grandfather, grandmother; uncle, aunt’ (nursery word): Greek
τήθη ‘grandmother’, τηθίς ‘aunt’; Lithuanian dė͂dė, dė͂dis ‘uncle’; Old Church
Slavic dědъ ‘grand-father’; Russian ded [дед] ‘grandfather’.
A. Common Abkhaz *dada: South Abkhaz dad ‘grandfather’, more rarely,
‘father’; Ashkharywa dada ‘father’; Abaza / Tapanta dada ‘grandfather,
father’.
B. Ubykh dád ‘father’.
38. Proto-Indo-European *k’en-/*k’on-/*k’n̥ - ‘to beget, to produce, to create, to

bring forth’: Sanskrit jánati ‘to beget, to produce, to create; to assign, to
procure’, jánas- ‘race’; Avestan zan- ‘to beget, to bear; to be born’, zana-
‘people’; Greek γίγνομαι ‘to be born’, γεννάω ‘to beget, to bring forth, to bear’,
γένος ‘race, stock, kin’, γέννα ‘descent, birth’; Armenian cnanim ‘to beget’, cin
‘birth’; Latin genō, gignō ‘to beget, to bear, to bring forth’, genus ‘class, kind;
birth, descent, origin’, gēns, -tis ‘clan; offspring, descendant; people, tribe,
nation’; Old Irish ·gainethar ‘to be born’, gein ‘birth’; Welsh geni ‘to give

36 Allan R. Bomhard
birth’; Gothic kuni ‘race, generation’; Old Icelandic kyn ‘kin, kindred; kind,
sort, species; gender’, kind ‘race, kind’; Old English cynn ‘kind, species,
variety; race, progeny; sex, (grammatical) gender’, ge-cynd, cynd ‘kind,
species; nature, quality, manner; gender; origin, generation; offspring; genitals’,
cennan ‘to bear (child), to produce’; Old Frisian kinn, kenn ‘race, generation;
class, kind’; Old Saxon kunni ‘race, generation; class, kind’; Dutch kunne ‘race,
generation’; Old High German chunni ‘race, generation’, kind ‘child; (pl.)
children, offspring’ (New High German Kind).
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *k’(a) ‘to come out, to bud, to grow’:

Bžedux č’ʹə ‘to come out, to bud, to grow’; Kabardian k’ə ‘to come out, to bud,
to grow’. Perhaps also: Proto-Circassian *k’a ‘seeds’: Bžedux č’ʹa ‘seeds’;
Kabardian k’a ‘seeds’.
39. Proto-Indo-European *naneA (> *nanā) ‘mother’ (nursery word): Sanksrit

nanā́ familiar expression for ‘mother’; Greek νάννη ‘maternal aunt’, νάννα,
νάννας ‘maternal or paternal uncle or aunt’; Welsh nain ‘grandmother’.
A. Common Abkhaz *nana ‘mother’ (nursery word): South Abkhaz nan
‘mama’, nán(a) form of address of the older woman to the younger person
(inverted self-nomination); Abaza / Tapanta nána, nə́na ‘grandmother’.
B. Ubykh (vocative) nán(a) ‘mother’ (nursery word).
C. Proto-Circasian *nana ‘mother; grandmother’ (nursery word): Bžedux
nāna ‘mama’; Kabardian nāna ‘grandmother, granny’.
40. Proto-Indo-European *(s)nuso-s ‘daughter-in-law’: Sanskrit snuṣā́ ‘son’s wife,

daughter-in-law’; Armenian nu ‘daughter-in-law’; Greek νυός ‘daughter-in-
law; any female connected by marriage; wife, bride’; Albanian nuse ‘bride,
(rarely) daughter-in-law’; Latin nurus ‘daughter-in-law; a young married
woman’; Crimean Gothic schuos (misprint for *schnos) ‘betrothed’; Old
Icelandic snør, snor ‘daughter-in-law’; Old English snoru ‘daughter-in-law’;
Old Frisian snore ‘daughter-in-law’; Middle Dutch snoer, snorre ‘daughter-in-
law’; Old High German snur, snor, snura, snuora ‘daughter-in-law’; Serbian
Church Slavic snъxa ‘daughter-in-law’; Russian snoxá [сноха] ‘daughter-in-
law’; Serbo-Croatian snàha ‘daughter-in-law’.
A. Proto-Circassian *nəsa ‘(father’s) brother’s wife, daughter-in-law’:
Adyghe nǝsa ‘(father’s) brother’s wife, daughter-in-law’; Bžedux nǝsa
‘(father’s) brother’s wife, daughter-in-law’; Kabardian nǝsa ‘(father’s)
brother’s wife, daughter-in-law’.
B. Ubykh nəsáɣ (def. ánsaɣ) ‘(father’s) brother’s wife, daughter-in-law’.

Notes:
1. Proto-Indo-European *u is reflected as *ǝ in Northwest Caucasian.
2. Also found in Northeast Caucasian and Kartvelian:
A. Northeast Caucasian: Avar, Batsbi, Chechen, Ingush nus ‘daughter-in-
law’; Andi nusa ‘daughter-in-law’; Tindi nus(a) ‘daughter-in-law’;
Ghodberi nuse-j ‘daughter-in-law’; Karta nusa ‘daughter-in-law’; etc.
B. Kartvelian: Mingrelian nisa, nosa ‘daughter-in-law’; Laz nusa, nisa
‘daughter-in-law’.
C. According to Tuite—Schulze (1998), the Caucasian forms are loan-
words from Indo-European.
41. Proto-Indo-European *pʰehs-o-s [*pʰahs-o-s] (> *pʰās-o-s) ‘relative by

marriage’ (*h = *ə̯₄) (only in Greek [cf. Beekes 2010.II:1187]): Greek πηός
(Doric πᾱ́ος) ‘relative by marriage’.
A. (?) Proto-Circassian *Pśaśa ‘girl, maiden’: Bžedux pśāśa ‘girl, maiden’;
Kabardian pśāśa ‘girl, maiden’. Note: Kuipers (1976:28) writes *Pşaşa.
B. Common Abkhaz *pśa ‘step-, relative by marriage’: Bzyp án-pśa
‘stepmother’, áb-pśa ‘stepfather’, a-pa-pśá ‘stepson’, a-pħa-pśá ‘step-
daughter’; Abaza / Tapanta an-psá ‘stepmother’, pħa-psá ‘stepdaughter’,
ab-psá ‘stepfather’, pa-psá ‘stepson’; Ashkharywa a-pħa-psa ‘step-
daughter’, a-pa-psa ‘stepson’; Abzhywa a-pa-psa ‘stepson’.
Note: Proto-Indo-European *pʰVhs- = Northwest Caucasian *pśV.
42. Proto-Indo-European *pʰeh-u/w- [*pʰah-u/w-]/*pʰoh-u/w- ‘little, small; little

one, child’ (*h = *ə̯₄): Greek παῖς (gen. παιδός [< *πα+-ι-δ-]) ‘child’, (Attic)
(Epigraphic) παῦς ‘child’, παῦρος (< *pʰeh-u-ro- [*pʰah-u-ro-]) ‘little, small’;
Latin paucus (< *pʰeh-u-kʰo- [*pʰah-u-kʰo-]) ‘few’, pauper ‘poor’, paul(l)us
‘little, small (in size or quantity)’; Gothic fawai ‘few’; Old Icelandic fár ‘few’;
Old English fēa (pl. fēawe) ‘(adj.) few, not many; (adv.) (not) even a little’.
Northwest Caucasian: (1) Common Abkhaz *pa ‘son’: South Abkhaz a-pá
‘son’; Abaza / Tapanta pa ‘son’. (2) Common Abkhaz *pa in *pa-pśa: Bzyp
a-pa-pśá ‘stepson’; Abzhywa a-pa-psa ‘stepson’; Ashkharywa a-pa-psa
‘stepson’; Abaza / Tapanta pa-psá ‘stepson’. (3) Common Abkhaz *pa in
*pa-j-pħá (*pa ‘son’ + *jə- ‘his’ + *pħa ‘daughter’): Ashkharywa a-pə-j-pħa
‘granddaughter’; Bzyp a-pa-j-pá ‘granddaughter’. (4) Common Abkhaz *pa in
*pa-j-pá: Ashkharywa a-pə-j-pa ‘grandson’; Bzyp a-pa-j-pá ‘grandson’.
43. Proto-Indo-European *pʰiHs-t’- (> *pʰīs-t’-) ‘female genitals, vulva’:

Lithuanian pyzdà ‘female genitals, vulva’ (also used as an abusive swear-word
against women); Latvian pĩzda ‘female genitals, vulva’ (also used as an abusive
swear-word against women); Old Prussian peisda ‘arse, backside’ (ei < ī);

38 Allan R. Bomhard
Russian pizdá [пизда] ‘female genitals, vulva’; Bulgarian pizda ‘female

genitals, vulva’; Albanian pidh ‘female genitals, vulva’ (< Proto-Albanian
*p(e)izda [cf. Orël 1998:325; Huld 1984:149]).
Northwest Caucasian: Common Northwest Caucasian *pśasa ‘girl’ (cf.

Chirikba 1996a:258):
A. Proto-Circassian *Pśaśa ‘girl’: Bžedux pśāśa ‘girl’; Kabardian pśāśa
‘maiden’. Note: Kuipers (1975:28) writes *Pşaşa.
B. Ubykh śasá ‘bride, daughter-in-law’, śasášʹ ‘bridal attire’.
Note: Here, Proto-Indo-European *pʰiHs- = Proto-Circassian *Pś-, Ubykh ś-.
44. Proto-Indo-European *sew(H)-/*sow(H)-/*su(H)- ‘to give birth’: Sanskrit sū́ te,

sūyate ‘to beget, to procreate, to bring forth, to bear, to produce, to yield’,
suta-ḥ ‘son, child’, sūtí-ḥ ‘birth, production’, sūnú-ḥ ‘son, child, offspring’;
Avestan hunu-š ‘son’; Greek υἱύς, υἱός ‘son’; Old Irish suth ‘offspring’; Gothic
sunus ‘son’; Old Icelandic sunr, sonr ‘son’; Old English sunu ‘son’; Old Saxon
sunu ‘son’; Old High German sunu ‘son’; Lithuanian sūnùs ‘son’; Old Church
Slavic synъ ‘son’; Russian syn [сын] ‘son’; Tocharian A se, B soy ‘son’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *śawa ‘youth’: Bžedux śāwa ‘youth,

especially bridegroom’; Kabardian śāwa ‘youth, especially bridegroom’;
Temirgoy also ‘son’. Note: Kuipers (1975:32) writes *şawa.
Note: Proto-Circassian *ś = Proto-Indo-European *s.
45. Proto-Indo-European (reduplicated) *tʰā̆-tʰa- ‘father’ (nursery word): Sanskrit

tatá-ḥ ‘father’, tāta-ḥ ‘father’ (a term of affection or endearment addressed to
any person); Latin tata ‘father, daddy; grandfather, grandpa’; Greek τατᾶ
‘daddy’, τέττα ‘father’ (a term of respect addressed by youths to their elders);
Cornish tat ‘father’; Albanian tatë ‘father, daddy’; Russian tʹátʹa [тятя] ‘dad,
daddy’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *t:(a) ‘father, daddy’: Bžedux t:ə, yāt:a

‘father’, t:āt:a ‘daddy; grandpa’ (term of address); Kabardian hada ‘father’,
dada ‘daddy; grandpa’ (term of address).
46. Proto-Indo-European *tʰekʰ- ‘(vb.) to beget; (n.) offspring’: Sanskrit tákman-

‘offspring’; Greek τέκνον ‘child’, τίκτω (< Pre-Greek *ti-tk-é-) ‘to beget, to
bring forth’, τόκος ‘childbirth; offspring’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *taqǝ́ ‘close relative’: Bzyp a-tax̌ ǝ́

‘close relative’; Abzhywa a-tax̌ ǝ́ ‘close relative’.

47. Proto-Indo-European *yenH-tʰer-/*yn̥ H-tʰer- ‘female in-law by marriage:

sister-in-law, husband’s brother’s wife’: Sanskrit yātar- ‘husband’s brother’s
wife’; Greek (f.) ἐνάτηρ ‘husband’s brother’s wife’, (Homeric) (pl.) εἰνατέρες
‘wives of brothers or of husband’s brothers, sisters-in-law’; Latin (pl.)
ianitricēs ‘wives of brothers’; Old Lithuanian jéntė ‘husband’s brother’s wife’;
Old Church Slavic jętry ‘husband’s brother’s wife’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *jə́nə ‘female (of animals)’: Abzhywa

a-jə́n ‘female (of animals)’.
IV. Mankind
48. Proto-Indo-European *ʔer-s-/*ʔr̥ -s- ‘male, man’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Greek (Homeric)
ἄρσην, (Attic) ἄρρην, (Ionic, Aeolian, Lesbian, Cretan, etc.) ἔρσην, Laconian
ἄρσης ‘male; masculine, strong’; Sanskrit ṛṣa-bhá-ḥ ‘bull’; Avestan aršan-
‘man; manly’; Old Persian aršan-, arša- ‘male, hero, bull’; Armenian aṙn ‘male
sheep’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *arpə́ ‘youth, young man’: Bzyp

árpə-ś // árpa-ś ‘youth, young man’ (indef. sg. arpə-s-k’; rpə́-śa-k’) (pl. árpa-
r(a)). (-śə = diminutive suffix.) Also in the meaning ‘time of youth’: jəpaćºa
<…> arpara naʒanə ajvagəlan ‘his sons, having reached the age of youth,
stood by each other’.
49. Proto-Indo-European *ʔoy- ‘single, alone, solitary; one’ (with non-apophonic

-o-) (extended forms: (1) *ʔoy-no-, (2) ʔoy-wo-, (3) *ʔoy-kʰo-) (*ʔ = *ə̯₁):
1. *ʔoy-no-: Latin ūnus ‘one’ [Old Latin oinos]; Old Irish óen, óin ‘one’;
Gothic ains ‘one’; Old Icelandic einn ‘one’; Old English ān ‘one; alone,
sole, lonely; singular, unique’; Old Saxon ēn ‘one’; Old High German ein
‘one’; Lithuanian víenas (with unexplained initial v-) ‘one; alone’; Old
Prussian ains ‘one’; Old Church Slavic inъ ‘some(one), other’; Russian
Church Slavic inokyj ‘only, sole, solitary’; Russian inój [иной] ‘different,
other’ — it is also found in Greek οἴνη, οἰνός ‘roll of one (in dice)’.
2. *ʔoy-wo-: Avestan aēva- ‘one’; Old Persian aiva- ‘one’ — it is also found
in Greek οἶος ‘alone, lone, lonely’ (Cyprian οἶ+ος).
3. *ʔoy-kʰo-: Sanskrit éka-ḥ ‘one’; Mitanni (“Proto-Indic”) aika- ‘one’.
A. Common Abkhaz *ajǝ́ba ‘orphan’: Abzhywa ájba ‘orphan’; Bzyp áajba
(indef. sg. ajbá-k’), ajbá ‘orphan’; Abaza / Tapanta jǝ́ba (indef. sg. jǝ́ba-k’)
‘orphan’. In South Abkhaz, also ‘widow’.
B, Ubykh ay- in áyda, aydáx ‘that one, the other one’.

40 Allan R. Bomhard
50. Proto-Indo-European *men-/*mon-/*mn̥ - ‘alone, only; few, scanty’: Greek

μόνος (Ionic μοῦνος; Doric μῶνος) (< *μόν+ος) ‘alone, only’, μᾱνός (Attic
μᾰνός) (< *μαν+ός) ‘thin, loose, slack; few, scanty’; Armenian manr ‘small,
thin’; Sanskrit manā́ k ‘a little, slightly’. Perhaps also: Lithuanian meñkas
‘small, slight, insignificant, poor, weak’; Old High German mengen, mangolōn
‘to be without, to lack, to miss’ (New High German mangeln); Middle High
German manc ‘lack’; Tocharian B mäṅk- ‘to be deprived of, to suffer the loss
of, to lack’, meṅki ‘lack, deficit, shortage; fault, error’.
A. (1) Common Abkhaz *macá ‘only, just, single’: South Abkhaz á-maca-ra
‘only, just single’; Ashkharywa maca(-ra) ‘only, just, single’; Abaza /
Tapanta mc(ə)ra ‘empty’. (2) Common Abkhaz *malá ‘uselessly; alone, by
oneself’: South Abkhaz a-malá ‘for free, uselessly’, á-mala ‘uselessly;
alone, by oneself’; Feria (Sameba) á-mala-x̌ a ‘for free, uselessly’.
B. Ubykh macáq’a:la ‘in vain, uselessly’.
51. Proto-Indo-European *hepʰ-elo- [*hapʰ-elo-] ‘strength, power’ (*h = *ə̯₄):

Greek (Hesych.) (*ἄπελος ‘strength’ >) ἀν-απελάσας· ἀναρρωσθείς ‘weak-
ness’; Old Icelandic afl ‘strength, power, might’, efla ‘to strengthen’, efling
‘growth, increase in strength and wealth’; Faroese alv, alvi ‘strength, power’;
Norwegian (dial.) avl ‘physical strength’; Swedish avel ‘strength’; Old English
afol ‘power, might’; Old Saxon aƀal ‘power’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ápšʹə ‘big, strong, powerful’: South

Abkhaz abax̌ º-apšʹ ‘the strong rock’, azaar(*a)-apšʹ ‘terrible anger’,
a-k’aamet-apšʹ ‘horror, doomsday’, agaʒ(*a)-apšʹ ‘bally idiot’, adaw(*ə)-apšʹ
‘monstrous giant’, á-mat-apšʹ ‘a very venomous snake’; Abaza / Tapanta
q’abard-ápšʹ/q’abárd-apšʹ ‘the Great Kabarda’.
52. Proto-Indo-European *men-/*mon-/*mn̥ - ‘(vb.) to desire passionately, to yearn

for; (n.) ardent desire, passion, lust’: Tocharian B mañu ‘desire’, A mnu ‘spirit,
appreciation, desire’; Sanskrit man- (RV) ‘to hope or wish for’ (also ‘to think’),
mánas- ‘spirit, passion’ (also ‘mind, intellect, perception, sense’), manasyú-
(RV) ‘wishing, desiring’, manā́ (RV) ‘devotion, attachment, zeal, eagerness’,
manīṣita- (MBh) ‘desired, wished (for); desire, wish’, manyú- (RV) ‘high spirit
or temper, ardor, zeal, passion’; Greek μενεαίνω ‘to desire earnestly or
eagerly’, μένος ‘spirit, passion’, μέμονα (perfect used as present) ‘to desire or
wish eagerly, to yearn for, to strive for’, μενοινή ‘eager desire’, μενοινάω ‘to
desire eagerly’; Old Irish menn- ‘to desire’, menme ‘feeling, desire’ (also
‘mind, intelligence’); Old Icelandic muna ‘to like, to long for’, munaðr
‘delight’, munr ‘love’, munuð or munúð ‘pleasure, lust’; Old English myne
‘desire, love, affection’ (also ‘memory’), mynle ‘desire’, mynelic ‘desirable’;

Old Frisian minne ‘love’; Old Saxon minnea, minnia ‘love’; Old High German
minna ‘love’, minnōn, minneōn ‘to love’. Proto-Indo-European *manu-s ‘man,
begetter, progenitor’: Avestan manuš- ‘man, person’ in Manuš-čiθra-; Sanskrit
mánu-ḥ ‘man, mankind, father of men’; Gothic manna ‘man, person’; Old
Icelandic mannr ‘man, human being’; Old English mann ‘man, human being’;
Old Frisian mann, monn ‘man’; Old Saxon mann ‘man’; Old High German
man(n) ‘man’; Old Church Slavic mǫžь ‘man’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *mana ‘penis’: Bžedux māna ‘penis’;

Kabardian māna ‘penis’.
53. Proto-Indo-European *pʰē̆(y/i)- ‘to hurt, to harm, to attack’: Gothic fijands

‘enemy’; Old Icelandic fjándi ‘enemy, foe’; Old English fēonds ‘enemy’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *p:əyə ‘enemy’ (/p:/ = unaspirated /p/):

Bžedux p:əyə ‘enemy’; Kabardian bəy ‘enemy’.
54. Proto-Indo-European *pʰotʰ-i- ‘one who is strong, powerful, able, capable,

master of’: Sanskrit páti-ḥ ‘master, owner, possessor, lord, ruler, governor,
sovereign; husband’; Greek πόσις ‘husband’; Latin potis ‘able, capable’, potior
‘to get, to obtain, to gain possession of; to possess, to have, to be master of’;
Gothic -faþs in bruþ-faþs ‘bridegroom’; Old Lithuanian patìs ‘oneself, himself,
itself’; Tocharian A pats, B pets ‘husband’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *p:ət:a ‘strong, solid’: Bžedux p:ət:a

‘strong, solid’; Kabardian bəda ‘strong, solid; stingy’.
55. Proto-Indo-European *wen-/*won-/*wn̥ - ‘to hold dear, to care about; to like, to

love, to cherish; to have strong feelings for, to want, to desire’, *weni-s ‘friend,
beloved’: Proto-Germanic *weni-z ‘friend, beloved’ > Old Icelandic vinr
‘friend’; Old English wine ‘friend’, winescipe ‘friendship’; Old Frisian wine
‘friend’; Old High German wini ‘friend, beloved’. Old Irish fine ‘stock, nation,
tribe, family’; Tocharian A wañi, B wīna ‘pleasure’; Latin venus ‘love, charm,
grace’; Sanskrit vánate ‘to like, to love; to wish for, to desire; to strive for, to
obtain’, vánas- ‘desire, longing, attractiveness, loveliness’; Hittite (3rd sg. pres.
act.) ú-en-zi ‘to copulate’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *wa ‘relative, friend, comrade’: South

Abkhaz á-wa (indef. sg. wa-k’) ‘relative, friend, comrade’, á-wa-ra ‘relation’;
Ashkharywa a-wa ‘kind, sort of’; Abaza / Tapanta á-wa ‘belonging to a group,
close friend’ (also ethnic suffix -wa).

42 Allan R. Bomhard
V. Parts of the Body; Bodily Functions
56. Proto-Indo-European (nom.-acc. sg.) *ʔés-‿ ħh-r̥ ‘blood’, (gen. sg.) *ʔs-‿
ħh-én-s,
*ʔs-‿ħh-n-és (*ʔ = *ə̯₁; *‿ħh = *ə̯₂): Hittite (nom.-acc. sg.) e-eš-ḫar, e-eš-ḥa-ar,
iš-ḫar ‘blood’, (gen. sg.) iš-ḫa-na-a-aš, iš-ḫa-a-na-aš, iš-ḫa-na-aš, e-eš-ḫa-na-
aš, etc.; Cuneiform Luwian (nom.-acc. sg.) a-aš-ḫar-ša, [a-]aš-ḫa-ar ‘blood’,
(nom. sg.) a-aš-ḫa-nu-wa-an-ti-iš ‘bloody’; Hieroglyphic Luwian (nom.-acc.
sg.) á-sa-ha-na-ti-sa-za ‘blood-offering’; Sanskrit (nom.-acc. sg.) ásṛk ‘blood’,
(gen. sg.) asnás; Greek ἔαρ, εἶαρ (Hesychius ἦαρ) ‘blood’; Armenian ariun
‘blood’; Old Latin as(s)er ‘blood’; Latvian asins ‘blood’; Tocharian A ysār, B
yasar ‘blood’. Note: The Proto-Indo-European root is obviously *ʔes-/*ʔs-,
which has been extended by a suffix *-‿ ħh- (cf. the -χ- in the Ubykh forms cited
below), yielding the stem *ʔes-‿ ħh-. The nom.-acc. sg. ends in *-r̥ , while the
oblique cases contain an oblique marker in *-n-, thus: Proto-Indo-European
(nom.-acc. sg.) *ʔés-‿ħh-r̥ ‘blood’, (gen. sg.) *ʔs-‿ħh-én-s, *ʔs-‿ħh-n-és.
A. Common Abkhaz *šʹa ‘blood’: South Abkhaz a-šʹá ‘blood’, a-šʹa-rá
‘bleeding, bloody flux’, a-šʹa-ba-rá ‘to bleed heavily’; Ashkharywa šʹa
‘blood’; Abaza / Tapanta šʹa ‘blood’. No doubt related to: Common
Abkhaz *šʹə ‘to kill’: South Abkhaz a-šʹ-rá ‘to kill’; Abaza / Tapanta šʹ-ra
‘to kill (imper. d-šʹə ‘kill him/her!’ [human]).
B. Ubykh šʹχa- ‘to wound’ (asšʹχán ‘I wound him’), šʹχaq’á (def. á-) ‘wound;
wounded’.
Note: The šʹ found in the Abkhaz and Ubykh forms cited above is represented
as *s in Proto-Indo-European.
57 Proto-Indo-European *bʰr-uH- (> *bʰrū-) ‘eyelash, eyebrow’: Sanskrit bhrū́ -ḥ

‘an eyebrow, the brow’; Greek ὀ-φρῦς ‘the brow, eyebrow’; Middle Irish (gen.
dual) brúad ‘eyebrow’; Old Icelandic brún (< *bʰruwōn-) (pl. brynn)
‘eyebrow’; Old English brū ‘eyebrow; eyelid, eyelash’; Lithuanian bruvìs
‘eyebrow’; Old Church Slavic brъvь ‘eyebrow’; Russian brovʹ [бровь]
‘eyebrow’; Tocharian A pärwān-, B (dual) pärwāne ‘eyebrows’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *bra ‘mane; hair’: Bzyp á-bra ‘mane
(of a horse)’, a-brá-š ‘tow-haired’; Abaza / Tapanta bra ‘plait, braid; hair
(arch.)’, qa-brá ‘hair’ (qa ‘head’).
58. Proto-Indo-European (reduplicated) *dʰudʰdʰ-o- ‘nipple’ (> ‘anything having

the size or shape of a nipple: lump, knot, dot, etc.’): Late Latin dudda ‘nurse,
nanny’ (loan from unknown source); Old High German tutto, tutta ‘nipple’
(New High German [dial.] Tütte); Middle High German (dim.) tüttel ‘nipple’
(New High German Tüttel ‘point, dot, jot’); Dutch dot ‘lump, small knot’; Old
English dott ‘speck, head (of a boil)’; East Frisian dotte, dot ‘lump, clump’.

Possibly also the following Greek forms: τυτθός ‘(of children) little, small,
young’, (pl.) τυτθά (in Homeric only: τυτθὰ διατμήξας ‘cut small’), (adv.)
τυτθόν ‘a little, a bit’, (Doric) τυννός ‘small, little’. Note: Elsewhere (Bomhard
2021.2:360—361, no. 302), I have proposed derivation of Proto-Indo-European
*dʰudʰdʰ-o- ‘nipple’ from Proto-Nostratic (reduplicated) *ʒuʒ-a (< *ʒu-ʒu-)
‘tip, point’ (> ‘nipple, breast’).
A. Common Abkhaz *ʒə́ʒa ‘woman’s/mother’s breast’: Abzhywa a-ʒə́ʒ, a-ʒə́ʒ
(-kºa) (-kºa = plural suffix) ‘woman’s/mother’s breast’; Ahchypsy a-ʒə́ʒ-
kºa ‘woman’s/ mother’s breast’; Gumlo(w)kt (2) ʒə́ʒa ‘woman’s/mother’s
breast’. Perhaps influenced by or borrowed from Kartvelian: cf. Georgian
ʒuʒu- ‘breast (female)’.
B. Proto-Circassian *bǝʒǝ ‘woman’s breast’: Bžedux bǝʒǝ ‘woman’s breast’;
Kabardian bǝʒ ‘woman’s breast’. Perhaps dissimilated from *ʒǝʒǝ.
C. Ubykh bə́ʒ ‘breast, nipple’.
Notes:
2. Northwest Caucasian *ʒ = Proto-Indo-European *dʰ.
59. Proto-Indo-European (reduplicated) *kʰa-kʰa- ‘to laugh’ (onomatopoeic): Greek

καχάζω ‘to laugh aloud; to jerr, to mock’; Armenian xaxank ‘laughter’; Sanskrit
kákhati, khákkhati ‘to laugh, to laugh at or deride’; Latin cachinnō ‘to laugh,
especially loudly or boisterously’; Old English ceahhetan ‘to laugh loudly’;
Old High German kachazzen, kichazzen ‘to laugh loudly’; Old Church Slavic
xoxotati ‘to laugh loudly’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *kʰakʰa ‘to laugh’: Temirgoy čʹačʹa-n

‘to chirr, to laugh derisively; to bleat, to howl, to shout’; Kabardian kāka ‘to
chirr, to laugh derisively; to bleat, to howl, to shout’.
60. (1) Proto-Indo-European (*k’en-/*k’on-/)*k’n- ‘knuckle-bone’: Old Icelandic

knúta ‘knuckle-bone, joint-bone, head of a bone’, knúi ‘a knuckle’; Middle
English cnokil ‘knuckle’; Middle Low German knoke ‘bone’. (2) Proto-Indo-
European *k’en-u-, *k’n-ew- ‘knee, joint, angle’: Hittite ge-e-nu ‘knee’;
Sanskrit jā́ nu ‘knee’; Latin genū ‘knee, knot, joint’; Greek γόνυ ‘knee, joint’;
Gothic kniu ‘knee’; Old Icelandic kné ‘knee’; Old English cnēow ‘knee’; Old
Saxon knio ‘knee’; Old High German kneo ‘knee’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *k’anə ‘knuckle-bone (used in bone

game)’: Bžedux č’ʹanə ‘knuckle-bone (used in bone game)’; Kabardian k’an
‘knuckle-bone (used in bone game)’.

44 Allan R. Bomhard
61. Proto-Indo-European *men-/*mon-/*mn̥ - ‘hand’: Latin manus ‘hand’; Hittite

(3rd sg. pres. act.) ma-ni-ya-aḫ-ḫi ‘to distribute, to entrust (with dat.); to hand
over; to show; to govern’; Old Icelandic mund ‘hand’; Old English mund ‘hand,
palm’; Old High German munt ‘hand; protection’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ma ‘hand’ in (this is but a sampling):

(1) Common Abkhaz *ma-p’ºǝ́: South Abkhaz a-nap’ǝ́ ‘hand’; Ashkharywa
mp’ºǝ ‘hand’; Abaza / Tapanta nap’ǝ́ ‘hand’. (2) Common Abkhaz *ma-tá:
South Abkhaz á-mta ‘handle’, (indef. sg.) matá-k’ ‘handle’. (3) Common
Abkhaz *ma-č’á: Bzyp a-mač’á ‘palm, span’; Abzhywa á-mač’a ‘palm, span’.
(4) Common Abkhaz *ma-x̌ ºá: South Abkhaz a-ma-x̌ ºá-r ‘arm’; Ashkharywa
max̌ ºá ‘arm’. (5) Common Abkhaz *ma-ɦá: South Abkhaz á-maa ‘handle’;
Abaza / Tapanta mɦa ‘handle’.
62. Proto-Indo-European (*nebʰ-/)*nobʰ- ‘navel’: Sanskrit nā́ bhi-ḥ ‘navel’; Old

High German naba ‘nave, hub (of a wheel)’; Old Prussian nabis ‘navel’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *nəba ‘belly’: Bžedux nəba ‘belly’;

Kabardian nəba ‘belly’. Note also: Temirgoy nəbəǯ'ə ‘navel’; Kabardian bənža
‘navel’; Abaza / Tapanta bənʒʹa ‘navel’; Ubykh nəbəǯ' ‘navel’.
63. Proto-Indo-European (extended form) *pʰeh-s- [*pʰah-s-] (> *pʰās-) ‘to puff, to
blow; to reek (of), to smell (of)’ (only in Slavic) (*h = *ə̯₄): Russian paxnútʹ
[пахнуть] ‘to puff, to blow’, páxnutʹ [пахнуть] ‘to smell (of), to reek (of)’;
Czech páchnouti ‘to be fragrant’; Polish pachnąć ‘to smell (of)’. Perhaps also:
Proto-Indo-European (extended form) *pʰeh-k’- [*pʰah-k’-] (> *pʰāk’-) ‘face,
surface’ (only in Indo-Iranian) (*h = *ə̯₄): Sanskrit pā́ ja-ḥ ‘face, surface’;
Khotan Saka pāysa- ‘surface’.
A. (1) Proto-Circassian *pʰa ‘nose, front’: Bžedux pʰa ‘nose, front, beginning,
etc.’; Kabardian pa ‘nose, front, beginning, etc.’ (2) Proto-Circassian
*pʰaPλa ‘red-nosed’; (3) Proto-Circassian *pʰaxºǝ ‘white-nosed’; (4)
Proto-Circassian *pʰaq:a ‘snub-nosed’; (5) Proto-Circassian *pʰaPĝǝ
‘bridge of nose’; (6) Proto-Circassian *pʰam(ǝ) ‘to smell (something)’; etc.
B. Common Abkhaz *pǝ ‘nose’, in: (1) Common Abkhaz *pǝ-n-ć’a (< *pǝ
‘nose’, -n- locative, ć’a ‘sharp’): Abzhywa a-pǝ́nc’a ‘nose’; Ashkharywa
a-pǝ́nc’a ‘nose’; Bzyp a-pǝ́nć’a ‘nose’; Abaza / Tapanta pǝ́nc’a ‘nose’. (2)
Common Abkhaz *a+p-á+x̌ ʹa ‘earlier, previously, before’; (3) Common
Abkhaz *a+pǝ ‘before, at the front’; (4) Common Abkhaz *a+pǝ́-x̌ ʹa
‘earlier, previously, before’; (5) Common Abkhaz *á+pǝ-x̌ ʹa ‘at the front,
earlier’; (6) Common Abkhaz *a+p+qá ‘ahead, before, earlier’; (7)
Common Abkhaz *p-á-ga (< *p-a ‘the first’, *ga ‘to carry, to bring’) ‘to

pass ahead, to beave behind, to forestall’; (8) Common Abkhaz *pǝ-bá

‘smell, odor’; (9) Common Abkhaz *pǝ́-za ‘to lead’; etc.
C. Ubykh fa- in faċ’á ‘nose, tip’.
64. Proto-Indo-European *pʰes-/*pʰos-, *pʰs-u- ‘(vb.) to breathe, to blow; to live;

(n.) breath, life, soul’: Sanskrit psu- in ápsu-ḥ ‘breathless’; Greek ψῡχή ‘breath,
spirit, life; the soul or spirit of man’, ψύχω ‘to breathe, to blow’, ψύχωσις
‘giving life to, animating’, ψῡχήϊος ‘alive, living; having a ψῡχή’. Perhaps also
Sanskrit (Vedic) pastyà-m ‘(neut.) habitation, abode, stall, stable; (masc. pl.)
house, dwelling, residence; household, family’.
A. (1) Proto-Circassian *Psa ‘life, soul’: Bžedux psa ‘life, soul’; Kabardian
psa ‘life, soul’. (2) Proto-Circassian *Psawə ‘to live’: Kabardian psaw ‘to
live; healthy, whole, all’; Bžedux psawə ‘to live’, psāwə ‘healthy’, pst:awə
‘whole, all’. Circassian loanwords in Abkhaz: South Abkhaz psawátla
‘living’; Bzyp psawátla ‘living’; Abaza / Tapanta psawatla ‘household;
additional buildings on a farm’; Abzhywa pswatla ‘living’ (< Circassian
*psa-wa-λa ‘living, household’).
B. Common Abkhaz *psə: South Abkhaz a-psə́ ‘soul’, a-psə́p ‘respiration’,
a-psatá ‘place where souls rest after death’, a-ps-šʹa-ra ‘(to) rest’, a-psə́č
‘weak’; Bzyp a-psə-n-ć’-rə́ ‘life-time’; Abaza / Tapanta psə ‘soul’, psəp
‘respiration’, psatá ‘place where souls rest after death’, č-ps-šʹa-ra ‘(to)
rest’; Abzhywa a-psə-n-c’-rə́ ‘life-time’.
C. Ubykh psá ‘breath, soul, life’.
Note: Proto-Indo-European *pʰVs- = Northwest Caucasian *psV-.
65. Proto-Indo-European *ses- ‘to sleep’: Hittite (3rd sg. pres. act.) še-eš-zi ‘to rest,
to sleep, to spend the night, to stay (overnight); to go to sleep, to lie down’,
(gen. sg.) še-šu-wa-aš ‘bedroom’, (acc. sg.) ša-aš-ta-an ‘sleep, bed’; Sanskrit
sásti ‘to sleep, to be still’; Avestan hah- ‘to sleep’. Note: The original meaning
may have been something like ‘(to be) drowsy, woozy, sleepy; to nod’.
A. Common Abkhaz *sǝsǝ ‘to sway, to shake, to tremble, to be sleepy’ (used
with preverbs) (cf. Chirikba 1999:161, note 17; not in Chirikba 1996b).
B. (?) Ubykh sa- ‘to doze, to slumber’ (sǝsán ‘I doze, I slumber’).
C. Proto-Circassian *sǝsǝ ‘to sway, to shake, to tremble’: Bžedux sǝsǝ ‘to
sway, to shake, to tremble’; Kabardian sǝs ‘to sway, to shake, to tremble’.
66. Proto-Indo-European (nom.-acc. sg.) *yékʷʰ-r̥ ‘liver’, (gen. sg.) *yekʷʰ-n-és,

*yokʷʰ-én-s, *yékʷʰ-n̥ -s, etc. (cf. Wodtko—Irslinger—Schneider 2008:393) (<
*‘entrails’, as in Russian Church Slavic jatro ‘liver; (pl.) entrails’ ~ Greek
ἔντερα ‘entrails’ [cf. Buck 1949:§4.45 liver; Derksen 2008:158; Vasmer

46 Allan R. Bomhard
1953—1958.III:499]): Sanskrit (nom.-acc. sg.) yákṛt ‘liver’, (gen. sg.) yaknás;

Avestan (nom.-acc. sg.) yākarə ‘liver’; Greek (nom.-acc. sg.) ἧπαρ ‘liver’, (gen.
sg.) ἧπατος; Latin (nom.-acc. sg.) iecur ‘liver’, (gen. sg.) iecuris, iecinoris;
Lithuanian (dial.) (pl.) je͂ knos ‘liver’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *yaqʰºə ‘cud, entrails’: Bžedux yaqʰºə

‘cud, entrails’; Kabardian yaqº ‘cud, entrails’.
VI. Medical Terms
67. Proto-Indo-European *gʷʰel(H)-uH ‘tumor, swelling’ (only in Balto-Slavic):

Proto-Slavic *žely ‘tumor, fistula’ > Russian želvák [желвак] ‘tumor, swelling,
lump’; Czech žluva ‘soft tumor (in horses)’; Polish (dial.) żółwi ‘abscess on the
ear’; Slovenian žę̑łva ‘fistula’; Serbo-Croatian (Čakavian) žȅlva ‘tumor’, žọ̑łva
‘scrofula’. Latvian dzȩlva ‘(slight) swelling on the skin’. Note: Derksen (2015:
533) reconstructs Proto-Indo-European *gʰel(H)-uH-.
Northwest Caucasian; Common Abkhaz *gºálə ‘goiter, wen; clod’: South

Abkhaz a-gºál ‘clod’; Abaza / Tapanta gºal ‘goiter, wen’ (medical term).
68. Proto-Indo-European (extended form) *k’en-k’-/*k’on-k’-/*k’n̥ -k’- ‘growth,

excrescence’: Greek γογγρώνη ‘an excrescence on the neck’, γόγγρος ‘an
excrescence on trees’, γογγύλος ‘round’; Lithuanian gùnga ‘hunch, lump’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *k’an-(ć’ə)ć’ə́ra ‘wart’: Ashkharywa

k’ʹanc’əra ‘wart’; Abaza / Tapanta c’ənk’ʹra ‘wart; Bzyp a-k’anć’əć’ə́r ‘wart’;
Abzhywa a-k’anc’əc’ə́ra, a-k’anc’ac’ə́ra ‘wart’.
69. Proto-Indo-European *tʰepʰ-/*tʰopʰ- ‘to be or become swollen, fat, large, great,

high, thick’ (Tocharian only): Tocharian A täp- ‘to be or become high’, tpär
‘high’, (?) tsopats ‘great, large’; B tapre ‘high, fat’, täprauñe ‘height’.
Notes:
1. Derivation from Proto-Indo-European *dʰub-ró- ‘deep’ (cf. Adams 2013:
296—297; van Windekens 1976—1982.I:509) is not convincing (cf. Buck
1949:§12.31 high), though Tocharian A top ‘mine’, B taupe ‘mine’ do,
indeed, go back to Proto-Indo-European *dʰoub- ‘deep’ (the Proto-Indo-
European reconstructions given by Adams and van Windekens have been
retained here). Clearly, the underlying meanings implied by the Tocharian
forms cited above are ‘swelling, growing, increasing, rising, etc.’, while
‘deep’ typically comes from notions such as ‘bottom, hollow, bent
(downwards), etc.’ (cf. Buck 1949:§12.67 deep).
2. A better comparison for the Tocharian forms may be with Old Icelandic
þefja (þafða, þafðr) (< Proto-Germanic *þafjanan) ‘to stir, to thicken’
(preserved only in the past participle: hann hafði þá eigi þafðan sinn graut

‘he had not cooked his porridge thick’) (for the semantics, cf. Buck
1949:§12.63 thick [in dimension] and §12.64 thick [in density]).
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *tapre ‘fatty tumor, lipoma’: South

Abkhaz a-tápta ‘fatty tumor, lipoma’.
VII. Animals
70. Proto-Indo-European *ʔebʰ-r- (?) ‘male of small hoofed animals’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁):
Thracian ἕβρος· ‘buck, he-goat’ (ἕβρος· τράγος, βάτης· καὶ ποταμὸς Θρᾴκης).
Proto-Germanic *eƀuraz ‘wild boar’ > Old Icelandic jöfurr ‘wild boar; (meta-
phorically) king, warrior’; Old English eofor, eofur ‘boar, wild boar’; Middle
Dutch ever ‘boar’; Old High German ebur ‘wild boar’.
Notes:
1. The above forms are usually compared with somewhat similar forms in
Italic and Balto-Slavic: (A) Italic: Latin aper ‘wild boar’; Umbrian (acc.
sg.) abrunu ‘boar’ (the Umbrian form refers specifically to domestic boars
offered as a sacrifice). The Proto-Italic form was probably *apro- or
*aprōn-. (B) Balto-Slavic: Latvian vepris ‘castrated boar’; Old Church
Slavic veprь ‘boar’; Russian veprʹ [вепрь] ‘wild boar’; Czech vepř ‘pig’.
2. The attested forms have been remodeled in each of the daughter languages,
making it difficult to reconstruct the Proto-Indo-European form.
3. For the semantic correlation between the Indo-European (Germanic) and
Abkhaz forms, cf. Greek κάπρος ‘boar, wild boar’ ~ Latin caper ‘he-goat,
buck’; Old Icelandic hafr ‘buck, he-goat’; Old English hKfer ‘he-goat’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *abə́ ‘(castrated) he-goat’: South

Abkhaz ab (indef. sg. abə́-k’) ‘(castrated) he-goat’; Ashkharywa ab ‘(castrated)
he-goat’; Abaza / Tapanta ab ‘(castrated) he-goat’. Note also (1) *abə ‘he-goat’
in Common Abkhaz *abə-z+nə́-žº (< *abə ‘he-goat’, *za-nə ‘one’, *ažºə ‘old’)
‘male goat half a year old’: South Abkhaz abəznə́-žº ‘male goat half a year old’;
(2) *abə ‘he-goat’ in Common Abkhaz *ab-tºá ‘sheep wool clipped in spring’:
South Abkhaz á-btºa ‘sheep wool clipped in spring’; Abaza / Tapanta bčºa
‘sheep wool clipped in spring’; Gumlo(w)kt bča ‘sheep wool clipped in spring’.
71. Proto-Indo-European (f.) *ʔegʰ-iH ‘cow’: Sanskrit (f.) ahī́ ‘cow’; Avestan (adj.
f.) azī ‘cow who has had a calf, a milch cow’; Armenian ezn ‘bullock, ox’.
Notes:
1. The masculine form is unattested, but it would probably have been
something like Proto-Indo-European *ʔegʰ-o- ‘bull’.
2. Sanskrit (m.) ághnya-ḥ, aghnyá-ḥ ‘bull’ is not related to the above forms
(cf. Mayrhofer 1956—1980.I:19).

48 Allan R. Bomhard
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *áɣʹa ‘the male parent of an animal’:

South Abkhaz áɣʹa ‘sire, house male animal or bird left for reproduction’; Bzyp
(indef. sg.) ɣʹa-k’, áɣʹa-k’, aɣʹá-k’ ‘sire, house male animal or bird left for
reproduction’, aɣʹá-s ‘as a sire’.
Note: Common Abkhaz *ɣʹ = Proto-Indo-European *gʰ.
71. Proto-Indo-European *ʔey-/*ʔoy- ‘multicolored, of variegated color’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁):

Sanskrit éta-ḥ ‘(adj.) shining, of variegated color; (n. m.) a kind of antelope’,
(m.) eṇa-ḥ, (f. ) eṇī ‘black antelope’, énī (f.) ‘a deer or antelope’, étagva-ḥ ‘of a
variegated or dark color’, étaśa-ḥ ‘(adj.) of variegated color, shining; (n. m.) a
horse of variegated color’; Old Prussian aytegenis ‘lesser spotted woodpecker’.
Northwest Caucasian: (1) Common Abkhaz *aja ‘dark-colored, pallid’: South

Abkhaz aja ‘pallid, dim, wan (color)’ (arch.). (2) Common Caucasian *ajkºá
‘dark-colored, black’: South Abkhaz ájkºa ‘dark(-colored)’, ájkºa-ć’ºa ‘black’.
d-ɦº-ajkºa-p’ ‘(s)he is dark-skinned’; Ashkharywa kºaj-ć’ºa ‘black’; Abaza /
Tapanta kºaj-ć’ºá ‘black’.
73. Proto-Indo-European *gʷʰer-/*gʷʰor-/*gʷʰr̥ - ‘(vb.) to gather together, to amass;

(n.) handful, bundle’: Czech hrnouti ‘to rake together’, hrst ‘cupped hand,
handful’, sou-hrn ‘collection, set’; Slovak hrstʹ ‘cupped hand, handful, bundle’;
Macedonian grne ‘to gather, to amass, to clasp’; Slovenian gŕniti ‘to rake
together, to gather’; Serbo-Croatian gȑtati ‘to rake together, to heap up’, gŕnuti
‘to rake together, to swarm, to rush’, gȓst ‘cupped hand, handful’; Russian
(dial.) gortátʹ [гортать] ‘to rake together’, gorstʹ [горсть] ‘cupped hand,
handful’; Latvian gùrste ‘bundle of flax’. Note: Trubačev (1974— .7: 212—
213) derives the Slavic forms listed above from Proto-Indo-European *g(e)r-
‘to gather together’ (cf. Greek ἀγείρω ‘to gather together, to bring together; to
come together, to assemble, to get together; to collect, to gather’), while
Derksen (2008:199—200) does not list any cognates from other branches of
Indo-European (except for Latvian gùrste ‘bundle of flax’) and does not
suggest a Proto-Indo-European ancestor.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *gºárta ‘herd, flock; large quantity of

something’: South Abkhaz a-gºárta ‘herd, flock; large quantity of something’;
Ashkharywa gºárta ‘herd, flock, pack’; Abaza / Tapanta gºárta ‘herd, flock,
pack’.
74. Proto-Indo-European *henH-tʰ- [*hanH-tʰ-]/*hn̥ H-tʰ- ‘an aquatic bird’ (*h =

*ə̯₄): Sanskrit ātí-ḥ ‘an aquatic bird’; Greek (Ionic) νῆσσα, (Attic) νῆττα,
(Boeotian) νᾶσσα ‘duck’; Latin anas, -tis ‘duck’; Old Icelandic önd ‘duck’; Old
English ened ‘duck’; Old High German anut ‘duck’ (New High German Ente);
Lithuanian ántis ‘duck’; Old Church Slavic ǫty ‘duck’.

Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ačʹá ‘quail’: South Abkhaz ačʹá

‘quail’; Bzyp (indef. sg.) ačʹá-k’ ‘quail’; Abaza / Tapanta ačʹa, čʹa ‘quail’.
75. Proto-Indo-European *kʰem- ‘lacking horns, hornless’: Sanskrit śáma-ḥ ‘horn-

less’; Greek κεμάς ‘a young deer’; Lithuanian (Žem.) šmùlas ‘hornless’; Old
Icelandic hind ‘a hind, a female deer’; Old English hind ‘a hind, a female deer’;
Old High German hinta ‘a hind, a female deer’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *kʰamə ‘to be insufficient, to lack’:

Kabardian kam ‘to be insufficient, to lack’, mə-kamə-w ‘uninterruptedly’ (mə-
= negative element’, -w = modal case).
76. Proto-Indo-European *kʰotʰ-, (reduplicated) *kʰotʰ-kʰotʰ- ‘a male chicken, a

cock’: Sanskrit kukkuṭá-ḥ (< *kuṭ-kuṭ-á-) ‘a cock, a wild cock’, (f.) kukkuṭī́-
‘hen’, kakkaṭá-ḥ (< *kaṭ-kaṭ-á-) ‘a particular kind of bird’; Old Church Slavic
kokotъ ‘cock’; Old Czech kokot ‘cock, penis’; Latin coco, coco coco the sound
made by a hen clucking; Medieval Latin coccus ‘cock’ (only attested in the
Salic Law [Lex Salica]); Old Icelandic kokkr ‘a cock’; Old English cocc ‘cock,
male bird’. Note: Modified in various ways in the daughter languages in
imitation of a cock crowing.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *k:at:ə ‘chicken’: Bžedux č:ʹat:ə

‘chicken’; Kabardian gad ‘chicken’.
77. Proto-Indo-European *leh- [*lah-] (> *lā-) ‘to bark’ (*h = *ə̯₄): Albanian leh
‘to bark’; Lithuanian lóju, lóti ‘to bark’; Old Church Slavic lajǫ, lajati ‘to
bark’; Russian lájatʹ [лаять] ‘to bark’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *la ‘to bark; dog’: South Abkhaz, á-la
‘dog’, á-la-š-ra ‘to bark’; Abaza / Tapanta la ‘dog’; Ashkharywa la ‘dog’.
78. Proto-Indo-European *mel-/*ml̥ - ‘sheep, ram’: Armenian mal ‘ram’; Greek

μαλλός ‘a lock of wool, the wool of sheep’ (< *ml̥ -nó-s ?), μαλλωτάριον
‘sheepskin’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *malə ‘sheep’: Bžedux malə ‘sheep’;

Kabardian mal ‘sheep’.
79. Proto-Indo-European *mer-k’ʷ-/*mor-k’ʷ-/*mr̥ -k’ʷ- ‘to evade, to elude, to avoid

(hunters) (of animals); to flee from, to escape from, to get away from (hunters)
(of animals)’, *mr̥ -k’ʷ-o- ‘any wild animal that is pursued or hunted for food or
sport, game’ (Indo-Aryan / Indic only): Sanskrit mṛgá-ḥ ‘game, deer, wild
animal; stag, antelope, gazelle’, mārgáti, mṛgyáti ‘to hunt, to chase, to pursue;

50 Allan R. Bomhard
to seek, to search for’; Pāḷi (m.) maga-, miga- ‘animal for hunting; deer
antelope, gazelle’, (f.) migī- ‘doe’, migavā ‘hunt, hunting, stalking’; etc.
Notes:
1. Sanskrit mārgáti, mṛgyáti is a denominative form derived from mṛgá-ḥ (cf.
Mayrhofer 1956—1980.II:669—670 and 1986—2001.II:370—371; Buck
1949:§3.79 hunt [vb.]).
2. Mayrhofer (1956—1980.II:669—670) also mentions a secondary stem
(“Nebenwurzel”) mṛjáti ‘to roam about, to prowl; to run about, to rove, to
roam’.
3. On the comparison of Sanskrit mṛgá-ḥ ‘game, deer, wild animal; stag,
antelope, gazelle’ with Avestan mərə¦a- ‘bird’, cf. Mayrhofer 1956—1980.
II:669—670.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *mara-ħºə́ (*ħºə ‘to turn’) ‘to shirk, to
elude; to escape (of animals)’: South Abkhaz á-maraħº-ra ‘to shirk, to elude; to
escape (of animals)’.
80. Proto-Indo-European *metʰ-/*motʰ- ‘to twist, to turn, to wind’ (Slavic only):

Russian motátʹ [мотать] ‘to wind, to reel’; Czech motati ‘to wind’; Polish
motać ‘to wind, to reel’; Serbo-Croatian mòtati ‘to revolve, to wind, to move, to
throw’. Note also: Gothic maþa ‘worm’; Old Icelandic maðkr ‘maggot, grub,
worm’; Old English maða ‘maggot, worm, grub’; Dutch made ‘maggot, grub’;
Old High German mado ‘maggot, worm’ (New High German Made).
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *matǝ́ ‘snake’: South Abkhaz á-mat

‘snake’ (indef. sg. matǝ́-k’); Ashkharywa matǝ́ ‘snake’. For the semantics, cf.
Buck 1949:§3.85 snake. Note: Same semantic development/range as in Bzyp
-šaq’ʹ-wá ‘winding, bending, circling (for example, of a snake, but also of
restless movements)’.
81. Proto-Indo-European *mu(H)- ‘fly, midge, gnat, mosquito’ (with numerous

variant forms in the daughter languages): (1) Proto-Indo-European *mu-s- ‘fly,
mosquito’: Greek μυῖα (< *μυσ-ια) ‘fly’; Middle Dutch meusie ‘fly, mosquito’;
Lithuanian mùsė, musė̃, musià, musìs ‘mosquito’; Latvian mūsa, muša ‘fly’;
Old Prussian muso ‘fly’; Old Church Slavic mъšica ‘mosquito’; Russian (dial.)
mšíca [мшица] ‘midge, gnats, small insects’, (dial.) móxa [моха] ‘midge’. (2)
Proto-Indo-European *mu-s-no- ‘fly, midge’: Armenian mun ‘fly, midge’. (3)
Proto-Indo-European *mu-s-kʰ- ‘fly’: Latin musca ‘fly’. (4) Secondary full-
grade in Proto-Slavic *mùxa (< *mows-) ‘fly’: Old Church Slavic muxa ‘fly’;
Russian múxa [муха] ‘fly’; Czech moucha ‘fly’; Polish mucha ‘fly’; Serbo-
Croatian mùha ‘fly’; Bulgarian muxá ‘fly’. (5) Proto-Indo-European *muH-i-A
(> *muwī), (gen. sg.) *muH-yeA-s (> *mū-yā-s) ‘gnat, midge’: Old Icelandic
mý ‘midge’; Old English mycge ‘midge’; Dutch mug ‘gnat’; Old High German
mucka ‘gnat, midge’ (New High German Mücke).

Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *mǝć’ǝ́ ‘fly’: Bzyp a-mć’, a-mǝć’

‘fly’; Abzhywa a-mć’ ‘fly’.
Note: Proto-Indo-European *u is reflected as *ǝ in Northwest Caucasian.
82. Proto-Indo-European *pʰiskʰ- ‘fish’: Latin piscis ‘fish’; Old Irish íasc ‘fish’ (<
*pʰeyskʰ-, with secondary full-grade); Gothic fisks ‘fish’; Old Icelandic fiskr
‘fish’; Old English fisc ‘fish’; Old High German fisc ‘fish’.
A. Common Abkhaz *pśə́-ʒə ‘fish’: Bzyp a-pśə́ʒ ‘fish’; Abzhywa a-psə́ʒ
‘fish’; Ashkharywa psəz ‘fish’.
B. Ubykh psá ‘fish’.
C. Proto-Circassian *Pc:a ‘fish’: Bžedux pc:a ‘fish’; Kabardian bʒa ‘large
fish’. Note: Irregular correspondence (cf. Chirikba 1996a:337, §1.5.6).
Note: Proto-Indo-European *pʰis(kʰ)- = Common Abkhaz *pśV, Ubykh psV-.
83. Proto-Indo-European *pʰos-lo- ‘brood, offspring, progeny’ (Germanic only):

Proto-Germanic *fas(u)laz ‘brood, offspring, progeny’ (cf. Orel 2003:94) > Old
Icelandic fösull ‘brood’; Old English fKsl ‘offspring, progeny’; Middle Low
German vasel ‘mature bull’; Old High German fasal ‘offspring, progeny, kin’
(New High German Fasel ‘brood, young of animals’). Note: Proto-Indo-
European *pʰos-lo- is usually considered to be related to *pʰes-/*pʰos- ‘penis’:
Sanskrit pásas- ‘penis’; Greek πέος ‘penis’, πόσθη ‘penis’; Latin pēnis (< Pre-
Latin *pes-ni-s) ‘penis’. Cf., for example, Pokorny 1959:824.
A. Common Abkhaz *psa ‘cattle’ in *psá-śa ‘small cattle’ (*-śa ‘small’):
Bzyp a-psá-śa ‘small cattle’; Abzhywa a-psá-sa ‘small cattle’.
B. Proto-Circassian *Psaśºə ‘pregnant (of animals)’: Bžedux psaśºə ‘pregnant
(of animals)’; Kabardian psaf ‘pregnant (of animals)’. Note: Kuipers
(1975:24) writes *Psaşºə.
Note: Proto-Indo-European *pʰVs- = Common Abkhaz *psV-, Proto-Circassian

*PsV-.
84. Proto-Indo-European *wes- ‘to graze in a pasture; to herd animals into a

pasture to graze’, *wes-i- ‘pasture’; *wes-tʰ(o)r-, *wes-tʰ-ro- ‘herd’: Hittite
(nom. sg.) ú-e-ši-iš ‘pasture’, (nom. sg.) ú-e-eš-ta-ra-aš ‘herd’, (3rd sg. pres.
mid.) ú-e-ši-ya-at-ta ‘to graze in a pasture; to herd animals into a pasture to
graze’ (denominal formation); Avestan vāstar- ‘herd’, vāstra- ‘pasture’; Old
Irish fess ‘food’; Latin vescor ‘to feed on, to devour’; Gothic wisan ‘to eat a
good meal, to dine, to feast’, bi-wisan ‘to dine together’, fra-wisan ‘to
consume, to feast, to devour’; Old English wist ‘sustenance, food, feast’, ge-

52 Allan R. Bomhard
wistian ‘to feast’; Old Icelandic vist ‘food, provisions’; Old Saxon wist ‘food’;
Old High German wist ‘sustenance’; Tocharian A wäsri ‘pasture, grassy field’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *wasá ‘sheep’: South Abkhaz a-wasá

‘sheep’; Ashkharywa wasá ‘sheep’; Abaza / Tapanta wasá ‘sheep’. Note:
Chirikba (1996a:312) compares Common Abkhaz *wasá ‘sheep’ with
Common Circassian *wasa ‘price’.
85. Proto-Indo-European *wisu- ‘weasel’ (Germanic only): West Germanic

*wisulōn ‘weasel’ > Old English wesle, weosule, wesule ‘weasel’; Middle Low
German wesel, wezel ‘weasel’; Dutch wezel ‘weasel’; Old High German wisula,
wisala, wisel ‘weasel’ (New High German Wiesel). Note: According to Onions
(1966:996), the following Scandinavian forms are loans from West Germanic:
Old Icelandic -visla in hreysivisla ‘weasel’; Norwegian vKsel ‘weasel’; Danish
vKsel ‘weasel’; Swedish vessla ‘weasel’. Kluge—Seebold (2011:988), on the
other hand, suggest that the Scandinavian forms may be cognates rather than
loanwords. See also de Vries 1977:255.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *wǝžʹ(a) ‘weasel’: Bžedux wǝžʹǝ

‘weasel’; Kabardian wǝźa ‘weasel’.
Notes:
1. Proto-Indo-European *i is represented as *ǝ in Northwest Caucasian.
2. Proto-Circassian *žʹ is represented as *s in Proto-Indo-European.
VIII. Plants, Vegetation, Agriculture
86. Proto-Indo-European *ʔey-/*ʔoy- used in various tree names (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Greek
оἴη, ὄη, ὄα ‘the service-tree’; Old Irish éo ‘yew-tree’; Old English īw ‘yew-
tree’; Old Saxon (pl.) īchas ‘yew-tree’; Old High German īgo ‘yew-tree’;
Lithuanian ievà, jievà ‘bird-cherry tree’; Russian Church Slavic iva ‘willow-
tree’.
Northwest Caucasian: South Abkhaz ajə́-ra ‘plant, vegetation’; Abaza /

Tapanta ɦa-jə-ra ‘plant, vegetation’. Perhaps also Common Abkhaz *aja/ə-
ć’ºá: South Abkhaz ája-ć’ºa ‘green, blue’; Ashkharywa aj-ć’ºa ‘green’.
87. Proto-Indo-European (extended form) *dʰergʰ-, *dʰregʰ- ‘thorny plant’: Old

Irish draigen ‘sloe tree, blackthorn’; Middle Welsh draen, drain ‘thornbush,
brambles, briars’; Old High German dirn-baum, tirn-pauma ‘cornel’; Greek
τέρχνος, τρέχνος ‘twig, branch’; Russian (dial.) déren, derén [дерeн] ‘cornel’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *dárə ‘to sting (of nettle)’: Bžedux
a-dar-ra ‘to sting (of nettle)’.

88. Proto-Indo-European *hel- [*hal-] ‘alder’ (*h = *ə̯₄): Latin alnus (< Proto-Italic
*alsno-) ‘alder’; Old Icelandic ölr ‘alder-tree’; Old English alor ‘alder’; Old
High German elira ‘alder’; Russian olʹxá [ольха] ‘alder(-tree)’; Lithuanian
al͂ ksnis, el͂ ksnis, (dial.) aliksnis ‘alder’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *alə́ ‘alder(-tree)’: Bzyp (indef. sg.)

l-k’ə́ // lə́-k’ ‘alder(-tree)’; South Abkhaz ál(-c’la) ‘alder(-tree)’; Ashkharywa
al-t’a ‘alder(-tree)’; Abaza / Tapanta al-č’ºə́, al-č’ə́, (indef. sg.) al-č’ə́-k’
‘alder(-tree)’.
89. Proto-Indo-European *‿ ħhemH- [*‿ħhamH-] ‘to cut, to mow’ (*‿

ħh = *ə̯₂): Hittite
ḫamešḫa- ‘spring (season)’; Greek ἀμάω ‘to cut, to mow, to reap’, ἄμητος
‘reaping, harvesting; harvest, harvest-time’; Old English māwan ‘to mow’,
mbþ ‘the act of mowing; hay-harvest’; Old Frisian mēa ‘to mow’; Old High
German māen ‘to mow, to cut, to reap’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *ħam(a) ‘threshing-floor’: Bžedux

ħāma ‘threshing-floor’; Kabardian ħam ‘threshing-floor’.
90. Proto-Indo-European *kʰamero- (> Greek *kamaro-; Balto-Slavic *kemero-;

Germanic *χamirō) ‘name of a (poisonous) plant’: Greek κάμαρος ‘larkspur
(Delphinium)’, κάμ(μ)αρον ‘aconite’; Old High German hemera ‘hellebore’;
Lithuanian kẽmeras ‘hemp agrimony, burr marigold’; Russian Church Slavic
čemerь ‘hellebore’; Russian čemeríca [чемерица] ‘hellebore’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *kámp’ərə ‘a kind of umbellate plant

with white floscule’: South Abkhaz a-kámp’ər ‘a kind of umbellate plant with
white floscule’.
Note: Probably borrowed by both Proto-Indo-European and Northwest

Caucasian from an unknown source.
91. Proto-Indo-European *kʰeAkʰA- [*kʰaAkʰA-] (> *kʰākʰA-) ‘branch, twig’:

Sanskrit śā́ khā ‘branch’; Armenian cʰax ‘twig’; Albanian thekë ‘fringe’; Gothic
hōha ‘plow’; Lithuanian šakà ‘branch, bough, twig’; Russian soxá [соха]
‘(wooden) plow’; Polish socha ‘two-pronged fork’; Serbo-Croatian sòha
‘forked stick’.
Notes:
1. This is probably a reduplicated stem: *kʰeA-kʰeA-.
2. The Slavic forms may be borrowings.
A. Proto-Circassian *kʰə ‘brushwood, twig’: Bžedux čʰʹə ‘brushwood, twig’;
Kabardian kə ‘brushwood, twig’.

54 Allan R. Bomhard
B. Common Abkhaz *káka grown thick, bushed out (of plants)’: South
Abkhaz a-káka ‘grown thick, bushed out (of plants)’, -káka-ʒa ‘thickly,
simultaneously going up (of plants, hair)’. Note: There are numerous
derivatives in both Circassian and Abkhaz-Abaza. Only the forms closest
to what is found in Indo-European are given above.
92. Proto-Indo-European *lek’-/*lok’- ‘to twist, to turn, to bend, to wind’, *lok’-eA

(> *lok’-ā) ‘vine’: Manichaean Middle Persian rz /raz/ ‘vineyard’; Pahlavi raz
‘vine, vineyard’; Old Church Slavic loza ‘vine’; Russian lozá [лоза] ‘branch,
twig, rod; vine’; Slovak loza ‘vine, sapling’; Polish łoza ‘willow, osier, vine’;
Bulgarian lozá ‘vine’; Serbo-Croatian lòza ‘vine, umbilical cord’.
Notes:
1. Mann (1984—1987:659) reconstructs Proto-Indo-European *laĝ- ‘(vb.) to
wind, to creep, to twist; (n.) winding object, creeper’.
2. Hittite (3rd sg. pres. act.) la-a-ki ‘to knock out (a tooth); to turn (one’s ear
or eyes toward); to train (a grapevine branch)’, (2nd sg. pres. act.) la-ak-
nu-si ‘to knock over; to overturn (stelas, thrones, tables); to fell (a tree); (a
wrestling maneuver:) to throw, to make (an opponent) fall; to train, to bend
(a vine); to make (someone) fall out of favor; to bend (someone) to one’s
own viewpoint, to persuade; to pass (the day or night) sleepless’, (3rd sg.
pres. mid.) la-ga-a-ri ‘to fall down, to fall over, to be toppled’, (gen. sg.)
la-ga-na-aš ‘bent, inclination, disposition (?)’ (all forms and meanings are
cited from The Hittite Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University
of Chicago, fasc. L-N [1989], pp. 17—18 and 19—20) are traditionally
derived from Proto-Indo-European *legʰ-/*logʰ- ‘to put, place, lay, or set
down; to lie down’ (cf. Kloekhorst 2008:514—515; Puhvel 1984— .5:
33—37). However, a better derivation semantically would be from Proto-
Indo-European *lek’-/*lok’- ‘to twist, to turn, to bend, to wind’. For
example, ‘to toss and turn’ is a more colloquial way of saying ‘to pass (the
day or night) sleepless’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *lak’ʹə́ ‘to curve, to bend, to wind’:

South Abkhaz á-lak’ʹ ‘curved, bent’, a-lak’ʹ-rá ‘to curve, to bend, to wind’.
93. Proto-Indo-European *meh-lo-m [*mah-lo-m] (> *mā-lo-m) ‘apple’ (*h = *ə̯₄):

Greek (Ionic) μῆλον (Doric μᾶλον) ‘apple’; Latin mālum ‘apple’, mālus ‘apple-
tree’; Albanian mollë ‘apple(-tree)’ (if not borrowed from Latin). Note: Not
related to Hittite (nom. sg.) ma-a-aḫ-la-aš ‘branch of a grapevine’ (cf.
Kloekhorst 2008b:539—540; Beekes 2010.II:943—944).
Northwest Caucasian: (1) Proto-Circassian *mə ‘wild apple’: Bžedux mə ‘wild

apple’; Kabardian mə ‘wild apple’. (2) Proto-Circassian *məya ‘wild apple-
tree’: Bžedux məya ‘wild apple-tree’; Kabardian may ‘wild apple-tree’.

94. Proto-Indo-European *metʰ- ‘to measure’ (> ‘to reap, to mow’): Latin metō ‘to
reap, to mow; to gather, to harvest’; Welsh medi ‘to mow, to harvest’, medel ‘a
group (of reapers)’; Lithuanian metù, mèsti ‘to throw, to hurl, to fling’, mẽtas
‘time’, mãtas ‘measure’; Old Church Slavic metǫ, mesti ‘to throw, to sweep’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *matá ‘piece, strip of field to be hoed

or plowed’: South Abkhaz á-mata ‘piece, strip of field to be hoed or plowed’.
95. Proto-Indo-European *mor- ‘mulberry, blackberry’: Greek μόρον, (Hesychius)

μῶρα· συκάμινα ‘mulberry, blackberry’, μορέα ‘mulberry-tree’; Armenian mor
‘blackberry’; Latin mōrum ‘mulberry, blackberry’, mōrus ‘mulberry-tree’;
Middle Irish merenn ‘mulberry’; Old English mōrbēam, mūrbēam ‘mulberry-
tree’, mōrberie, mūrberie ‘mulberry’; Old High German mūrberi, mōrberi
‘mulberry’; Lithuanian mõras ‘mulberry’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *mark’ºa ‘mulberry, blackberry’:

Temirgoy mārk’ºa ‘mulberry, blackberry’; Kabardian marāk’ºa ‘mulberry,
blackberry’.
Note: This may be a “Wanderwort”, borrowed by both Proto-Indo-European

and Northwest Caucasian.
96. Proto-Indo-European *mes-t’o-/*mos-t’o- ‘mast; the fruit of the oak, beech, and
other forest trees; acorns or nuts collectively’: Old English mKst ‘mast’; Old
High German mast ‘mast’; Old Irish mess ‘acorns, tree-fruit’; Welsh (pl.) mes
‘acorns, tree-fruit’.
Northwest Caucasian: (1) Proto-Circassian *məŠk’ºə ‘acorn’: Bžedux məšk’ºə

‘acorn’; Kabardian məšk’º ‘acorn’. (2) Proto-Circassian *məŠxºə ‘acorn’:
Bžedux məfə ‘acorn’; Kabardian məšxºə(m)p’a ‘acorn’.
97. Proto-Indo-European *pʰes-/*pʰos- ‘(vb.) to throw, to cast, to winnow (grain);

(n.) chaff, husk’: Tocharian A psäl, B pīsäl ‘chaff (of grain), husk’ (< Proto-
Tocharian *pi̯ äsäl); Middle Dutch vese ‘fiber, husk; fringe’; Old High German
fesa ‘chaff’.
Northwest Caucasian: (1) Common Abkhaz *psa ‘to pour, to strew’: Abaza /
Tapanta á-kº-psa-ra ‘to pour something on, to sow’; South Abkhaz á-kº-psa-ra
‘to pour something on, to sow’. (2) Common Abkhaz *psa-q’ʹá ‘to winnow
(grain)’: South Abkhaz á-psa-q’ʹa-ra ‘to winnow (grain)’.
98. Proto-Indo-European *pʰis- ‘to grind, to crush, to pound’: Sanskrit (with n-

infix) pináṣṭi ‘to grind, to crush, to pound’, piṣṭá-ḥ ‘(past participle) ground,

56 Allan R. Bomhard
pounded, crushed; (n.) anything ground, any finely ground substance, flour,
meal’; Greek πτίσσω ‘to winnow grain’, πτίσμα ‘peeled or winnowed grain’;
Latin (with n-infix) pī̆nsō ‘to stamp, to pound, to crush (grain)’, pistillus,
pistillum ‘a pestle’, pistrīnum ‘a mill, a bakery’, pistor ‘grinder, miller’;
Russian pšenó [пшенo] (< *pьšeno) ‘millet, millet-meal’, pšeníca [пшеница]
‘wheat’; Czech (dial.) pšeno ‘millet’; Slovenian pšénọ ‘peeled grain, millet’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Northwest Caucasian *pšə ‘millet’ (cf.

Chirikba 1996a:263), *pš(a) ‘to knead’:
A. Common Abkhaz *pšə ‘maize, millet’: Abzhywa á-pš ‘maize, millet’, á-
pšə-c ‘a maize grain’, á-pšər+ta ‘maize field’.
B. (1) Proto-Circassian *(P)ɣºə-(P)š:ə (*(b)ɣºə-(p)š:ə [cf. Chirikba 1996a:
263]) ‘millet-straw’: Bžedux bɣºəš:ə ‘millet-straw’; Kabardian ɣºəpś
‘millet-straw’. Note: Kuipers (1975:80) writes Proto-Circassian *(P)ǧºə-
(P)š:ə, Bžedux bǧºəš:ə, and Kabardian ǧºəpş. (2) Proto-Circassian *Pš:(a)
‘to knead’: Bžedux pš:a ‘to knead’; Kabardian pśə ‘to knead’. Note:
Kuipers (1975:42) writes Kabardian pşə.
Note: Proto-Indo-European *pʰVs- = Common Northwest Caucasian *pšV-.
99. Proto-Indo-European *pʰis-no-s ‘pine-tree’: Latin pīnus ‘pine-tree, pine-wood’;

Albanian pishë ‘pine-tree’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Northwest Caucasian *psa ‘spruce, fir-tree’

(cf. Chirikba 1996a:251):
A. Common Abkhaz *psa ‘fir-tree, silver fir’: South Abkhaz a-psá ‘fir-tree,
silver fir’.
B. Proto-Circassian *Psayǝ ‘black maple; spruce, fir’: Bžedux psayǝ ‘black
maple; spruce, fir’; Kabardian psay ‘black maple; spruce, fir’.
C. Ubykh *psǝ- in compounds: psǝ-s ‘fir-wood’, psǝ-ɣºǝnǝ́ ‘fir-tree’.
Note: Proto-Indo-European *pʰVs- = Common Abkhaz *psV-, Ubykh psV-.
100. Proto-Indo-European *seʔ(-y/i-) (> *sē(-y/i-)) ‘to sow’ *ʔ (= *ə̯₁): Latin sēmen
‘seed’, serō (< *si-sʔ-e/o-) ‘to plant, to sow seeds’; Old Irish síl ‘seed’; Gothic
saian ‘to sow, to plant’; Old Icelandic sá ‘to sow’, sáð ‘seed’; Old English
sāwan ‘to sow’, sbd ‘seed’; Old Saxon sāian ‘to sow’; Old High German sāen
‘sow’ (New High German säen); Old Church Slavic sějǫ, sějati ‘to sow’, sěmę
‘seed’; Russian séjatʹ [сеять] ‘to sow’, sémja [семя] ‘seed. grain’; Lithuanian
sjju, sjjau, sjti ‘to sow’, sjmenys ‘linseed, flaxseed’, sjkla ‘seed, sperm’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *sa ‘to sow’: Bžedux xā-sa ‘to sow’
(xa- ‘in a mass’); Kabardian sa ‘to sow’; Temirgoy (in compounds) -sa- ‘to
sow; to put, to stick’.

IX. Possession, Property, Commerce
101. Proto-Indo-European *bʰegʰ- (lengthened-grade form *bʰēgʰ-) ‘open space,

outside’: Sanskrit bahíḥ ‘out, without; outside; on the outside, outwards, out-of-
doors’, (adj.) bā́ hya-ḥ ‘being outside, situated outside’; Pāḷi bahi ‘outside’,
bāhira- ‘external; outside’; Farsi bāz ‘open’. Perhaps also: (1) Tocharian B
päkre ‘±visible, exposed, in the open; public’, päkreṣṣe ‘±open, public’. (2) Old
Church Slavic bez, bezъ ‘without’; Russian bez [без] ‘without, but, but for, had
it not been’ (Old Russian bezъ [безъ]); Czech bez ‘without’; Polish bez
‘without’; Serbo-Croatian bȅz ‘without’; Lithuanian bè ‘without’; Latvian bez
‘without’; Old Prussian bhe ‘without’. Note: Derksen (2008:38 and 2015:84)
reconstructs Proto-Indo-European *bhe-ǵh but does not cite Sanskrit bahíḥ as a
possible cognate. Mayrhofer (1956—1980.II:424), on the other hand, lists the
Balto-Slavic forms as possible cognates of Sanskrit bahíḥ. For a comprehensive
discussion of the Slavic forms, cf. Trubačev 1974— .2:7—13.
Notes:
1. This etymology was suggested by Mann 1984—1987:70.
2. For the semantics, cf. Tamil veḷi ‘(vb.) to be open or public, to be vacant,
to be empty; (n.) outside, open space, plain, space, intervening space, gap,
room, openness, plainness, publicity’, veḷippu ‘outside, open space,
enclosed space’; Telugu veli ‘the outside, exterior, excommunication;
outside, external’, veliparacu, velipuccu ‘to make public or known’,
velupala ‘outside, exterior; outside, external’; etc.
3. Assuming derivation from a Proto-Indo-European root *bʰegʰ-/*bʰogʰ- ‘to
open, to be open’, not further attested in the Indo-European daughter
languages.
4. Farsi bāz ‘open’ is to be distinguished from bāz ‘shoulder, arm’, which is
related instead to Avestan bāzu- ‘arm’; Sanskrit bāhú-ḥ ‘arm, fore-arm’;
Greek πῆχυς (Aeolian πᾶχυς) ‘fore-arm, arm’; Old Icelandic bógr
‘shoulder’; Old English bōg ‘shoulder, arm; bough, twig, branch’;
Tocharian A poke, B pokai- ‘arm, (any) limb’; etc.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Northwest Caucasian *baɣʹǝ ‘to open’ (cf.

Chirikba 1996a:283 — Chirikba writes *ba¦ʹǝ).
A. Common Abkhaz *bǝɣʹǝ́ ‘leaf’: Abaza / Tapanta bɣʹǝ́ (def. a-bɣʹǝ́) ‘leaf’;
Sadz a-baɣʹá ‘leaf’; South Abkhaz a-bɣʹǝ́ ‘leaf’.
B. Ubykh bɣʹ- ‘to open (out, up) (as leaf, hand), to bloom, to blossom (as
leaf)’.
102. Proto-Indo-European *bʰol-(gʰ-) ‘beam, cross-beam’: Old Icelandic bjálki

‘balk, beam’; Old English balca ‘balk, beam; bank, ridge’; Old High German
balcho, balko ‘beam’ (New High German Balken); Lithuanian balžíenas
‘crossbar (of harrow)’; Latvian bàlziêns ‘cross-beam’; Russian bólozno
[болозно] (dial.) ‘thick plank’; Serbo-Croatian blàzina ‘pillow, bolster’;

58 Allan R. Bomhard
Slovene blazína ‘roof-beam, cross-beam; pillow, mattress, bolster’. Note:

According to Beekes (2010.II:1548—1549), Greek φάλαγξ ‘round and longish
piece of wood; log, roller, beam’ is not related to these forms.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Northwest Caucasian *bla ‘cross-beam, beam;

stretcher’ (cf. Chirikba 1996a:306):
A. Common Abkhaz *qºə-bla/ə ‘cross-beam’: Bzyp a-x̌ ºbla-rə́, a-x̌ ºbəl-rə́
‘cross-beam of the house’; Abzhywa a-x̌ ºəblə́ ‘cross-beam of the house’;
Ashkharywa qºəblə́ ‘cross-beam of the house’; Abaza / Tapanta qºəmblə́
‘cross-beam of the house’.
B. Proto-Circassian *qʰa-Pla ‘stretcher, litter for carrying the dead to the
cemetery’ (*qʰa ‘grave’): Kabardian qābla ‘stretcher, litter for carrying the
dead to the cemetery’.
103. Proto-Indo-European *dʰew-r-yo-s ‘of great value, cost, prestige, etc.’ (only in
Germanic): Proto-Germanic *deurjaz ‘costly, expensive, valuable’ > Old
Icelandic dýrr ‘high-priced, costly, expensive, precious’; Old English dēore,
dīere ‘precious, costly, valuable; noble, excellent’; Old Frisian diore, diure
‘costly, expensive’; Old Saxon diuri ‘valuable, expensive’; Old High German
tiuri ‘valuable, expensive’. Proto-Germanic *deurja-līkaz ‘glorious, excellent’
> Old Icelandic dýr-ligr ‘glorious’; Old Saxon diur-līk ‘valuable, excellent’;
Old High German tiur-līh ‘valuable, excellent’. Proto-Germanic *deuriþō
‘glory, fame’ > Old Icelandic dýrð ‘glory’; Old Saxon diuritha ‘glory, fame’;
Old High German tiurida ‘glory, fame’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *də́wə ‘big, great’: South Abkhaz dəw
‘big, great’; Ashkharywa dəw ‘big, great’; Abaza / Tapanta dəw ‘big, great’.
104. Proto-Indo-European *gʷʰor-o- ‘open area set aside as a public space’ (only in
Italic): Latin forum ‘an open square, marketplace, public space’; Umbrian (acc.
sg.) furo, furu ‘forum’. Note: Latin forum is usually (though not always)
derived from Proto-Indo-European *dʰwō̆r- ‘door’ (cf. Latin foris ‘door’).
However, the semantic development required to get from ‘door’ to forum seems
rather contrived.
Northwest Caucasian: (1) Common Abkhaz *gºára ‘yard’: Bzyp a-gºár(a)

‘yard’; Abzhywa a-gºára ‘yard; cattle-yard; fence’; Abaza / Tapanta gºára
‘fence’; Ashkharywa (Apsua) a-gºára ‘wattled fence’. (2) Common Abkhaz
*gºár-pə (< *gºára ‘court, yard’, *pə ‘nose’ > ‘front; before’): South Abkhaz a-
gºárp ‘part of big yard around the house’.
105. Proto-Indo-European *kʰatʰ- ‘rag, tatter’ (only in Germanic): Old High German
hadara ‘patch, rag’; Middle High German hader, also hadel, ‘rag, tatter’; Old
Saxon hađilīn ‘rag, tatter’.

Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *kºaTx̌ a ‘to tear to shreds (tr.)’:

Temirgoy čʹatx̌ a-n ‘to tear to shreds (tr.)’; Kabardian kātx̌ a ‘to tear to shreds
(tr.)’.
106. Proto-Indo-European *len-dʰ-/*lon-dʰ-/*ln̥ -dʰ- ‘low-lying ground, lowland; any

piece of land’: Old Irish land ‘open place’; Middle Welsh llan ‘enclosure,
yard’; Breton lann ‘heath’; Cornish lan ‘piece of land’; Gothic land ‘land,
country’; Old Icelandic land ‘land (as opposed to sea), country’; Old English
land ‘earth, land, soil’; Old Frisian lond, land ‘land’; Old Saxon land ‘land’;
Old High German lant ‘land’ (New High German Land); Old Prussian (acc.
sg.) lindan ‘valley’; Russian ljadá [ляда] ‘overgrown field’; Czech lada ‘fallow
land’.
Notes:
1. Proto-Indo-European *len-dʰ-/*lon-dʰ-/*ln̥ -dʰ- ‘low-lying ground, low-
land; any piece of land’ is most likely assimilated from earlier *lem-dʰ-
/*lom-dʰ-/*lm̥ -dʰ-, extended form of *lem-/*lom-/*lm̥ - ‘(vb.) to be low; (n.)
that which is low; low-lying ground, lowland’. The unextended stem may
be preserved in Balto-Slavic: Lithuanian lomà ‘hollow, valley, plot, lump’;
Latvian lãma ‘hollow, pool’; Russian (dial.) lam [лам] ‘(Pskov) meadow
covered with small trees and bushes that is occasionally flooded;
(Novgorod) wasteland’; Polish (obsolete) łam ‘quarry, bend’; Slovenian
lam ‘pit; (dial.) quarry’; Serbo-Croatian lȃm (dial.) ‘knee-joint,
underground passage’.
2. According to Rosenkranz (1988), Tocharian A/B läm- ‘to sit (down); to
remain, to be present, to reside; to subside’, A lame ‘place’ and
multifarious other forms from the Indo-European daughter languages are to
be derived from a Proto-Indo-European root *lem- ‘to be low’. Puhvel
(1984— .5:50), on the other hand, has rejected the suggestion that various
Hittite and Luwian forms included by Rosenkranz may be derivatives of
this root.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *la-dá ‘downwards, southwards,

below’: Bzyp á-lda ‘downwards, southwards, below’; Abzhywa á-lada
‘downwards, southwards, below’; Ashkharywa lada ‘downwards, southwards,
below’. Note: Chirikba (1996a:184—185) considers Common Abkhaz *la-dá
to be composed of *la ‘down, beneath’ and the deictic particle *da.
107. Proto-Indo-European *mis- ‘to fill, to fulfill’, *mis-ri- ‘full, fulfilled,

complete’ (Hittite only): Hittite (nom. sg.) mi-iš-ri-ya-an-za, (acc. sg.) mi-iš-ri-
wa-an-ta-an meaning uncertain, either ‘perfect, complete, full’ or ‘bright,
splendid, glorious, luminous, glowing, beautiful’. Depending upon context,
both meanings appear to fit the available textual sources (for more information,

60 Allan R. Bomhard
cf. The Hittite Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago,
fasc. L-N [1989], pp. 297—299).
Notes:
1. Proto-Indo-European *mis-dʰ-o- ‘prize, reward; pay, wages, salary,
recompense’ (cf. Sanskrit mīḍhá-m [< *mizdhá-] ‘contest, prize, reward’;
Avestan mī̆žda- ‘wages’; Greek μισθός ‘recompense, reward; wages, pay,
allowance’; Gothic mizdō ‘pay, wages, reward, recompense’; Old English
mēd ‘reward, pay, price, compensation, bribe’, meord ‘pay, reward’; Old
High German mêta, mieta ‘wages, reward’ [New High German Miete
‘rent’]; Old Church Slavic mьzda ‘payment, salary, fee, gift’; Serbo-
Croatian màzda ‘recompense, payment, pay; revenge, punishment’; etc.)
may belong here as well, if we assume that it is derived from a Proto-Indo-
European root *mis- ‘to fill, to fulfill’, as in Greek πληρόω ‘to fill, to
fulfill; to fill full (of food), to gorge, to satiate; to be filled full of, to be
satisfied; (rarely) to fill with; to make full or complete’ also ‘to render, to
pay in full’. Such a root would easily account for the Hittite meanings
‘perfect, complete, full’. According to Benveniste (1973:131—137), the
original meaning of Proto-Indo-European *mis-dʰ-o- was something like ‘a
prize or reward won as a result of competition or a contest’, first extended
to designate the competition or contest itself and then later further extended
to include ‘pay, wages, salary, recompense’. That is to say, one has
successfully fulfilled or completed the requirements of a competition or
contest and is, accordingly, given appropriate recognition thereof in the
form of a prize or reward. As a final point, it may be noted that Wodtko—
Irslinger—Schneider (2008:492—493) reconstruct Proto-Indo-European
*mis-dʰh₁-ó- ‘payment, remuneration, pay, salary, wages; reward,
recompense, compensation’, that is, *mis- (< *mei̯ os) ‘exchange, barter’
plus *dʰeh₁- ‘to put, to place, to set’. This proposal is not convincing,
especially in light of Benveniste’s study.
2. The meanings ‘bright, splendid, glorious, luminous, glowing, beautiful’
assigned to Hittite (nom. sg.) mi-iš-ri-ya-an-za, (acc. sg.) mi-iš-ri-wa-an-
ta-an remain enigmatic. Perhaps two separate stems have merged in
Hittite, or perhaps these meanings are derived from the meanings ‘perfect,
complete, full’. I suspect the latter explanation to be the case.
Northwest Caucasian: (1) Common Abkhaz *mǝšǝ́ ‘day; happy, lucky’: South
Abkhaz a-mš ‘day; happy, lucky’, (indef. sg. mǝš-k’ǝ́); Abaza / Tapanta mšǝ
‘day; happy, lucky’ (indef. sg. mǝš-k’ǝ́). Assuming semantic development from
‘fulfilled, content, satisfied’ > ‘happy’. (2) Common Abkhaz *mǝž-dá
‘unhappy’ (*mǝšǝ ‘happy’, *da ‘without’): Abaza / Tapanta mǝžda ‘unhappy,
poor, miserable’; South Abkhaz á-mǝžda ‘unhappy, poor, miserable’.
Notes:
1. Proto-Indo-European *i is reflected as *ǝ in Northwest Caucasian.

2. Northwest Caucasian *š = Proto-Indo-European *s.

3. The semantic range exhibited by Common Abkhaz *mǝšǝ́, ‘day’, on the
one hand, and ‘happy, lucky’, on the other hand, mirrors the semantic
range exhibited by Hittite: either ‘bright, splendid, glorious, luminous,
glowing, beautiful’ or ‘perfect, complete, full’.
108. Proto-Indo-European *weh-s- [*wah-s-] (> *wā-s-) ‘empty, uninhabited,

barren, or desolate land; desert, wasteland’ (extended forms: *weh-s-tʰu-, *weh-
s-t ʰo-) (*h = *ə̯₄): Latin vāstus ‘empty, waste, deserted, desolate’; Old Irish fás
‘empty’; Old English wēste ‘waste, barren, desolate, deserted, uninhabited,
empty; wasteland, desert’, wēsten ‘waste, wilderness, desert’, wēstan ‘to lay
waste, to ravage’; Old Frisian wēstene ‘desert’; Old Saxon wōsti ‘desolate,
waste’; Dutch woest ‘waste, desolate’, woestenij ‘waste(land), wilderness’,
woestijn ‘desert’; Old High German (adj.) wuosti ‘desert, waste, desolate’ (New
High German wüst), (n.) wuostinna ‘desert’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *wǝ́žºǝ ‘virgin land, long fallow’:

South Abkhaz a-wǝ́žº-ra ‘virgin land, long fallow’.
Note: Common Abkhaz *žº is represented in as *s Proto-Indo-European.
109. Proto-Indo-European *wes-no-m ‘price’, *wes- ‘to buy, to sell’: Latin vēnum
(< *wes-no-m) ‘sale’; Sanskrit vasná-m ‘price, value’; Hittite uš-ša-ni-ya-zi ‘to
put up for sale’; Greek ὦνος (< *wós-no-s) ‘price’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *wasa ‘price’: Bžedux wāsa ‘price’;

Kabardian wāsa ‘price’.
X. Death, Burial
110. Proto-Indo-European *dʰer-bʰ-/*dʰor-bʰ- ‘to exert oneself; to perish, to vanish’

(Germanic only): Old English deorfan ‘to perish, to be in peril, to be wrecked’;
(also) ‘to exert oneself, to labor’, deorf ‘labor, effort; difficulty, hardship;
trouble, danger’; Old Frisian derve ‘fierce, severe’; Old Saxon derƀi ‘powerful;
hostile, bad’; Middle Low German derven ‘to shrink, to wither, to spoil’,
vorderven ‘to perish’; Middle Dutch bederven ‘to be damaged, to perish’; Old
High German verderben ‘to perish, to be killed, to die’ (New High German
verderben). Note: The unextended Proto-Indo-European root was *dʰer-/*dʰor-
/*dʰr̥ - ‘to exert oneself, to toil, to wear oneself out; to become tired, weary,
debilitated’. This root is preserved in Hittite in: (3rd pl. pres. act.) t[a-]ri-ya-an-
zi, (1st sg. pret. act.) ta-re-eḫ-ḫu-un ‘to exert oneself, to become tired’, (3rd sg.
pres. act.) da-ri-ya-nu-zi, (3rd sg. pret. act.) ta-ri-ya-nu-ut ‘to tire, to make
tired’, (nom. sg.) ta-ri-ya-aš-ḫa-aš, da-ri-ya-aš-ḫa-aš, tar-ri-ya-aš-ḫa-aš ‘tired-
ness, fatigue’.

62 Allan R. Bomhard
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *darśmá ‘to wither’: Bzyp a-dərśma-

x̆ ə́ ‘to wither’; Abzhywa a-darsmá ‘to wither’.
111. Proto-Indo-European *dʰew-/*dʰow-/*dʰu- ‘(vb.) to pass away, to die; (n.) end,

death’: Gothic dauþs ‘dead’, dauþus ‘death’; Old Icelandic deyja ‘to die’, dauði
‘death’, dauðr ‘dead’; Old English dēaþ ‘death’; Old Saxon dōian ‘to die’, dōth
‘death’; Old High German touwan ‘to die’, tōten, tōden ‘to kill’ (New High
German töten), tōd ‘death’ (New High German Tod); Latin fūnus ‘funeral,
burial, corpse, death’; Old Irish díth ‘end, death’.
Northwest Caucasian: Ubykh dǝwá ‘death’, dǝwáła ‘the manner of dying’,

dǝwáɣʹa ‘the time of death’.
112. Proto-Indo-European (*dʰembʰ-/*dʰombʰ-/)*dʰm̥ bʰ- ‘burial mound, kurgan’:

Armenian damban, dambaran ‘grave, tomb’; Greek τάφος (< *dʰm̥ bʰo-s)
‘funeral, burial, the act of burying; burial mound, tomb’, ταφή ‘burial, burial-
place’, θάπτω (< *dʰm̥ bʰyō) ‘to honor with funeral rites, to bury’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *damrá ‘grave’: Bzyp a-dəmrá

‘grave’; South Abkhaz a-damrá ‘grave’; Abaza / Tapanta damrá ‘grave’ (only
in a proverb).
113. Proto-Indo-European *pʰes-/*pʰos- ‘to die’: Latin pestis ‘physical destruction

or death; plague, pestilence’, pestilentus ‘unhealthy’; Late Avestan -pastay in
kapastay- ‘name of an illness’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *pśə ‘to die’: Abaza / Tapanta ps-ra
‘to die’, r-ps-ra ‘to kill; to exhaust, to starve’, psə ‘dead (man), corpse’, ps-qa
‘the dead, corpse’, ps-qa-ps-ra ‘to die (of animals)’, ps-qºə ‘funeral repast’;
Abzhywa a-ps-x̌ ºə́ ‘funeral repast’; Bzyp a-pś-x̌ ºə́ ‘funeral repast’, a-pśə́ ‘dead
(man), corpse’, a-pś-rá ‘to die’, a-r-pś-rá ‘to put/blow out (fire, light); to kill’.
Note: Proto-Indo-European *pʰVs- = Northwest Caucasian *pśV-.
XI. Travel, Passage, Journey
114. Proto-Indo-European *pʰer-/*pʰor-/*pʰr̥ - ‘to go or pass; to go or pass over or

across; to go forth or out’: Sanskrit píparti ‘to bring over or to, to bring out of,
to deliver from, to rescue, to save, to protect, to escort, to further, to promote; to
surpass, to excel’, (causative) pāráyati ‘to bring over or out’, pārá-ḥ ‘bringing
across’; Greek περάω ‘to pass across or through, to pass over, to pass, to cross’,
πορίζω ‘to carry, to bring about, to provide, to furnish, to supply, to procure, to
cause’, πόρος ‘a means of crossing a river, ford, ferry’; Latin portō ‘to bear or
carry along, to convey’, porta ‘gate, door’; Gothic *faran ‘to wander, to travel’,
*farjan ‘to travel’, *at-farjan ‘to put into port, to land’, *us-farþō ‘shipwreck’;

Old Icelandic ferja ‘to ferry over a river or strait’, far ‘a means of passage,
ship’, fara ‘to move, to pass along, to go’, farmr ‘freight, cargo, load’, fœra ‘to
bring, to convey’, för ‘journey’; Old English faran ‘to go, to march, to travel’,
fKr ‘going, passage, journey’, ferian ‘to carry, to convey, to lead’, fōr
‘movement, motion, course’, ford ‘ford’; Old High German faran ‘to travel’,
ferien, ferren ‘to lead, to ferry across’, fuoren ‘to lead, to convey’, fuora
‘journey, way’, furt ‘ford’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *pʰərx̌ ºa ‘passageway, porch’:

Kabardian pərx̌ ºa ‘passageway, porch’.
115. Proto-Indo-European *mo‿ ʕɦʷ- (> *mō̌w-) ‘to move’ (*‿

ʕɦʷ = *ə̯₃ʷ): Sanskrit
mī́vati ‘to move, to push’; Khotan Saka mvar- (< *mūr-), mvīr- (< *mūry-) ‘to
move’, mvara ‘movement’, mvarye (< *mūriyā-) ‘movement, behavior, course
(of action), way of acting’; Latin moveō ‘to move, to set in motion, to stir’,
mōtus (< Pre-Latin *mowe-to-) ‘motion, movement’, mōmentum ‘movement,
motion’. Note: Not related to Hittite (3rd sg. pres.) ma-(a-)uš-zi ‘to fall’;
Lithuanian máudyti ‘to bathe’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *məɦºá ‘road, way, path’: South

Abkhaz ámjºa ‘road, way, path’; Ashkharywa á-mɦºa/məɦºa ‘road, way, path’;
Abaza / Tapanta mɦºa ‘road, way, path’.
XII. Dwellings, Buildings
116. Proto-Indo-European *ʔabʰ-ro- ‘strong, powerful, mighty’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Gothic

abrs ‘strong, violent, great, mighty’; Old Icelandic afar- ‘very, exceedingly’,
afr ‘strong’; Old Irish abar- ‘very’ (Middle Irish abor-); Welsh afr- ‘very’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *abɦá ‘fortress’ (< ‘stronghold’):

South Abkhaz abaá ‘fortress, stone palace, stone fence’, (indef. sg. baá-k’);
Abzhywa also abaá-k’. For the semantics, cf. Buck (1949:§20.35 fortress):
“Most of the modern words [for fortress] are derived from those for ‘strong’ or
‘firm’…”
117. Proto-Indo-European *bʰew(H)-/*bʰow(H)-/*bʰu(H)- ‘to spend (time), to abide,

to dwell’: Sanskrit bhávati ‘to become, to be, to exist, to live, to stay, to abide’;
Albanian buj ‘to spend the night’; Gothic bauan ‘to dwell, to inhabit’; Old
Icelandic búa ‘to prepare, to make ready; to dress, to attire, to adorn; to fix
one’s abode in a place; to deal with, to treat; to live, to dwell; to have a
household; to be; to behave, to conduct oneself’, bú ‘household, farming’, ból
‘lair’; Old English būan ‘to dwell, to inhabit, to occupy (house)’, bū ‘dwelling’,
būnes ‘dwelling’, būr ‘bower, apartment, chamber; storehouse, cottage,
dwelling’, bōgian ‘to dwell, to take up one’s abode’; Old Frisian bowa, būwa

64 Allan R. Bomhard
‘to dwell’, bōgia ‘to dwell’; Old Saxon būan ‘to dwell’; Old High German
būan, būwan, būen, būwen ‘to dwell’ (New High German bauen).
A. Common Abkhaz *báwra ‘cattle-shed, cow-house’: Sadz a-bōra ‘cattle-
shed, cow-house’; Abaza / Tapanta báwra ‘cattle-shed, cow-house, barn’;
South Abkhaz a-báwra ‘cattle-shed, cow-house’.
B. Proto-Circassian *bǝ ‘den (of an animal)’: Bžedux bǝ ‘den (of an animal)’;
Kabardian λa-m-b ‘footprint’. Semantic development as in Old Icelandic
ból ‘lair’ cited above.
Note: Proto-Indo-European *u is reflected as *ǝ in Northwest Caucasian.
118. Proto-Indo-European *kʰelH-/*kʰolH-/*kʰl̥ H- ‘hut’: Sanskrit śā́ lā ‘building,

house, room’; Greek καλιά (Ionic καλιή) ‘a wooden dwelling, a hut’, καλῑός ‘a
cabin, cot’, καλιάς ‘a hut’. Note: Some scholars have suggested that the Greek
forms cited above are to be derived from the same root found in καλύπτω ‘to
cover with (a thing); to cover or conceal; to cover over’, while others (the
majority) reject this view.
A. Common Abkhaz *kʹála: Bzyp a-kʹal ‘hut’; Ashkharywa kʹála ‘hut’;
Abzhywa a-kʹála ‘hut’; Abaza / Tapanta kʹála ‘hut’.
B. Proto-Circassian *kʰ(a)lə ‘hut’: Temirgoy čʹ(a)lə ‘hut’; Kabardian kəl
‘hut’.
119. Proto-Indo-European *kʰetʰ-/*kʰotʰ- ‘enclosed area, covered area’: Old English

heaðor ‘restraint, confinement’, heaðorian ‘to shut in, to restrain, to confine’;
Old Church Slavic kotьcь ‘cage’; Old Czech kot ‘booth, stall (market)’; Serbo-
Croatian (dial.) kȏt ‘sty for domestic animals, young animals’, kòtac ‘cattle-
shed, weir’; Slovenian kótəc ‘compartment of a stable, pig-sty, bird-cage’.
Perhaps also Avestan kata- ‘room, house’; Late Avestan kata- ‘storage room,
cellar’; Khotan Saka kata- ‘covered place, house’; Farsi kad ‘house’; Sogdian
kt’ky ‘house’; Pashto kəlai ‘village’ (-l- < -t-), čat ‘roof’.
A. Proto-Circassian *kʰʹatʰə ‘sheep-shed’: Bžedux čʰʹatʰə ‘sheep-shed’;
Kabardian kat ‘sheep-shed’.
B. Common Abkhaz *kə́ta ‘village’: Ashkharywa a-kə́t ‘village’; South
Abkhaz a-kə́ta ‘village’; Abaza / Tapanta kə́t ‘village’.
120. Proto-Indo-European (reduced-grade) *n̥ s-tʰo- ‘home’ (Indo-Iranian only):

Sanskrit ástam ‘home’; Avestan astəm ‘home, dwelling’. The full-grade form
(Proto-Indo-European *nes-/*nos- ‘to return safely home, to be with’) is
preserved in the following: Sanskrit násate ‘to approach, to resort to, to join’;

Greek νέομαι ‘to go or come (mostly with future sense); to return, to go back’,
νοστέω ‘to go or come home, to return home’, νόστος ‘return (home)’; Gothic
ga-nisan ‘to rescue, to be saved’; Old English nest ‘food, provisions, rations’.
Perhaps also Tocharian A nas- ‘to be’, B nes- ‘to be, to exist, to become’
(rejected by Adams 2013:367).
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *aš-tá ‘court, yard’ (*-ta locative

suffix): South Abkhaz ášta ‘court, yard’; Bzyp (indef. sg.) šta-k’, aštá-k’ ‘court,
yard’, (poss.) s-ášta ‘my court, my field’; Abaza / Tapanta ášta, (indef. sg.)
aštá-k’ ‘the place of/for settlement’.
121. Proto-Indo-European *wen-/*won-/*wn̥ - ‘to dwell, to abide, to remain’: Proto-

Germanic *wunan ‘to dwell, to abide, to remain’ > Old Icelandic una ‘to be
content in a place; to dwell, to abide’; Old English wunian ‘to dwell, to remain,
to continue (in time and space); to inhabit, to remain in’, wunung ‘dwelling (act
and place)’; Old High German wonēn, wonan, wanēn ‘to dwell, to remain’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *wəna ‘house’: Bžedux wəna ‘house’;

Kabardian wəna ‘house’. Note: Abkhaz also has ʕºəna ‘house’, which points to
Proto-Northwest Caucasian *ĝuna (personal communication from John
Colarusso).
XIII. Physical Environment, Weather
122. Proto-Indo-European *ʔo‿ħhro- (> *ōro-) ‘ore; a mineral or rock from which a
metal can be extracted or mined’ (Germanic only) (*ʔ = *ə̯₁; *‿ ħh = *ə̯₂): Old
English ōra ‘ore, unwrought metal’; Dutch oer ‘ore’. Note: According to
Onions (1966:632), “of unknown origin”.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ax̌ ra ‘rock’: South Abkhaz á-x̌ ra

‘rock’; Bzyp (poss.) s-áx̌ -ra, sə́-x̌ ra ‘my rock’, (indef. sg.) x̌ ra-k’ ‘rock’; Abaza
/ Tapanta áx̌ ra ‘rock’.
123. Proto-Indo-European *dʰogʰ-o- ‘day’ (only in Germanic): Proto-Germanic

*daᵹaz ‘day’ > Gothic dags ‘day’; Old Icelandic dagr ‘day’; Swedish dag
‘day’; Norwegian dag ‘day’; Danish dag ‘day’; Old English dKg ‘day’; Old
Frisian dei ‘day’; Old Saxon dag ‘day’; Old High German tag, tac ‘day’ (New
High German Tag). Note: Puhvel (1987:315—318) has convincingly argued
that the Proto-Indo-European word for ‘yesterday’, which he reconstructs as
*dhĝhyes- (> Sanskrit hyás ‘yesterday’; Greek χθές ‘yesterday’; etc.), belongs
here as well. Puhvel reconstructs Proto-Indo-European *dhoĝho- as the source
of the Germanic words for ‘day’.

66 Allan R. Bomhard
Northwest Caucasian: Common Northwest Caucasian *dǝɣa ‘sun’ (cf. Chirikba

1996a:282 and 392 — Chirikba writes *dǝ¦a).
A. Proto-Circassian *t:ǝğa ‘sun’: Bžedux t:ǝğa ‘sun’; Kabardian dǝğa ‘sun’.
B. Ubykh ndɣá ‘sun’ (cf. Vogt 1963:153). Note: Chirikba (1996a:392, no.
130) cites Ubykh (n)dǝɣa ‘sun’.
124. Proto-Indo-European *dʰoH-ro- (> *dʰō-ro-) or *dʰoH-lo- (> *dʰō-lo-) ‘a

stream or current of water; a water-course; a torrent, a flood’ (Indo-Aryan/Indic
only): Sanskrit dhā́ rā ‘a stream or current of water; a water-course; a torrent, a
flood’; Pāḷi dhārā ‘torrent, stream, flow, shower’; Hindi dhār ‘heavy shower
(of rain); flow, current; channel (of a river); spring’.
A. Common Abkhaz *ʒǝ ‘water, river’: Abzhywa a-ʒǝ́ ‘water, river’; Abaza /
Tapanta ʒǝ ‘water, river’, ʒǝ-ɦº ‘river’; South Abkhaz a-ʒǝ́ ‘water, river’.
B. Ubykh ʒ- in aʒǝ́n ‘it is raining’.
Note: Northwest Caucasian *ʒ = Proto-Indo-European *dʰ.
125. Proto-Indo-European *gʰer- ‘hail’ (unattested); (extended form) *gʰr-eH-t’-

‘hail’: Old Church Slavic gradъ ‘hail’; Czech (nom. pl.) hrady ‘thundercloud’;
Polish grad ‘hail’; Russian grad [град] ‘hail’; Serbo-Croatian grȁd ‘hail’;
Bulgarian grad ‘hail’; (?) Sanskrit hrādúni-ḥ ‘hail(-stone)’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ɣǝr-ʒǝ́ ‘drizzle, drizzling rain’: South

Abkhaz á-ɣǝr-ʒ ‘drizzle, drizzling rain’ (*ʒǝ ‘water’), á-la-ʒǝr-ʒ ‘tear’ (*la
‘eye’); Abaza / Tapanta ɣǝr-ʒǝ́ ‘drizzle, drizzling rain’, ɣǝr-ʒ-ra ‘to drizzle’.
126. Proto-Indo-European *gʰey- ‘snow, ice, frost, winter’: Albanian (Gheg) dimën,
(Tosk) dimër ‘winter’; Hittite (nom. sg.) gi-im-ma-an-za ‘winter’; Armenian
jmeṙn ‘winter’; Greek χιών ‘snow; snow-water, ice-cold water’, χεῖμα ‘winter-
weather, cold, frost’, χειμών ‘winter; wintry weather, a winter storm’; Sanskrit
himá-ḥ ‘snow, frost, hoar-frost, winter’, hemantá-ḥ ‘winter, the cold season’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *gəya ‘smooth (of ice)’: Kabardian

məl-gay ‘smooth (of ice)’ (məl ‘ice’).
127. Proto-Indo-European *Hn̥ kʰ-tʰ-w/u- ‘the last part of the night, the time just
before daybreak’: Sanskrit aktú-ḥ (according to Mayrhofer 1956—1980.I:15, <
*n̥ ktú-) ‘the last part of the night, the darkness just before dawn’; Gothic
*ūhtwō ‘dawn, early morning’; Old Icelandic ótta ‘the last part of the night’;
Old English ūht ‘the time just before daybreak, early morning, dawn’; Old High
German uohta ‘daybreak, early morning’. Perhaps Vedic aktā́ ‘night’, aktós,
aktúbhis ‘at night’. Perhaps also, with full-grade vowel: Lithuanian ankstì,

ankstie͂ ; añkstas, ankstùs ‘early’ (Žemaitian adverbs: ankstáinais, ankstáiniais,

ankstéinai(s) ‘very early’); Old Prussian angstainai, angsteina ‘in the morning’.
Notes:
1. Relationship to *nekʷʰ-tʰ-/*nokʷʰ-tʰ- ‘night’ unclear.
2. Opinions differ greatly in the literature concerning whether or not all of the
forms cited above belong together.
Northwest Caucasian: (1) Common Abkhaz *aqá ‘night’: Bzyp (combined with
numerals) x̌ -áx̌ a ‘three nights’; Ashkharywa (combined with numerals) jə-x̌ -
aqa-x̌ ə-wə-z-gʹə ‘the third night’. (2) Common Abkhaz *w-aqá ‘night’: Bzyp
wax̌ á ‘night’; Abzhywa wax̌ á ‘night’; Abaza / Tapanta waqá ‘tonight’. (3)
Common Abkhaz *w-aqə́ ‘at night’: Bzyp wax̌ ə́-n-la ‘at night’; Abzhywa
wax̌ ə́-n-la ‘at night’; Abaza / Tapanta waqə́-n-la ‘at night’, waqə́ ‘night’. (4)
Common Abkhaz *j-aqá ‘last night’: Bzyp jax̌ á ‘last night’; Abzhywa jax̌ á
‘last night’; Abaza / Tapanta jaqá ‘last night’; (5) Common Abkhaz *a-wá-qa
‘at night’ (deictic *a-wá, *aqá ‘night’): Bzyp awə́x̌ a ‘at night’; Ashkharywa
áwaq ‘at night’; Abzhywa awə́x̌ a ‘at night’; Abaza / Tapanta áwaq ‘at night’.
128. Proto-Indo-European *‿ ħhweʔ-y-/*‿ ħhwoʔ-y- ‘(vb.) to blow; (n.) wind’ (*‿

ħh =
*ə̯₂; *ʔ = *ə̯₁): Sanskrit vā́ ti ‘to blow (of wind)’, vā́ ta-ḥ ‘wind, wind-god’,
vāyúṣ- ‘wind, wind-god’; Gothic *waian ‘to blow (of wind)’, winds ‘wind’; Old
English wāwan ‘to blow (of wind)’; Old High German wāen ‘to blow (of
wind)’; Lithuanian vjjas ‘wind’, vjtra ‘storm, stormy weather’; Old Church
Slavic vějǫ, vějati ‘to blow’, větrъ ‘storm’; Russian véjatʹ [веять] ‘to winnow,
to blow’, véter [ветер] ‘wind’; Hittite ḫuwant- ‘wind’; Greek ἄ(+)ησι ‘to blow
(of wind)’; Latin ventus ‘wind’; Welsh gwynt ‘wind’; Tocharian A want ~
wänt, B yente ‘wind’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *waya ‘bad weather’: Bžedux wāya

‘bad weather (snow, rain, storm, cold)’; Kabardian wāya ‘bad weather (snow,
rain, storm, cold)’. Circassian loans in: Abzhywa a-wája ‘bad weather, storm’;
Abaza / Tapanta wája ‘bad weather, storm’. Note: This appears to be a later
borrowing.
129. Proto-Indo-European *kʰay-wr̥ -tʰ, *kʰay-wn̥ -tʰ ‘cave, hollow’: Greek καιάδᾱς
‘pit or underground cavern’, καιετός ‘fissure produced by an earthquake’;
Sanskrit kévaṭa-ḥ ‘cave, hollow’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *kʰəya or *kʰayə ‘tub’: Bžedux čʰʹəya

‘tub’; Kabardian kay ‘tub’.

68 Allan R. Bomhard
130. Proto-Indo-European *leʔ-u-s (gen. sg. *leʔ-wo-s) ‘stone’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Greek
λᾶας, λᾶς (< *λῆ+ας) (gen. sg. λᾶος) ‘a stone, especially a stone thrown by
warriors’, λεύω ‘to stone’, (Mycenaean) ra-e-ja ‘stone’; Old Irish líe (<
*līwank-) ‘stone’; Albanian lerë ‘heap of stones’. Note: This is a contested
etymology. This makes it difficult to reconstruct the Proto-Indo-European form
with absolute certainty. Cf. Matasović 2009:242; Pokorny 1959:683.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ləwə́ ‘millstone’: Feria á-law

‘millstone’; South Abkhaz á-ləw ‘millstone’ (indef. sg. ləwə́-k’); Ashkharywa
a-ʒə́-ləw ‘watermill’; Abaza / Tapanta ləw ‘handmill’.
131. Proto-Indo-European *meʔ-s- ‘moon, month’ (variant: *meʔ-n-) (*ʔ = *ə̯₁):

Sanskrit mā́ s- ‘moon, month’; Avestan māh- ‘moon, month’; Greek (Ionic)
μείς, (Doric) μής, (Attic) μήν ‘moon, month’; Latin mēnsis ‘month’; Old Irish
mí ‘month’; Welsh mis ‘month’; Gothic mēna ‘moon’, mēnōþs ‘month’; Old
Icelandic máni ‘moon’, mánaðr ‘month’; Old English mōna ‘moon’, mōnaþ
‘month’; Old Church Slavic měsęcь ‘’moon, month’; Russian mésjac [месяц]
‘moon, month’; Czech měsíc ‘moon, month’; Lithuanian mjnuo ‘moon,
month’; Tocharian mañ, B meñe (< Proto-Tocharian *mēñē < Proto-Indo-
European *meʔ-nē(n)) ‘moon, month’. Note: Proto-Indo-European *meʔ-s/n-
‘moon, month’ is traditionally assumed to be a derivative of *meʔ- (also written
*meə̯₁-, *meh₁-, *meH₁-; *me¦-; *mē-; etc. in the literature) ‘to measure’ (cf.,
for example, Mallory—Adams 1997:385).
A. Common Abkhaz *məz/ʒə́ ‘moon’: Bzyp á-mza ‘moon’ (indef. sg. məz-
k’ə́); Abzhywa á-mza ‘moon’ (indef. sg. məz-k’ə́); Feria á-məʒ/z ‘moon’;
Ashkharywa á-məʒ ‘moon’; Ahchypsy á-məʒ ‘moon’; Abaza / Tapanta
mzə ‘moon’ (def. a-məz).
B. Ubykh məʒá ‘moon, month’.
C. Proto-Circassian *maza ‘moon, month’: Bžedux māza ‘moon, month’;
Kabardian māza ‘moon, month’.
Note: Northwest Caucasian *z = Proto-Indo-European *s.
132. Proto-Indo-European *mel-t’-/*mol-t’-/*ml̥ -t’- ‘to melt, to liquefy, to soften’:

Greek μέλδω ‘to soften by boiling’, βλαδύς ‘soft’; Sanskrit mṛdú-ḥ ‘soft,
tender, mild’; Gothic *ga-maltjan ‘to make melt away, to liquefy, to make
dissolve’, ga-malteins ‘a melting away, dissolution’; Old Icelandic moltinn
‘soft, tender’, melta ‘to malt for brewing’; Old English meltan ‘to melt, to
liquefy; to digest, to dissolve; to burn up’. Note: Ultimately derived from Proto-
Indo-European *mel-/*mol-/*ml̥ - ‘to crush, to grind’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *mələ ‘ice’: Bžedux mələ ‘ice’;

Kabardian məl ‘ice’.

133. Proto-Indo-European *merH-/*morH-/*mr̥ H- ‘to sparkle, to glisten, to gleam’:

Hittite marra- or marri- ‘(sun)light’; Sanskrit márīci-ḥ, marīcī ‘ray of light (of
the sun or moon); light; a particle of light’, marīcin- ‘possessing rays, radiant;
the sun’; Greek μαρμαίρω, μαρμαρίζω ‘to flash, to sparkle, to glisten, to
gleam’; Gothic maurgins ‘morning’; Old Icelandic morginn ‘morning’; Old
English morgen, myrgen ‘morning’; Old High German morgan ‘morning,
tomorrow’; Belorussian mríty ‘to dawn, to grow light’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *mará ‘sun’: Bzyp á-mra // á-mər(a)

// á-mara ‘sun’; Ahchypsy á-mara ‘sun’; Ashkharywa á-mara ‘sun’; Abaza /
Tapanta mará ‘sun’.
134. Proto-Indo-European *pʰas- ‘to strew, to sprinkle’ (only in Greek): Greek

πάσσω (< *πάσ-τι̯-ω) (Attic πάττω) ‘to strew, to sprinkle’, πάσμα ‘sprinkling;
(medic.) powder’, παστέος ‘to be besprinkled’, παστός ‘sprinkled with salt,
salted’. Note: Not related to Latin quatiō ‘to move vigorously to and fro, to
shake, to rock, to agitate’ (cf. Chantraine 1968—1980.II:860—861).
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *psa-t’á ‘to drizzle; dew’: South

Abkhaz a-(k’a-)psat’á ‘to drizzle’; Abaza / Tapanta pst’a ‘dew’.
Note: Proto-Indo-European *pʰVs- = Common Abkhaz *psV-.
135. Proto-Indo-European *pʰé‿ ħh-ur- [*pʰá‿ħh-ur-], *pʰǝ‿ħh-wór- ‘fire’ (*‿

ħh = *ə̯₂):
Hittite (nom.-acc. sg.) pa-aḫ-ḫu-ur, pa-aḫ-ḫu-wa-ar, pa-aḫ-ḫur ‘fire’, (gen. sg.)
pa-aḫ-ḫu-e-na-aš; Luwian (nom. sg.) pa-a-ḫu-u-ur ‘fire’; Greek πῦρ ‘fire’;
Umbrian pir ‘fire’; Gothic fōn ‘fire’, (gen. sg.) funins; Old Icelandic fúrr ‘fire’,
funi ‘flame’; Old English fȳr ‘fire’; Old Saxon fiur ‘fire’; Old High German
fiur, fuir ‘fire’; Tocharian A por, B puwar ‘fire’; Old Czech púř ‘glowing
ashes, embers’; Armenian hur ‘fire’.
A. Proto-Circassian *Px̌ aq:ºa ‘torch’: Kabardian px̌ āq’ºa ‘torch’.
B. (1) Common Abkhaz *px̌ a ‘warm’: Abaza / Tapanta px̌ a-rá ‘to warm up,
to become warm’; South Abkhaz a-px̌ á ‘warm’, a-px̌ a-ra ‘to warm up, to
become warm; to shine (of sun, moon)’. (2) Common Abkhaz *px̌ -ʒə́ (<
*px̌ a ‘warm’, *ʒə ‘water’): South Abkhaz a-px̌ -ʒə́ ‘sweat’; Abaza / Tapanta
px̌ -ʒə ‘sweat’. (3) Common Abkhaz *px̌ ə-nə́ (< *px̌ a ‘warm’, *-nə ‘season,
time of’): South Abkhaz a-px̌ ə-n ‘summer’; Ashkharywa a-px̌ ə-n-ra
‘summer’; Abaza / Tapanta px̌ -nə ‘summer’, px̌ ən-čʹə́lʹa ‘July; middle of
summer’.
ħh- = Common Abkhaz *px̌ V-.

Note: Proto-Indo-European *pʰV‿
‿

70 Allan R. Bomhard
136. Proto-Indo-European *pʰek’-/*pʰok’- ‘space, interval’ (only in Germanic): Old

English fKc ‘space of time, division, interval’; Old Frisian fek, fak ‘niche’;
Middle Dutch vac ‘compartment, section’; Old High German fah ‘wall,
compartment’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *pʰak’a ‘stretch, interval, zone’:

Temirgoy pāč’ʹa ‘stretch, interval, zone’; Kabardian pāka ‘stretch, interval,
zone’.
137. Proto-Indo-European *pʰē̆s-/*pʰō̆s- (with nasal infix *pʰē̆ns-/*pʰō̆ns-) ‘dust,

sand’ (derivative of *pʰē̆s-/*pʰō̆s- ‘to crush, to grind, to pulverize’, preserved in
Hittite [3rd sg. pres. act.] pa-ši-ḫa-iz-zi ‘to rub, to squeeze, to crush’ [<
Luwian], [3 sg. pres. act.] pé-eš-zi ‘to rub, to scrub [with soap)’]: Luwian
pa/ušūriya- ‘dust [?]’); Hittite [nom. sg.] pa-aš-ši-la-aš ‘stone, pebble; gem,
precious stone (?)’, paššilant- ‘stone, pebble’, paššuela- ‘a stone object’;
Sanskrit pāṁsú-ḥ, pāṁsuká-ḥ ‘dust, sand, crumbling soil’; Old Church Slavic
pěsъkъ ‘sand’; Russian pesók [песок] ‘sand’.
A. Common Abkhaz *pš/čaħº/qºá ‘sand; (sandy) seashore’: South Abkhaz
a-pšaħºá ‘both sides of river shore; seashore’; Abaza / Tapanta px̌ arčáqºa
‘sand’; Ashkharywa pšaqºa ‘sand’. Chirikba (1996b:25) notes: “the actual
etymology, the original form and even the genuine character of these forms
are not clear”.
B. Ubykh pšax̌ ºa ‘sand’.
Note: Proto-Indo-European *pʰVs- = Northwest Caucasian *pšV-.
138. Proto-Indo-European *pʰr̥ -kʰ- ‘glowing embers, ashes’: Lithuanian pirkšnìs

‘glowing cinders’, pir͂ kšnys ‘glowing ashes’; Old Irish (nom.-acc. pl.) richsea
‘live coals’; Breton régez ‘glowing embers’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *pərɣá ‘embers’: Abaza / Tapanta

pərɣá ‘embers’; South Abkhaz a-pərɣə́ ‘embers’.
139. Proto-Indo-European *p’al‿ħh-tʰo- ‘swamp, mud’ (*‿ ħh = *ə̯₂): (?) Illyrian

*balta ‘swamp’ (> Albanian baltë ‘mud, clay, earth; swamp, marsh’, balti
‘mud’, baltomë ‘mud, filth’; Romanian baltă ‘swamp’; Modern Greek βάλτος
‘swamp’); Old Church Slavic blato (< *bolto-) ‘quagmire, swamp’; Russian
bolóto [болото] ‘marsh, bog, swamp’; Serbo-Croatian blȁto ‘mud, swampy
terrain’; Czech bláto ‘mud’; Bulgarian bláto ‘mud, swamp’; Lithuanian balà
‘swamp’.

1. Derksen (2008:53—54) reconstructs Proto-Balto-Slavic *bolʔto. However,

in light of the Northwest Caucasian parallel below, I would be more
inclined to reconstruct *‿
ħh (= *ə̯₂) as the laryngeal involved rather than *ʔ
(= *ə̯₁).
2. The above forms are not derived from or related to Proto-Indo-European
*bʰelH- ‘bright, white, shining’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *p’ǝlħatǝ ‘swamp, mud’: South

Abkhaz a-p’ǝlħát ‘abyss, quagmire, mud’.
140. (1) Proto-Indo-European *se‿ ħh ʷ- [*sa‿ħhʷ-] (unattested) ‘to be or become hot,

warm; to heat up, to make hot, to warm, to burn’; only found with the suffixes
*-(e)l-, *-(e)n-: *se‿ħhʷ-(e)l- (> *sāwel-), *s‿ ħhʷ-ōl- (> *swōl-), (*sə‿ ħhʷ-l- >)
*su‿ħhʷ-l- (> *sūl-); *s‿ħhʷ-en- (> *swen-), *sə‿ ħhʷ-n- > *su‿ ħhʷ-n- (> *sūn-), etc.
‘the sun’ (*‿ħhʷ = *ə̯₂ʷ): Greek ἥλιος (Doric ἅλιος, ἀέλιος; Epic Greek ἠέλιος;
Aeolian and Arcadian ἀέλιος; Cretan ἀβέλιος [that is, ἀ+έλιος]) (< *σᾱ+έλιος)
‘the sun’; Latin sōl (< *swōl- < *s‿ ħhʷ-ōl-) ‘the sun’; Old Irish súil ‘eye’; Welsh
haul ‘the sun’; Gothic sauil (< Proto-Germanic *sōwilō) ‘the sun’, sugil ‘the
sun’, sunnō ‘the sun’ (< Proto-Germanic *sun-ōn, with -nn- from the gen. sg.
*sunnez < *s(w)n̥ - < *s‿ ħhʷ-n̥ -); Old Icelandic sól ‘the sun’, sunna ‘the sun’; Old
English sōl ‘the sun’, sigel, segl, sKgl, sygil ‘the sun’, sunne ‘the sun’; Old
Saxon sunna ‘the sun’; Old High German sunna ‘the sun’; Lithuanian sáulė
‘the sun’; Latvian saũle ‘the sun’; Avestan hvarə ‘the sun’, (gen. sg.) xᵛə̄ng (<
*swen-s); Sanskrit svàr- (súvar-) ‘the sun’, (gen. sg. sū́ raḥ), sū́ rya-ḥ ‘the sun’.
(2) Proto-Indo-European *s‿ ħhʷ-elH-/*s‿ ħhʷ-olH-/*s‿ħhʷ-l̥ H- (> *swelH-/*swolH-
/*swl̥ H-) ‘to burn’: Greek εἵλη, ἕλη ‘warmth, heat of the sun’, ἀλέα (Ionic
ἀλέη) ‘warmth (of the sun), heat (of fire)’; Old English swelan ‘to burn, to burn
up; to inflame (of a wound)’, swol ‘heat, burning, flame, glow’; Old High
German swilizôn ‘to burn slowly’; Lithuanian (caus.) svìlinti ‘to singe, to parch,
to burn’, svįlù, svilaũ, svìlti ‘to scorch, to parch’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *saxºa ‘ashes’: Kabardian sāxºa

‘ashes’.
141. Proto-Indo-European *t’eh- [*t’ah-] (> *t’ā-) ‘to flow’, *t’eh-nu- [*t’ah-nu-]
(> *t’ā-nu-) ‘flowing water; river, stream’ (only in Indo-Iranian) (*h = *ə̯₄):
Sanskrit dā-na-m ‘the fluid flowing from an elephant’s temples when in rut’,
dā́ -nu ‘a fluid, a drop, dew’; Avestan dānuš ‘river, stream’; Ossetic don ‘water,
river’. Also used in various river names: Don (Russian Дон), Dniepr (Russian
Днепр), Dniestr (Russian Днестр), Danube, etc.
A. Common Abkhaz *t’a ‘diarrhea’: Abzhywa a-t’-rá ‘diarrhea’; Bzyp a-t’a-
rá ‘diarrhea’.
B. Ubykh t’ə́ ‘liquid, juicy’.

72 Allan R. Bomhard
142. Proto-Indo-European *wel-/*wol-/*wl̥ - ‘to moisten, to wet, to flow’: (extended

forms) *wel-kʰ-/*wol-kʰ-/*wl̥ -kʰ-; *wel-gʰ-/*wol-gʰ-/*wl̥ -gʰ-; *wel-k’-/*wol-k’-
/*wl̥ -k’- ‘to wet, to moisten’: Old English weolcen, wolcen ‘cloud’; German
Wolke ‘cloud’; Old Church Slavic vlaga ‘moisture’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *wala ‘cloud’: Kabardian wāla ‘cloud.
143. Proto-Indo-European *wer-/*wor-/*wr̥ - ‘to be turbulent, agitated, stirred up,

raging’ (> ‘to strike or dash against’) (only in Greek: extended form: *wrāgʰ- <
*wr-eA-gʰ- [wr-aA-gʰ-]): Greek (Ionic) ῥάσσω, (Attic) ῥάττω (< *+ρᾱ́χ-ɩ̯ ω) ‘to
strike, to dash, to push’; (Ionic) ῥηχίη, (Attic) ῥᾱχία ‘the sea breaking on the
shore, especially the flood-tide; the roar of waves breaking on the shore’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *warə ‘wave; turbulent’: Temirgoy

warə ‘wave; turbulent’; Kabardian war ‘wave; turbulent’.
XIV. Implements, Materials; Weapons, Warfare
144. Indo-European: Greek ἀξῑ́νη ‘axe’; Latin ascia ‘axe’; Gothic aqizi ‘axe’; Old
Icelandic øx ‘axe’; Old English eax, Kx, Ksc ‘axe’; Old Frisian axa ‘axe’; Old
High German acus, achus, accus, acchus, akis, ackes, acches ‘axe’ (New High
German Axt). Note: According to Liberman (2008:1—3), Old English adesa,
adese ‘adze’ may belong here as well. Liberman derives adesa, adese from
*acusa (> *adusa > *adosa > adesa, with d substituted for c).
Notes:
1. Due to the contradictory nature of the evidence found in the various
daughter languages, it is difficult to reconstruct the Proto-Indo-European
form. This suggests a loanword.
2. The above Indo-European forms have also been compared with several
somewhat similar Semitic forms (cf., for example, Beekes 2010.I:111;
Kroonen 2013:19). This comparison has nothing to recommend it.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *aj-k’ºáɣa ‘small axe’: Bzyp

ajk’ºáɣ(a) ‘small, axe’; Abzhywa ajk’ºáɣa ‘small axe’; Abaza / Tapanta k’ºáɣa
‘small axe’; Ashkharywa (Apsua) k’ºáɣa ‘small axe’.
Notes:
1. The above forms may have been influenced by Common Abkhaz *ajx̌ á
‘iron, axe’ (> South Abkhaz ajx̌ á ‘iron; axe; bit (of a horse)’; Abaza /
Tapanta ajx̌ á ‘iron; metal’; Ashkharywa ájx̌ a ‘iron’).
2. To complicate matters, the following forms are also found: Common
Abkhaz *aj-gºášºə ‘small axe’: South Abkhaz ajgºə́šº ‘small axe’; Abaza /
Tapanta gºašº ‘small axe’.

145. Proto-Indo-European *ʔn̥ s-i- ‘sword’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Sanskrit así-ḥ ‘sword’;
Avestan aŋhū- ‘sword’; Latin ēnsis ‘sword’ (almost exclusively poetical).
Perhaps also Greek ἄορ ‘sword’ if from *ʔn̥ s-r̥ (cf. Beekes 2010.I:112).
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *aśa ‘sword’: Bzyp áśa ‘sword, card
(text.), feathers of a cock’s tail’, (poss.) s-áśa ‘my sword’; Abaza / Tapanta sa
‘beater (of weaver’s loom)’.
Notes:
1. Proto-Indo-European *n̥ is reflected as *a in Northwest Caucasian.
2. Common Abkhaz *ś = Proto-Indo-European *s.
146. Proto-Indo-European (extended form) *hepʰ-s- [*hapʰ-s-]/*hopʰ-s- (vb.) ‘to

cut, to split’; (n.) ‘that which cuts, splits’ (> ‘sword’ in Tocharian B); ‘cut,
split’ (> ‘harm, injury; damage’ in Avestan) (*h = *ə̯₄): Tocharian B apsāl
‘sword’; Avestan afša-, afšman- ‘harm, injury; damage’.
Notes:
1. The following forms have also been compared with the above: Lithuanian
opà ‘wound, sore’, opùs, ópus ‘sensitive, susceptible to pain’; Sanskrit
apvā́ ‘name of a disease’.
2. According to Eric P. Hamp (1965a), the laryngeal *ə̯₄ is preserved initially
in Albanian. If this is indeed the case, as Hamp claims, then Albanian hap
‘to open’ may be a derivative of the unextended Proto-Indo-European verb
*hepʰ- [*hapʰ-]/*hopʰ- (vb.) ‘to cut, to split’, though this is not the
etymology suggested by Hamp (1965a:125).
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ápśa ‘bayonet, spear, lance’: Bzyp

ápśa ‘bayonet, spear, lance’, (possessive) s-ápśa ‘my bayonet’; Abzhywa ápsa
‘bayonet, spear, lance’; Abaza / Tapanta ħº-aps ‘bayonet’. Note: The following
alternative forms are also recorded: Bzyp abś; Abzhywa absá.
147. Proto-Indo-European *heyos- [*hayos-] ‘metal’ (*h = *ə̯₄): Sanskrit áyas-

‘metal, iron’; Latin aes ‘crude, base metal, especially copper’, aēneus ‘made of
brass, copper, or bronze’; Gothic aiz ‘brass, money, metal coin’; Old Icelandic
eir ‘brass, copper’; Old English ār, br ‘brass, copper’; Old Saxon ēr ‘ore’;
Dutch oer ‘bog-ore’, erts ‘ore’; Old High German ēr ‘ore, copper’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ajx̌ á ‘iron; axe’: South Abkhaz ajx̌ á
‘iron; axe; bit (of a horse)’; Abaza / Tapanta ajx̌ á ‘iron; metal’; Ashkharywa
ájx̌ a ‘iron’. Note also: South Abkhaz ajgºə́šº ‘small axe’; Abaza / Tapanta gºašº
‘small axe’, k’ºaɣa ‘small axe’; Bzyp ajk’ºáɣ(a) ‘small axe’; Abzhywa ajk’ºáɣa
‘small axe’.

74 Allan R. Bomhard
148. Proto-Indo-European *kʰatʰ- ‘fight, battle, war’: Sanskrit śátru-ḥ ‘enemy, foe,
rival’; Old Irish cath ‘battle’; Welsh cad ‘war’; Old Icelandic (in compounds)
höð- ‘war, slaughter’; Old English (in compounds) heaðu- ‘war, battle’; Old
High German (in compounds) hadu- ‘fight, battle’; Old Church Slavic kotora
‘battle’; Hittite kattu- ‘enmity, strife’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *k:atʰa ‘sword’: Šapsegh k:ātʰa

‘sword’; Kabardian gāta ‘sword’.
149. Proto-Indo-European *k’ebʰ- ‘bough, branch, stick’: Lithuanian žãbas ‘(long)

switch, dry branch’, žabà ‘rod, switch, wand’; Old Icelandic kafli ‘a piece cut
off’, kefli ‘a cylinder, stick, piece of wood’; Middle Dutch cavele ‘stick, piece
of wood used to throw lots’; Middle High German kabel ‘lot’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *q’ʹaba ‘plowshare’: Abaza / Tapanta

q’ʹaba ‘plowshare’.
150. Proto-Indo-European *k’el-/*k’ol-/*k’l̥ - ‘hole, hollow’ (unattested): (extended

forms) *k’lebʰ-/*k’lobʰ-/*k’l̥ bʰ-; *k’lombʰ- (in Slavic) ‘hole, hollow’ (> ‘deep’
in Slavic): Greek γλάφω ‘to scrape up, to dig up, to hollow’, γλάφυ ‘a hollow,
hole, cavern’, γλαφυρός ‘hollow, hollowed’; Old Church Slavic glǫbokъ
‘deep’; Slovenian globòk ‘deep’, globíti ‘to excavate’, glóbsti ‘to excavate, to
carve’; Bulgarian glob ‘eye socket’; Russian glubókij [глубокий] ‘deep’.
Northwest Caucasian: (1) Common Abkhaz *k’ə́la-ć’ºə (< *k’əla ‘hole’, *ć’ºə
‘sharpened twig’) ‘wooden hook’: Bzyp a-k’ə́lać’º ‘wooden hook for hanging
clothes; plug, spigot in the middle of the yoke’; Abzhywa a-k’lać’ºə́ ‘wooden
hook for hanging clothes; plug, spigot in the middle of the yoke’. (2) Common
Abkhaz *k’ə́la-ħa-ra ‘chink, little hole’: South Abkhaz a-k’ə́lħa-ra//a-k’ə́laa-ra
‘chink, little hole’.
151. Proto-Indo-European *k’ʷeru- ‘spear, spit’ (< ‘round object’): Latin veru ‘spit
(for roasting)’; Umbrian (acc. pl.) berva ‘(roasting-)spit’; Avestan grava-
‘staff’; Old Irish bir, biur ‘spear, spit’; Welsh ber ‘spear, lance, shaft, spit’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *k’ºərə́ ‘round object’: Bzyp (indef.

sg.) k’ºərə́-k’ ‘wheel’, a-k’ºərč’ʹə́žʹ, a-k’ºə́r-č’ʹəžʹ ‘small cart, wagon; small
wheel’, a-k’ºrə́ ‘roundish’; South Abkhaz á-k’ºər-ra ‘to roll (of something
small), to slide’; Abaza / Tapanta r-k’ºər-ra ‘to pull, to drag’, qa-čº-k’ºra ‘bald-
headed’ (< qa-čºa ‘skin of the head’ + *k’ºra ‘round’).
152. Proto-Indo-European *lek’-/*lok’- ‘to leak; to run, drip, or trickle out; to wet,
to moisten’: Old Irish legaid ‘to melt, to melt away, to perish’; Welsh llaith
‘moist, damp’; Old Icelandic leka ‘to drip, to dribble, to leak’, leki ‘leakage,
leak’; Norwegian lekk ‘leak, leakage’; Middle Dutch leken ‘to leak’; Old

English leccan ‘to water, to irrigate, to wet, to moisten’; Middle High German
lëchen ‘to leak’, lecken ‘to leak; to run, drip, or trickle out’ (New High German
lecken). Lenghtened-grade in: Proto-Germanic *lēkjōn- ‘rivulet’ (?) > Faroese
lKkja ‘well, waterhole, waterspout’; Norwegian lKkje ‘rivulet, wooden water-
pipe’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *lak’ára ‘wooden trough for spring

water’: Bzyp a-lak’ár, a-lak’ára ‘wooden trough for spring water’. Semantic
development as in Norwegian lKkje ‘rivulet, wooden water-pipe’ cited above.
153. Proto-Indo-European *menkʰ-/*monkʰ-/*mn̥ kʰ- ‘to pound, to grind, to press’:

Sanskrit mácate ‘to pound, to grind’; Greek μάσσειν ‘to knead, to press into a
mold’; Lithuanian mìnkyti ‘to knead, to mold’; Old Church Slavic męknǫti ‘to
soften’; Russian mjáknutʹ [мякнуть] ‘to soften; to become soft, tender’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *mákʹa ‘whetstone’: Bzyp a’mákʹ(a)

“whetstone’; Abzhywa a-mákʹa ‘whetstone’; Abaza / Tapanta makʹa ‘whet-
stone’.
154. Proto-Indo-European *metʰ-/*motʰ- ‘(vb.) to twist, to turn; to weave together,

to plait; (n.) *metʰ-o-s, *motʰ-o-s ‘that which twists, turns; that which is turned,
twisted’: Avestan maθō (adj.) ‘turning’; Armenian matman ‘spindle’;
Lithuanian (pl.) mẽtmens ‘warp, groundwork’, (pl.) me͂ tmenys ‘warp; thread-
winder’, matãras ‘spindle’; Latvian, mãtaras ‘strap, belt, rope, thong; pole,
lever’ (m. pl.) meti ‘warp, threads on a loom’.
A. Common Abkhaz *máta ‘a term referring to the processing of wool’:
Abzhywa a-máta-ra ‘a term referring to the processing of wool’.
B. Proto-Circassian *matʰa ‘basket, beehive’: Bžedux mātʰa ‘basket, bee-
hive’; Kabardian māta ‘basket, beehive’.
155. Proto-Indo-European *motʰ- ‘hoe’: Sanskrit matyà-m ‘harrow’; Latin mateola

‘a kind of mallet’ (diminutive of an unattested noun *matea ‘hoe’); Old Church
Slavic motyka ‘hoe’; Russian motýka [мотыка] ‘shovel, mattock; pick, picker;
sickle’; Polish motyka ‘hoe’; Old English mattoc ‘mattock, pickaxe’. Note also:
Proto-Indo-European *metʰ-/*motʰ- ‘to reap’: Latin metō ‘to reap, to harvest’;
Welsh medi ‘to reap’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *matá ‘piece, strip of field to be

plowed or hoed’: South Abkhaz á-mata ‘piece, strip of field to be plowed or
hoed’.

76 Allan R. Bomhard
156. Pre-Proto-Indo-European *pʰekʷʰ-/*pʰokʷʰ- ‘to strike, to hit, to beat, to pound’

(> ‘to fight’ in Germanic): Hittite pakkušš- ‘to pound, to crack, to crush, to
grind’, (adj.) pak(kuš)šuwant- ‘cracked (?)’. Proto-Germanic *feχtanan ‘to
fight’ > Old English feohtan ‘to fight, to combat, to strive; to attack, to fight
against’, feoht ‘fight, battle; strife’; Old Frisian fiuchta, fiochta ‘to fight’; Old
Saxon fehtan ‘to fight’; Old High German fehtan ‘to fight, to battle, to combat’,
gifeht, fehta ‘fight, battle, combat’. Note: Proto-Indo-European *-kʷʰ- > *-χ-
before *-t- in Proto-Germanic (cf. Proto-Germanic *naχtz ‘night’ [< *nokʷʰtʰs]
> Gothic nahts ‘night’; Old Icelandic nátt, nótt ‘night’; Old English niht, nKht,
neaht ‘night’; Old Frisian nacht ‘night’; Old Saxon naht ‘night’; Old Dutch
naht ‘night’; Old High German naht ‘night’).
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *pʰak:ºa ‘blunt’: Bžedux pʰāk:ºa

‘blunt’; Kabardian pāgºa ‘blunt’. Apparent Kabardian loan (if not from *pə
‘nose’, *agºa ‘short’) in: South Abkhaz a-págºa ‘dock-tailed, short; blunt,
obtuse’; Abaza / Tapanta pagºa ‘snub-nosed’.
157. Proto-Indo-European *pʰes-tʰo-/*pʰos-tʰo- ‘fast, firm’ (< *pʰes-/*pʰos- ‘to tie or

bind firmly together, to fasten’): Armenian hast ‘firm, steady, standing still,
tough’, hastoǰ ‘firmness, standing still, strength’; Gothic fastan ‘to keep firm, to
hold fast’; Old Icelandic fastr ‘fast, firm’, festr ‘rope, cord’; Old English
fKstnian ‘to fasten, to fix, to secure, to bind’, fKst ‘fast, fixed, firm, secure’;
Old Saxon fast ‘fast, firm’; Old High German fasto, faste ‘fast, firm’, festī̆,
festīn ‘firmness, strength; shelter, stronghold, fortress’. Also Hittite (3rd sg.
pres. act.) pa-aš-ki ‘to stick in, to fasten, to plant; to set up; to impale, to stick’.
A. Proto-Circassian *psə ‘string, cord, lace, strap, handle’: Bžedux -psə
‘string, cord, lace, strap, handle’, č’ʹāpsa ‘string, rope’; Kabardian psə
‘string, cord, lace, strap, handle’, k’āpsa ‘string, rope’; Temirgoy λapsə
‘leather strap for tying up shoes, shoelace’.
B. Common Abkhaz *psa ‘to tie up’: South Abkhaz a-č-áj-də-psa-la-ra ‘to
press, to lean against something’, a-gºə́-c’a-psa-ra ‘to press itself against
somebody, to cross the hands at the bosom’, a-c’a-psa-ra ‘to bend, to
kneel’, a-č-áj-k’ºa-psa-ra ‘to curl up, to fold up (wings)’; Abaza / Tapanta
pra-psá ‘curtain, apron’, pəra-psa-ra ‘to tie up through’, j-a-l-pəra-l-psa-d
‘she put on the apron’ (literally ‘she tied up the apron’).
C. (?) Ubykh *psášx ‘glue’.
158. Proto-Indo-European *pʰis- (secondary full-grade forms in Baltic and Slavic)

‘to crush, to grind’ (with nasal infix *pʰi-n-s-): Greek πτίσσω ‘to pound or grind
corn in a mortar’, πτίσμα ‘peeled or winnowed grain’; Sanskrit pináṣṭi,
piṁṣánti ‘to crush’, piṣṭá-ḥ ‘crushed’; Latin pīnsō ‘to pound, to crush (grain or

other materials)’, pistillus, pistillum ‘pestle’; Lithuanian piẽstas ‘pestle’;

Russian pest [пест] ‘pestle’, pšenó [пшено] (< Proto-Slavic *pьšenò) ‘millet’;
Slovenian pšano ‘millet’.
Northwest Caucasian: (1) Common Abkhaz *pš-qºə́-ć’ºə ‘corn-cob’: Bzyp

á-pš-x̌ ºə-ć’º ‘corn-cob’; Abzhywa á-pš-x̌ ºə-ć ‘corn-cob’. (2) Common Abkhaz
*pšə ‘maize, millet’: Abzhywa á-pšə-r+ta ‘maize field’, a-pšə-c ‘maize grain’,
á-pš ‘maize, millet’.
Note: Proto-Indo-European *pʰis- = Common Abkhaz *pšV.
159. Proto-Indo-European *pʰoʔ-tʰ-lo-m (> *pʰō-tʰ-lo-m) ‘drinking-vessel’ (*ʔ =

*ə̯₁): Sanskrit pā́ tra-m ‘drinking-vessel, goblet, bowl, cup’; Latin pōculum ‘a
drinking-cup, goblet’. Note also: Hittite pa-aš-zi ‘to swallow, to gulp down’;
Sanskrit pā́ tar-, pātár- ‘one who drinks, a drinker’, píbati ‘to drink’; Latin pōtō
‘to drink’, pōtus ‘drunk’; Lithuanian puotà ‘feast, banquet, drinking-bout’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *pátx̌ ʹa ‘horn used for drinking wine’:
South Abkhaz a-pátx̌ ʹ ‘horn used for drinking wine’.
160. Proto-Indo-European *seʔ(y/i)- (> *sē(y/i-)) ‘(vb.) to sift; (n.) sieve’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁):
Greek ἤθω, ἠθέω ‘to sift, to strain’, ἠθμός ‘a strainer’; Welsh hidl ‘sieve’; Old
Icelandic sáld ‘sieve’, sKlda ‘to sift’; Norwegian saald ‘sieve’, sKlda ‘to sift’;
Swedish såll ‘sieve’, (dial.) sälda, sälla ‘to sift’; Danish saald, sold ‘sieve’,
(dial.) sKlde ‘to sift’; Lithuanian síetas ‘sieve’, sijóju, sijóti ‘to sift’; Old
Church Slavic *sějǫ, *sěti (*sějati) in pro-sějati ‘to sift, to winnow’, sito
‘sieve’; Russian síto [сито] ‘sieve, sifter, bolt, bolter, strainer’; Serbian sȉjati
‘to sift’, sȉto ‘sieve’. Note: The original meaning of Proto-Indo-European
*seʔ(y/i)- may have been ‘to divide, to separate’.
A. Common Abkhaz *sa ‘to cut out (material)’: South Abkhaz a-sa-rá ‘to cut
out (material)’; Abaza / Tapanta sa-rá ‘to cut out (material)’. Perhaps also:
(1) Common Abkhaz *sa ‘piece (of food)’: South Abkhaz a-sá ‘piece (of
food)’. (2) Common Abkhaz *ssa ‘to cut in thin slices’: Bzyp a-ssa-rá ‘to
cut in thin slices’; Abzhywa a-r-ssa-ra ‘to cut in thin slices’.
B. Proto-Circassian *sa ‘knife’: Bžedux sa ‘knife’; Kabardian sa ‘knife’.
161. Proto-Indo-European *tʰekʰ(s)-/*tʰokʰ(s)- ‘to form, to fashion, to make, to

create, either by using a sharp tool or by bending, weaving, joining, braiding, or
plaiting together’: Sanskrit tákṣati ‘to form by cutting, to plane, to chisel, to
chop, to fashion, to make, to create’, tákṣan- ‘a wood-cutter, carpenter’; Pāḷi
tacchati ‘to build’, tacchēti ‘to do woodwork, to chip’, tacchanī- ‘hatchet’,
tacchaka- ‘carpenter’; Prakrit takkhaï, tacchaï ‘to cut, to scrape, to peel’;
Avestan tašaiti ‘to produce, (carpenter) to make’, taša- ‘axe’; Latin texō ‘to

78 Allan R. Bomhard
weave, to build’; Greek τέκτων (< *τέκστων) ‘carpenter’, τέχνη (< *τέκσνᾱ)
‘art, craft’; Armenian tʰekʰem ‘to bend, to shape’; Old Irish tál (< *tōks-lo-)
‘axe’; Old Icelandic þexla ‘adze’; Old High German dehsa, dehsala ‘axe,
poleaxe’ (New High German Dechsel); Lithuanian tašaũ, tašýti ‘to hew’; Old
Church Slavic tešǫ, tesati ‘to hew’; Russian Church Slavic tesla ‘carpenter’s
tool, adze’; Hittite (3rd sg. pres. act.) ták-ki-(e-)eš-zi ‘to join, to build’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *t:aq:a ‘stump/handle, thick end of a

pole’: Bžedux t:āq:a ‘stump/handle, thick end of a pole’; Kabardian dāq’a
‘stump/handle, thick end of a pole’.
162. Proto-Indo-European *tʰerkʷʰ-/*tʰorkʷʰ-/*tʰr̥ kʷʰ- ‘to twist, to turn, to bend’:

Latin torqueō ‘to twist, to bend, to wind’, torquis ‘twisted collar or necklace;
collar of draft oxen; ring, wreath’; Sanskrit tarkú-ḥ ‘spindle’ (< *tark- ‘to twist,
to turn’); Old Chruch Slavic trakъ ‘band, girdle’; Tocharian B tärk- ‘to twist
around; to work (for example, wood)’, A tark ‘earring’; Hittite (3rd sg. pres.
act.) tar-uk-zi ‘to dance’, (3rd pl. pres. act.) tar-ku-an-zi. Perhaps also Greek
(Mycenaean) to-ro-qe-jo-me-no (*trokʷeyómenos) (meaning unknown).
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *cárqºə ‘carpenter’s cord used to mark

the line of cutting’: Bzyp a-cárx̌ º ‘carpenter’s cord used to mark the line of
cutting’. For the semantics, cf. Buck 1949:§9.19 rope, cord.
Note: Common Abkhaz *c = Proto-Indo-European *tʰ.
163. Proto-Indo-European *wedʰ-/*wodʰ- ‘to strike’: Sanskrit vadh- ‘to strike, to

slay, to kill, to put to death, to destroy, to murder’, vadhar- ‘a destructive
weapon, the weapon or thunderbolt of Indra’; Avestan vadar- ‘weapon (for
striking)’; Lithuanian vedegà ‘adz’; Tocharian B wät- ‘to fight’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *wadǝ́šx̌ x̌ ǝ ‘(to break) into pieces’:

South Abkhaz a-wadǝ́šx̌ x̌ ǝ-ra ‘(to break) into pieces’.
164. Proto-Indo-European *yoʔ-s- (> *yōs-) ‘to tie, to bind, to wrap, to gird’ (*ʔ =
*ə̯₁): Avestan yāsta- ‘girt, girded’, (3rd sg. pres.) y]ŋhayeiti ‘to gird’; Greek
ζώννῡμι ‘to gird, to gird around the loins’, ζωστός ‘girded’, ζωστήρ ‘a warrior’s
belt’, ζῶμα (< *ζωσ-μα) ‘that which is girded, a girded frock or doublet’, ζώνη
(< *ζωσ-νᾱ) ‘belt, girdle’, ζώστρα ‘encircling band or ribbon’; Albanian
n-gjesh ‘to gird, to put on (belt)’, gjeshse ‘ribbon, binder; tape’; Lithuanian
júosiu, júosti ‘to gird’, júostas ‘girded, girt’, júosta ‘belt, waistband’, juosmuõ
‘waist, loins’, juosjti ‘to wear a belt or girdle’; Old Church Slavic po-jašǫ, po-
jasati ‘to gird’, po-jasъ ‘belt’; Russian pójas [пояс] ‘belt’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ja ‘burden, pack’: South Abkhaz a-já
‘burden, pack’ (= ‘a collection of items tied up or wrapped; a bundle’).

XV. Sense Perception
165. Proto-Indo-European *bʰeh-/*bʰoh- (> *bʰā-/*bʰō-) ‘to be bright, shining; to

bring to light, to cause to appear; to make clear’ (*h = *ə̯₄): Greek φαίνω ‘to
bring to light, to cause to appear; to make known, to reveal, to disclose; to
make clear; to show forth, to display; to set forth, to expound; to inform against
one, to denounce; to give light, to shine; to come to light, to become visible, to
appear; to come into being; to come about; to appear to be’, φάω ‘to give light,
to shine’, φάος, φῶς ‘light, daylight; light of the eyes’ (pl. φάεα ‘eyes’), φᾱνός
‘light, bright, joyous’; Sanskrit bhā́ ti ‘to shine, to be bright, to be luminous; to
be splendid or beautiful; to be conspicuous or eminent; to appear, to seem; to
show one’s self, to manifest any feeling; to be, to exist’; Avestan bānu-
‘spendor’; Old Irish bán ‘white’; Old English bōnian ‘to polish’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ba ‘to see’: South Abkhaz a-ba-rá ‘to
see’; Abaza / Tapanta ba-rá ‘to see’.
166. Proto-Indo-European *bʰel-/*bʰol-/*bʰl̥ - ‘to glitter, to gleam, to shine’ > ‘to see,
to look, to glance’: Old Icelandic blik ‘gleam, sheen’, blika, blíkja ‘to gleam, to
twinkle’, blígja ‘to gaze’, blígr ‘staring, gazing’; Swedish bliga ‘to gaze (at, on,
upon), to stare (at)’, blink ‘twinkle, twinkling, gleam, blink’; Middle English
blinken ‘to shine; to look at; to blink’; Old Frisian blika ‘to appear, to be
visible’; Dutch blikken ‘to glitter, to twinkle; to look at, to look into, to glance
at’, blik ‘regard, look, glance, view, glimpse’, blinken ‘to shine, to glitter’; New
High German blicken ‘to look’, Blick ‘glance’, blinken ‘to glitter, to gleam, to
shine; to flash, to blink, to twinkle, to sparkle’. Non-Germanic cognates
include: Tocharian B pilko ‘insight, view; look, glance’, A/B pälk- ‘to see, to
look at; to take heed of’ also ‘to shine, to be highlighted; to burn’; etc. Note:
There are numerous derivatives of Proto-Indo-European *bʰel-/*bʰol-/*bʰl̥ - ‘to
glitter, to gleam, to shine’ in the Indo-European daughter languages ⸺ only a
small sampling has been given here, specifically, those derivatives that deal
with ‘seeing, looking, glancing, etc.’ For more information, the etymological
dictionaries listed in the references should be consulted. See also the following
entry.
A. Common Abkhaz *bla ‘eye’: South Abkhaz á-bla ‘eye’; Ashkharywa bla
‘eye’; Abzhywa a-bá-bla ‘eye’. Note: Chirikba (1996b:19) suggests that
the following may belong here as well: Common Abkhaz *bla-q’ʹa ‘to
stagger, to shake; to fall; to be bewildered’ (*bla ‘eye’ [?], *q’ʹa ‘to beat, to
strike’): South Abkhaz á-blaq’ʹa-ra ‘to stagger, to shake; to fall; to be
bewildered’. However, semantically, the following are far better
comparisons: (1) Common Abkhaz *balə́- in *balə́-bata ‘to move with
uncertainty’: South Abkhaz a-balə́bata-ra ‘to move with uncertainty’; and

80 Allan R. Bomhard
(2) -bla- // -bəl- in South Abkhaz a-bla-xá-c’ // a-bəl-xá-c’ ‘giddiness,

dizziness’.
B. Ubykh blá ‘eye’, bladə́q̄ ’º ‘blink’, blawá ‘(someone) who has the evil eye’,
*blaxʹambá ‘nearsighted’, blamsá ‘eyebrow’.
167. Proto-Indo-European *bʰlendʰ-/*bʰlondʰ-/*bʰln̥ dʰ- ‘to be or become blind’:

Gothic blinds ‘blind’, *gablindjan ‘to make blind’, *afblindnan ‘to become
blind’; Old Icelandic blinda ‘to blind’, blindr ‘blind’, blunda ‘to shut the eyes’,
blundr ‘dozing, slumber’; Old English blendan ‘to blind, to deceive’, blind
‘blind’; Old High German blint ‘blind’; Lithuanian blendžiù, blę͂sti ‘to become
dark’, blandùs ‘dark, dusky, obscure, gloomy, dismal’, blañdas ‘cloudiness,
obscuration of mind or eyesight, drowsiness’; Old Church Slavic blędǫ, blęsti
‘to go blindly’.
A. (1) Common Abkhaz *bla-q’ʹa ‘to stagger, to shake; to fall; to be
bewildered’: South Abkhaz á-blaq’ʹa-ra ‘to stagger, to shake; to fall; to be
bewildered’. (2) Common Abkhaz *balə́-bata ‘to move with uncertainty’:
South Abkhaz a-balə́bata-ra ‘to move with uncertainty’. (3) South Abkhaz
a-bla-xá-c’ // a-bəl-xá-c’ ‘giddiness, dizziness’. Note also: Common
Abkhaz *bla ‘eye’: South Abkhaz á-bla ‘eye’; Abzhywa a-bá-bla ‘eye’;
Ashkharywa bla ‘eye’.
B. Ubykh blaɣ̄ºá ‘blind’.
168. Proto-Indo-European *dʰes-/*dʰos- ‘to become numb’ (?) (only in Germanic):

Old Icelandic dasast ‘to become weary and exhausted’, dasaðr ‘exhausted,
weary’, dKstr ‘exhausted, worn out’; Danish dase ‘to lie idle’; Swedish dasa
‘to lie idle’; Middle English dasen ‘to benumb, to stun; to be stupefied,
confused, bewildered’; Dutch daas ‘dizzy, confused, excited’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *də́sə ‘to become numb’: Bzyp a-də́s-
ra ‘to become numb’; Abzhywa a-də́s ‘paralysis’.
169. Proto-Indo-European *hey-tʰro- [*hay-tʰro-] ‘bitter’ (*-tʰro- is a suffix) (*h =

*ə̯₄) (only in Lithuanian): Lithuanian aitrùs ‘bitter, sharp’, aitrà ‘tartness’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ajšá ‘bitter’: Abaza / Tapanta ajšá

‘bitter’; Ashkharywa ajšá ‘bitter’; South Abkhaz áša ‘bitter’; Bzyp (indef. sg.)
(a)šá-k’ ‘bitter’.
170. Proto-Indo-European *met’-/*mot’- ‘to be mindful of’: Greek μέδομαι ‘to

provide for, to care for, to be mindful of’; Latin meditor ‘to think about
constantly, to contemplate, to ponder; to devise, to plan; to rehearse, to practice,
to go over, to say to oneself’; Old Irish midithir ‘to measure, to judge’, mess
‘judgment’; Welsh meddwl ‘(vb.) to think, to mean; (n.) thought, meaning,

opinion’, meddylfryd ‘mind, affection, bent’, meddylgar ‘thoughtful’; Cornish

medhes ‘to say’; Gothic mitōn ‘to weigh in the mind, to consider, to meditate
(upon), to reason about, to think over, to ponder, to cogitate’. Note: These
forms are ultimately derived from Indo-European *met’- ‘to measure’: Gothic
ga-mitan ‘to measure out, to mete out, to apportion’, mitaþs ‘measure,
measurement, standard of measure’; Old Icelandic meta ‘to estimate, to value’;
Old English metan ‘to measure, to mete out, to mark off; to compare, to
estimate’, met ‘measure, share, quantity; boundary, limit’; etc.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *mat’anájǝ ‘to bow, to ask, to pray’:

South Abkhaz á-mat’anaj-ra ‘to bow, to ask, to pray’; Bzyp a-mat’anǝj-ra ‘to
bow, to ask, to pray’, also ‘to mumble, to mutter’. Note: Assuming semantic
development as in Latin meditor in the meanings ‘to rehearse, to practice, to go
over, to say to oneself’ and Cornish medhes ‘to say’ cited above
171. Proto-Indo-European *mey-n-/*moy-n-/*mi-n- ‘to think, to mean, to be of the

opinion’, *mey-no- ‘opinion, intention, view’: Old English mbnian ‘to mean, to
signify, to intend; to mention, to relate, to declare, to communicate, to say’; Old
Saxon mēnian ‘to mean, to mention’; Dutch menen ‘to say’; Old High German
meinen ‘to be of the opinion, to believe, to think, to suppose; to reckon, to
assert, to say, to suggest; to mean, to intend’ (New High German meinen),
meina ‘meaning, intention, opinion, view’ (New High German Meinung); Old
Church Slavic měnjǫ, měniti ‘to suppose, to think, to reckon, to mention’; Old
Russian měniti ‘to think, to suppose, to mention, to mean, to symbolize’. Note:
The original meaning of the Proto-Indo-European unextended verb stem *mey-
/*moy-/*mi- may have been ‘to perceive, to notice, to be aware of’, preserved,
for example, in Sanskrit miṣáti (< *mi-s-é-) ‘to open the eyes, to have the eyes
open; to look at’, ni-meṣá- (< *mey-s-) ‘twinkling of the eyes’ (cf. Rix
2001:429 *mei̯ s- ‘to open the eyes’; Mayrhofer 1956—1980.II:641—642).
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *majda ‘with content, awareness of

somebody’: South Abkhaz á-majda ‘with content, awareness of somebody’.
XVI. Food and Drink
172. Proto-Indo-European *bʰes- ‘to crush, to grind (with the teeth)’: Sanskrit
(redup.) bábhasti ‘to chew, to masticate, to devour’; Greek ψάω ‘to rub, to
grate, to scratch; to stroke, to wipe’. Note: Beekes (2010.II:1665—1666)
considers the Greek forms he cites to be Pre-Greek in origin.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *(b)žaħºá ‘to ruminate’: Abzhywa

á-žaħºa-ra ‘to ruminate’, a-žaħºá ‘cud, chewing’; Abaza / Tapanta žaħºa-rá ‘to
ruminate’, žaħºa ‘cud, chewing’; Bzyp a-bžaħºa-rá ‘to ruminate’.
Note: Proto-Indo-European *bʰVs- = Common Abkhaz *bžV-.

82 Allan R. Bomhard
173. Proto-Indo-European *k’ʷetʰ-u- ‘glutinous secretion, viscous discharge: gum,

resin, sap’ (< *k’ʷetʰ-/*k’ʷotʰ- ‘to ooze [out], to seep [out]’): Sanskrit játu- ‘lac,
gum’; Latin bitūmen ‘pitch, asphalt’ (borrowed from either Sabellian or Celtic);
Middle Irish beithe ‘birch-tree’ (borrowed from Brittonic Celtic); Old Icelandic
kváða ‘resin’; Faroese kváða ‘viscous fluid from a cow’s teat’; Old Danish
kvade ‘birch sap’; Norwegian kvaade, kvae ‘resin; watery fluid from a pregnant
cow’s udder’, (dial.) kvKde ‘birch sap’; Old English cwidu, cweodo, cwudu
‘resin, gum; cud, mastic’; Old High German quiti, kuti ‘glue’. Note: In view of
Faroese kváða ‘viscous fluid from a cow’s teat’ and Norwegian kvaade, kvae
‘resin; watery fluid from a pregnant cow’s udder’, Armenian katʰn ‘milk’
(dialectal variants include: Sučʰava gatʰə; Tbilisi kátʰə; Łabarał, Goris, Šamaxi
kátʰnə; Loṙi katʰə; Agulis kaxcʰ; Havarik kaxs; Areš kaxs; Mełri kaxcʰ;
Karčewan kaxcʰ) may belong here as well. If so, then the traditional comparison
of the Armenian form with Greek γάλα ‘milk’, Latin lac ‘milk’, etc. (cf.
Martirosyan 2008:294—296) is to be abandoned.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *k’ºətʰ(a) ‘to pour out, to pour into’:

Bžedux yə-k’ºətʰ(a) ‘to pour out, to pour into’; Kabardian yə-k’ºət (a) ‘to pour
out, to pour into’ (yə = ‘hollow space’).
174. Proto-Indo-European *met’-/*mot’- ‘(vb.) to eat; (n.) food, meal’ (Germanic

only): Gothic mats ‘food’, matjan ‘to eat, to feed’; Old Icelandic matr ‘meat,
food’, mata ‘to feed another’; Old English mete ‘food’, metsian ‘to feed, to
furnish with provisions’, mettian ‘to supply with food’; Old Saxon meti ‘food’;
Middle Low German met ‘pork’; Old High German maz ‘food, nourishment’.
Note: According to Kroonen (2013:358), Greek μεστός ‘full, filled, satiated’
belongs here as well. Kroonen derives μεστός from *med-to-s.
A. Common Abkhaz *mác’a ‘locust; insatiable, gluttonous’: Abaza / Tapanta
mac’a ‘locust; insatiable, gluttonous’; South Abkhaz a-mác’a ‘insatiable,
gluttonous; locust’.
B. Ubykh ma:c’á ‘grasshopper’.
C. Proto-Circassian *mac’a ‘locust’: Bžedux māc’a ‘locust’; Kabardian
māc’a ‘locust’.
Note: Northwest Caucasian *c’ = Proto-Indo-European *t’.
XVII. Clothing
175. Proto-Indo-European *bʰl-ekʰ-/*bʰl-okʰ- ‘covering, cloth’ (only in Germanic):

Old Icelandic blKja (also blKgja) ‘a fine, colored cloth; the cover of a bed;
cover of an altar table; a shield; a veil’; Swedish blår, blånor ‘oakum, tow’,
blöja ‘swaddling cloth’; Danish ble ‘diaper’, blaar ‘oakum’ (Old Danish blaa);
Norwegian bleie, blKje ‘diaper’; Old High German blaha ‘coarse linen cloth’

(New High German Blache, Blahe; Plahe, Plane) (cf. Kluge—Seebold

2011:709; De Vries 1977:46).
Notes:
1. Kroonen (2013:66), Torp (1919:31), and de Vries (1977:46) reconstruct
Proto-Germanic *blahjōn- ‘cloth’, while Orël (2003:47) reconstructs
Proto-Germanic *blaxōn.
2. Assuming derivation from a Proto-Indo-European root *bʰel-/*bʰol-/*bʰl̥ -
‘to cover’, not further attested in the various Indo-European daughter
languages.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Cirassian *bǝλǝ ‘to hide’: Temirgoy ğa-bǝλǝ-n ‘to

hide (tr.)’. Note: For the semantics, cf. Old English wrēon ‘to cover, to clothe,
to envelope; to conceal, to hide’. Cf. Buck 1949:§12.27 hide, conceal.
Note: Proto-Circassian *λ is represented as *l in Proto-Indo-European.
176. Proto-Indo-European *kʰem-/*kʰom-/*kʰm̥ - ‘(vb.) to cover, to conceal; (n.)

covering; shirt’: Sanskrit śāmulyà-ḥ (Vedic śāmūla-ḥ) ‘thick woolen shirt’;
Latin camīsia ‘linen shirt or night-gown’ (Gaulish loan ?); Gothic -hamōn in:
ana-hamōn, ga-hamōn ‘to get dressed’, af-hamōn ‘to get undressed’, ufar-
hamōn ‘to put on’; Old Icelandic hamr ‘skin, slough; shape, form’, hams
‘snake’s slough, husk’; Old English hemeþ ‘shirt’, ham ‘undergarment’, -hama
‘covering’ (only in compounds), hemming ‘shoe of undressed leather’; Old
High German hemidi ‘shirt’, -hamo ‘covering’ (in compounds) ; Old Frisian
hemethe ‘shirt’; Dutch hemd ‘shirt’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *qamə ‘fur coat’: Bzyp a-x̌ amə́ ‘fur
coat’; Abzhywa a-x̌ amə́ ‘fur coat’; Abaza / Tapanta qamə́ ‘fur coat’.
XVIII. Qualities
177. Proto-Indo-European *bʰengʰ- ‘to swell, to increase’, *bʰn̥ gʰ-u- ‘swollen, fat,
thick, dense; much, many; numerous, abundant’: Sanskrit bahú-ḥ ‘much,
abundant; many, numerous; abounding in; frequent; large, great, mighty’,
baṁhate ‘to grow, to increase’, (causative) baṁhayati ‘to cause to grow, to
increase, to strengthen, to fix, to make firm’; Hittite (adj.; nom. sg.) pa-an-ku-
uš ‘all (of), entire, complete; every’, (nom. sg.) pa-an-ku-uš ‘multitude, the
people, the masses’; Greek παχύς ‘thick, stout, massive; fat, great’; Latvian
bìezs ‘thick’.
A. Common Abkhaz *baɣʹá ‘thick, dense, solid, strong’: South Abkhaz
a-baɣʹá ‘thick, dense, solid, strong’; Abaza / Tapanta baɣʹá ‘hard, solid,
strong; stingy (of men)’.

84 Allan R. Bomhard
B. Ubykh bɣʹǝ́ ‘wide, broad’, bɣʹǝ́šʹ ‘width, breadth’.

C. Proto-Circassian *baɣə ‘to swell’: Bžedux baɣə ‘to swell’; Kabardian baɣ
‘to swell’.
Notes:
1. Chirikba (1996b:14) writes Common Abkhaz *ba¦ʹá.
2. Kuipers (1975:12) writes Proto-Circassian *baĝə.
3. Proto-Indo-European *n̥ is reflected as *a in Northwest Caucasian.
178. Proto-Indo-European *bʰoso- ‘bare, uncovered, naked’: Old Icelandic berr

‘bare, naked; (metaph.) uncovered, open, clear, manifest’; Old English bKr
‘bare, uncovered; naked, unclothed’; Old High German bar ‘naked, bare’ (New
High German bar); Old Church Slavic bosъ ‘barefoot, unshod’; Russian bosój
[босой] ‘barefooted, barelegged’; Lithuanian bãsas ‘barefooted’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *báša ‘simple, usual; in vain, for

nothing’: South Abkhaz a-báša ‘simple, usual’, báša, (redup.) baša-máša ‘in
vain, for nothing’; Ashkharywa báša ‘in vain, for nothing’; Abaza / Tapanta
(redup.) baša-máša ‘simply, for nothing’.
Note: Common Abkhaz *š = Proto-Indo-European *s.
179. Proto-Indo-European *dʰes-/*dʰos- ‘to be or become weary, exhausted, worn

out’ (Germanic only): Old Icelandic dasask ‘to become weary, exhausted’,
dasaðr ‘weary, exhausted’, dasi ‘a lazy person’, dKstr ‘exhausted, worn out’;
Middle English darin ‘to stay in one place, to remain quiet; to lurk; to be
motionless, inactive; to hesitate’, dasin ‘to become dizzy; to stupefy, to
bewilder’; Middle Dutch dasen ‘to rave, to be foolish’, daes ‘foolish’. Note:
Kroonen (2013:91—92) reconstructs Proto-Germanic *dazēn- ‘to be numbed
(?)’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *də́sə ‘to become numb’: Abzhywa

a-də́s ‘paralysis’; Bzyp a-də́s-ra ‘to become numb’.
180. Proto-Indo-European *hegʰ- [*hagʰ-] ‘(to be) bad, evil; to (cause) harm’ (*h =
*ə̯₄): Sanskrit aghá-ḥ ‘going wrong; mishap, evil; misdeed, a fault (sin, passion,
impurity, pain, suffering); evil, bad, sinful, subject to passion, miserable,
unclean’, aghávān ‘sinful’; Vedic aghāyati ‘to be malicious, to sin, to threaten’;
Avestan a¦ō ‘bad, evil’. Perhaps also: Gothic *agls ‘disgraceful’, *agljan ‘to
harm’; Old English egle ‘troublesome; horrible, repulsive, hideous, loathsome;
grievous, painful’, eglan ‘to trouble, to plague, to molest, to afflict’; Norwegian
egla ‘to bait, to goad, to heckle, to molest, to offend’ eglet(e) ‘cantankerous,
quarrelsome’.

A. (1) Common Abkhaz *ága ‘fool’: South Abkhaz ága ‘fool’; (2) Common
Abkhaz *ga-ʒ́á ‘silly, fool’: Bzyp a-ga-ʒ́ə́ ‘silly, fool’; Abzhywa a-ga-ʒá
‘silly, fool’. Note: Assuming semantic development as in Russian duráckij
[дурацкий] ‘foolish, silly’, durák [дурак] ‘fool, dupe, silly person; ass;
simpleton, buffoon, clown; blockhead, dunce’, durítʹ [дурить] ‘to play the
fool, to be foolish’, durétʹ [дуреть] ‘to grow stupid’, durʹ [дурь]
‘obstinacy, folly, caprice, whim, extravagance’ from the same stem found
in durnój [дурной] ‘ugly; bad; ill; unsightly, ill-favored; vile, base,
wretched; evil, depraved’; etc.
B. Ubykh agʹa ‘bad, evil’.
181. Proto-Indo-European (*k’en-/*k’on-/)*k’n- ‘knot, knob’: Old Icelandic knappr

‘knob’, knútr ‘knot’; Old English cnop ‘knob’, cnotta ‘knot’; Middle Low
German knotte ‘knot, knob’.
A. Proto-Circassian *k’ana: Kabardian k’āna ‘piece, lump’.
B. Common Abkhaz *k’ak’ánə ‘nut’: Abaza / Tapanta k’ak’an ‘nut’; South
Abkhaz a-k’ak’án ‘walnut’; Ashkharywa k’ak’án ‘walnut’.
182. Proto-Indo-European *k’er-/*k’or-/*k’r̥ - in *k’or-skʰo- ‘lively, quick, bold,

brisk, very much’ (Germanic only): Proto-Germanic *karskaz ‘lively, quick,
bold, brisk, very much’ > Old Icelandic karskr ‘brisk, bold; hale, hearty’ (era
karskr maðr sá er … ‘he suffers much who …’); Danish karsk ‘quick’; Swedish
karsk ‘bold’; Middle Low German karsch ‘lively, fresh’; Dutch kers-vers ‘new,
fresh’; Middle High German karsch ‘lively, fresh’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *k’ara ‘much, extremely’ in *k’ara-x̌ a

‘to be extremely tired’ (*x̌ a ‘to work’): South Abkhaz a-k’ara-x̌ a-ra ‘to be
extremely tired’.
183. Proto-Indo-European (extended form) *k’r-um-bʰ-, *k’r-u-bʰ- ‘coarse, thick,

big’: Lithuanian grubùs ‘uneven, rough’; Russian grúbyj [грубый] ‘rough,
coarse’; Czech hrubý ‘big, coarse, rough’; Slovak hrubý ‘thick, big, coarse’;
Polish gruby ‘thick, big, coarse’. Note also: Sanskrit grathnā́ mi, grantháyati ‘to
fasten, to tie or string together’, grathna-ḥ ‘bunch, tuft’, granthí-ḥ ‘a knot, tie,
knot of a cord; bunch or protuberance’; Latin grūmus ‘a little heap, hillock (of
earth)’; Old Irish grinne ‘bundle’; Old Icelandic kring ‘round’; etc. Note:
According to Pokorny (1959:385—390), all of the above forms are ultimately
derived from Proto-Indo-European *k’er-/*k’or-/*k’r̥ - (traditional *ger-/*gor-
/*gr̥ -) ‘to twist, to turn’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *k’ʹərə ‘thick, dense (of wool, beard,

etc.), long (of hair), high (of grass)’: Bžedux č’ʹərə ‘thick, dense (of wool,

86 Allan R. Bomhard
beard, etc.), long (of hair), high (of grass)’; Kabardian k’ər ‘thick, dense (of
wool, beard, etc.), long (of hair), high (of grass)’.
184. Proto-Indo-European *k’ʷr̥ H-u- ‘heavy, weighty; great, large, extended, long;
grievous, serious; important, elevated’: Sanskrit gurú-ḥ ‘heavy, weighty; great,
large, extended, long; high in degree, vehement, violent, excessive, deep, much;
difficult, hard; grievous; important, serious, momentous; valuable, highly
prized; dear, beloved; haughty, proud; venerable, respectable; best, excellent’;
Latin gravis ‘heavy, weighty, burdensome; important, elevated, dignified;
grievous, painful, hard, harsh, severe, unpleasant’; Greek βαρύς ‘heavy,
weighty; impressive; difficult, wearisome, troublesome, oppressive’; Tocharian
A krāmärts, B kramartse ‘heavy’, B krāmär ‘weight, heaviness’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *k’ºərə́ćºə ‘grown (up), upright, erect’:

South Abkhaz -k’ºərə́ćº-ʒa (adv.) ‘notably grown (up), having become taller;
upright, erect’; Bzyp (Akhutsa) a-pə́nć’a k’ºə́ćº // (Zwandrypsh) k’º(ə)rə́ćº
‘turned-up nose’.
185. Proto-Indo-European *mak’- ‘great, strong, mighty, powerful’: Latin magnus

(< *mak’(i)no-) ‘large, great, tall; outstanding, powerful, mighty’, (adv.) magis
‘more, to a greater extent, rather’; Albanian madh (< *mak’(H)-yo-) ‘big, large,
tall’; Old Irish maige (< Proto-Celtic *mag-yo-) ‘great’, (poetic) mál (< Proto-
Celtic *mag-lo-) ‘noble, prince’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *maq’á ‘strong, powerful, big, great’:

Abaza / Tapanta maq’ə ‘strong, powerful, big, great’; South Abkhaz a-maq’á,
á-maq’-a ‘strong, powerful, big, great’, maq’ə́ ‘old (of animals)’.
186. Proto-Indo-European *meʔ-/*moʔ- (> *mē-/*mō-); extended forms: *meʔ-is-

/*moʔ-is- (> *meis-/*mois-); *meʔ-r-/*moʔ-r- (> *mēr-/*mōr-) ‘great(er),
large(r); more’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Gothic maiza ‘greater, larger’; Old Icelandic meiri
‘more’; Old English māra ‘greater, more’; Old High German mēro ‘more’; Old
Irish már, mór ‘great’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ma-za (*ma ‘to have’ ?) ‘wealth, big
amount of (valuable) possessions’: South Abkhaz a-máza-ra ‘wealth, big
amount of (valuable) possessions’; Ashkharywa (Apsua) maza-rá ‘wealth, big
amount of (valuable) possessions’.
187. Proto-Indo-European *melH-/*molH-/*ml̥ H- ‘to wither, to fade, to weaken, to

grow weary, to waste away’: Sanskrit mlā́ yati ‘to wither, to fade, to decay; to
be faint or languid, to grow weary, to languish; to become weak or feeble; to
become thin or emaciated’, mlāna-ḥ ‘withered, faded, wearied, weary, wan;
languid, languishing; enfeebled, emaciated, faint, feeble, weak’; Greek ἀμαλός
‘soft, weak’, μαλακός ‘soft, gentle, mild; weak, feeble’; New High German

mulsch ‘weak’. Perhaps also: Hittite (nom. sg.) mi-li-iš-ku-uš ‘weak; light,
unimportant’. Note: Ultimately derived from Proto-Indo-European *mel-/*mol-
/*ml̥ - ‘to crush, to grind’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *malá ‘hunger’: South Abkhaz á-mla

‘hunger’; Ashkharywa á-mala ‘hunger’; Abaza / Tapanta mla ‘hunger’. Note:
Semantic development from ‘thin, emaciated, wasted away (from hunger)’ (cf.
Buck 1949:§5.14 hunger [sb.]).
188. Proto-Indo-European *men-t’-o-/*mon-t’o-/*mn̥ -t’-o- ‘slow, tardy, moving

slowly or softly, loitering, inert, inactive, idle, lazy, laggardly’ (Sanskrit only):
Sanskrit manda-ḥ ‘slow, tardy, moving slowly or softly, loitering, inert,
inactive, idle, lazy, laggardly’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *má-ra ‘slowness; inefficiency,

unproductiveness’ (*ma ‘hand’, -ra abstract suffix): South Abkhaz a-mára-ra
‘slowness’, a-mára ‘inefficiency, unproductiveness’; Bzyp a-mára ‘efficiency,
productiveness’, á-mara-ra ‘ability, capacity’.
189. Proto-Indo-European *nek’ʷ-/*nok’ʷ- ‘naked, bare, nude; exposed, without

covering; open to view, not concealed; manifest, plain, evident’: Sanskrit
nagná-ḥ ‘naked, nude, bare; uncultivated, uninhabited, desolate’; Latin nūdus
‘naked, nude, bare, unclothed; exposed, open to attack, lacking protection;
having nothing added, plain, simple’; Old Irish nocht ‘naked, bare’; Gothic
naqaþs ‘naked’; Old English nacod ‘nude, bare, not fully clothed; empty’;
Lithuanian núogas ‘naked, bare, nude’; Hittite (nom. sg. c.) ne-ku-ma-an-za
‘naked (of humans and deities); uncovered (of horses)’, (3rd sg. pres. act.)
[n]e?-ku-ma-an-ta-iz-zi, (3rd pl. pres. act.) ni-ku-ma-an-da-ri-an-zi ‘to undress
oneself, to disrobe’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *naq’ºa ‘well-known, distinguisted;

clear-cut, distinct’: Bžedux nā"ºa ‘well-known, distinguished’; Kabardian
nā"ºa ‘well-known, distinguished; clear-cut, distinct’. Temirgoy also ‘to give
oneself airs’. Semantic development from ‘exposed, without covering; open to
view, not concealed; manifest, plain, evident’.
190. Proto-Indo-European *pʰoʔ(i/y)- ‘to swell, to fatten’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Sanskrit páyate
‘to swell, to fatten, to overflow, to abound’, pī́van- ‘swelling, full, fat’; Greek
πῑ́ων ‘fat, rich’, πῖαρ ‘fat; any fatty substance, cream’; Old Icelandic feitr (<
Proto-Germanic *faitaz) ‘fat’, feita ‘to fatten’, feiti ‘fatness’; Old English fbtt
‘fat’; Old Frisian fatt, fett ‘fat’; Old Saxon feit ‘fat’.
Northwest Caucasian: Abaza / Tapanta pa-rá ‘to rise (of dough)’.

88 Allan R. Bomhard
191. Proto-Indo-European *p’elo- ‘strong, powerful; big, large, great’: Sanskrit

bála-m ‘power, strength, might, vigor; force, violence, rigor, severity’, balín-
‘powerful, strong, mighty, vigorous, stout, robust’; Greek βελτίων, βέλτερος,
comparative of ἀγαθός, ‘better, more excellent’; Latin dē-bilis ‘feeble, weak’ (=
dē- ‘without’ + *bilis ‘strength’ [not otherwise attested in Latin]); Old Church
Slavic boljьjь ‘bigger, better’; Russian bólʹšij [больший] ‘greater’, bolʹšój
[большой] ‘big, large’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *p’ələ́-p’ələ ‘to swarm,

to teem with something’: South Abkhaz a-p’ələ́p’əl-ra ‘to swarm, to teem with
something’.
192. Proto-Indo-European (prefix) *su- ‘well, good’: Sanskrit sú (also sū́ in the
Rigveda) ‘good, excellent, right, virtuous, beautiful, easy, well, rightly, much,
greatly, very, any, easily, quickly, willingly’ in su-kṛt-á-ḥ ‘a good or righteous
deed, a meritorious act, virtue, moral merit; a benefit, bounty, friendly
assistance, favor; good fortune, auspiciousness; reward, recompense’, su-kṛ́t-
‘doing good, benevolent, virtuous, pious; fortunate, well-fated, wise; making
good sacrifices or offerings; skillful’, su-kára-ḥ ‘easy to be done, easy to be
managed, easily achieving’, benevolence’, su-kára-m ‘doing good, charity, su-
divá-ḥ ‘a bright or fine day’, su-mánas- ‘well disposed’, etc.; Greek ὑ- in ὑ-γιής
‘sound, healthy’, ὑ-γίεια ‘soundness, health’, etc.; Old Irish su-, so- ‘good’ in
so-chor ‘good contract’, su-aitribthide ‘habitable’, so-lus ‘bright’, etc.; Welsh
hy- in hy-gar ‘well-beloved, lovable’, hy-dyn ‘tractable’, hy-fryd ‘pleasant’,
etc.; Old Icelandic sú- in sú-svort ‘nightingale’ (this word is obsolete in Modern
Icelandic); Lithuanian sū- in sū-drùs ‘luxuriant’, etc.; Old Church Slavic sъ- in
sъ-dravъ ‘healthy’, sъ-mrьtь (< *su-mr̥ tʰi-) ‘death’, etc.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *ś’º(a) ‘good’, *ś’ºəś’a ‘beneficent;

benefit, good deed’, *ś’ºəč’ʹa ‘gratitude’: Kabardian f’ə ‘good’, f'əś’a
‘beneficent; benefit, good deed’, f’əś’a ‘gratitude’; Bžedux ś’ºə ‘good’, ś’ºəś’a
‘beneficent; benefit, good deed’, ś’ºəč’ʹa ‘gratitude’. Note: Kuipers (1975:32)
writes *ş̓º(a).
193. Proto-Indo-European *t’es-/*t’os- ‘to become weak, exhausted’ (only in

Sanskrit): Sanskrit dásyati ‘to suffer want, to waste away, to perish; to become
exhausted; to be ruined’, dasana-m ‘wasting, perishing, destroying’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *t’aSx̌ a ‘to become weak/shaky’:

Temirgoy t’āsx̌ a ‘to become weak/shaky, unstable; vulnerable spot’; Kabardian
t’āsx̌ a ‘to become weak/shaky, unstable; vulnerable spot’; Bžedux t’ax̌ să (<
*t’aSx̌ a) ‘weak, exhausted’. Circassian (Bžedux) loan in Abkhaz: South
Abkhaz a-t’áɣsa ‘weak, languid, exhausted (often of an ill person)’; Abaza /
Tapanta t’ax̌ sa ‘not strong, weak, poor’.

194. Proto-Indo-European (adj.) *wordʰ-o-s ‘grown, full-grown, tall, upright’, (adj.)

*wr̥ dʰ-o-s ‘raised, upright, tall’, (verb stem) *werdʰ-/*wordʰ-/*wr̥ dʰ- ‘to raise, to
elevate; to grow, to increase’: Sanskrit várdha-ḥ ‘increasing, growing,
thriving’, vṛddhá-ḥ ‘grown, become larger or longer or stronger, increased,
augmented, great, large; experienced, wise, learned; eminent in, distinguished
by’, vṛddhi-ḥ ‘growth, increase, augmentation, rise, advancement’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *warq:ə ‘nobleman’: Temirgoy warqə

‘nobleman’; Kabardian warq’ ‘nobleman’. Note: These may be late loans from
Indo-Aryan (personal communication from John Colarusso).
XIX. Speech, Language
195. Proto-Indo-European *bʰeʔgʰ-/*bʰoʔgʰ- (> *bʰēgʰ-/*bʰōgʰ-) ‘to contend, to

quarrel, to argue; conflict, strife, quarrel, argument’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Old Icelandic
bágr ‘contest, strife, conflict’, bKgja ‘to push back, to hinder; to treat harshly,
to oppress; to quarrel’; Old High German bāgan (also pāgan) ‘to contend, to
quarrel, to argue, to squabble’, bāga (also pāga) ‘quarrel, argblument’; Old
Irish bágim ‘to fight, to contend, to quarrel’, bág ‘contest, contention, fight;
boasting, vowing; vow, pledge, obligation, bond, alliance’; Latvian buôztiês ‘to
become angry’; Tocharian B pakwāre ‘evil, bad; evil one’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *bɣa (< *bɢa) ‘prayer; to damn, to

curse’: Bzyp a-bɣa-ra ‘prayer; to damn, to curse’. Note: Chirikba (1996b:17)
writes Common Abkhaz *b¦a.
Note: Common Abkhaz *ɣ = Proto-Indo-European *gʰ.
196. Proto-Indo-European *bʰel-/*bʰl- ‘(vb.) to babble, to chatter; (n.) idle talk, idle
chatter’: Tocharian A plāc, B plāce ‘word, (idle) talk, speech; reply’. Perhaps
also Greek φλεδών ‘idle talk’, φλέδων ‘idle talker’, φλεδονεύομαι ‘to babble’,
φλέω (Hesychius) ‘to babble’, φληναφάω ‘to chatter, to babble’, φλήναφος,
φλῆνος ‘idle talk, nonsense; babbler’. Note: Beekes (2010.II:1577) considers
these and several other Greek forms to be of Pre-Greek origin.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *bəl-bəl ‘to chatter’:

Abaza / Tapanta bəl-bəl-ra ‘to chatter’.
197. Proto-Indo-European *bʰer-/*bʰor-/*bʰr̥ - ‘to make a sound, to hum, to buzz, to

mutter’: Sanskrit bambhara-ḥ ‘bee’, bambharālī̆- ‘fly’; Armenian boṙ ‘bumble-
bee, hornet’; Greek πεμφρηδών ‘a kind of wasp’; Lithuanian barbjti ‘to jingle,
to clink’, birbiù, birbiaũ, birt̃ i ‘to play a reed(-pipe)/flute’, burbiù, burbjti ‘to
mutter, to mumble, to grumble’.

90 Allan R. Bomhard
A. (1) Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *bar-bár ‘(to) chatter, jabber, babble’:
South Abkhaz a-barbár-ra ‘(to) chatter, jabber; babble’. (2) Common
Abkhaz (reduplicated) *bər-bər (a variant of *bar-bár) ‘to grumble, to
growl’: Abaza / Tapanta (adv.) bər-bə́r-ħºa (adv.) ‘growling, grumbling’;
Abzhywa d-bər-bər-wa ‘be grumbling’.
B. Ubykh bərsə́r ‘noise, murmur, rumble (of a crowd)’.
198. Proto-Indo-European *bʰes- ‘to speak, to utter’ (Tocharian only): Tocharian B

päs- ‘to speak, to utter’, klautsaine päs- ‘to whisper’. Note: According to
Adams (2013:408), not derived from either Proto-Indo-European *pes- ‘to
blow’ or *bʰes- ‘to blow’.
A. (1) Common Abkhaz *bəzə́ ‘tongue’: South Abkhaz a-bz ‘tongue’, (indef.
sg. bzə-k’, bzə-k’ə́), a-r-bza-ra ‘to lick’; Ashkharywa á-bəz ‘tongue’;
Abaza / Tapanta bzə ‘tongue’, (def. á-bəz; indef. sg. bzə-k’), r-bza-rá ‘to
lick’; (2) Common Abkhaz *bəz-šºá ‘language’: Abaza / Tapanta bəzšºá
‘language’; Ashkharywa a-bəzšºá ‘language’; South Abkhaz a-bəzšºá
‘language’; (3) Common Abkhaz *bəz-a(r)-ʒ́ə ‘news, rumor; praise’: Bzyp
a-bzáʒ́ ‘news, rumor; praise’; Abzhywa a-bza(r)ʒə́ ‘news, rumor; praise’;
(4) Common Abkhaz *bəzə-r-ga ‘to be put off (by too much praise)’
(*bəzə ‘tongue’, r- causative, *ga ‘to carry’): Bzyp a-bzərga-ra ‘to be put
off (by too much praise); to perform an exorcism’. Circassian loan in:
Bzyp a-bzamə́q’º ‘fool’; Abzhywa á-bzaməq’º ‘fool; deaf’; Abaza /
Tapanta bzamə́q’º ‘having poor knowledge of a foreign language; dumb;
unable to speak’; Akhutsa á-bzaməq’º ‘fool’. Note also: Ubykh bża:mə́q̄ ’º
‘dumb, mute’.
B. Ubykh bza ‘speech, language’, šʹəbzá ‘our language’, that is, ‘Ubykh’.
C. (1) Proto-Circassian *Pza ‘language’: Bžedux bza ‘language’; Kabardian
bza ‘language’; (2) Proto-Circassian *Pzagºə ‘tongue’: Bžedux bzagºə
‘tongue’; Kabardian bzagº ‘tongue’; (3) Proto-Circassian *Pzak:ºa ‘dumb
(without speech)’: Bžedux bzāk:ºa ‘dumb (without speech)’; Kabardian
bzāgºa ‘dumb (without speech)’; (4) Proto-Circassian *Pzay(a) ‘to lick’:
Bžedux bzāya, bzayə ‘to lick’; Kabardian bzay ‘to lick’.
Note: Proto-Indo-European *bʰVs- = Proto-Circassian *PzV-; Ubykh bzV-;

Common Abkhaz *bVz-, *bzV-.
199. Proto-Indo-European *gʰer-/*gʰor-/*gʰr̥ - ‘to growl, to wail, to weep, to cry

(out)’ (onomatopoeic): Latin hirriō ‘to growl’; Armenian ger ‘to wail’; Gothic
grētan ‘to weep, to lament’, grēts ‘weeping’; Old Icelandic gráta ‘to weep, to
bewail’, grátr ‘weeping’; Swedish gråta ‘to weep’, gråt ‘weeping’; Old
English grbtan ‘to weep’, grbdan ‘to cry out, to call out’; Old Saxon grātan
‘to weep’; Middle High German grazen ‘to cry out, to rage, to storm’.

Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *ɣʹarǝ-ɣʹarǝ (onomato-

poeic) ‘to rattle, to jingle; sound of beating or striking (against something);
rattle, clapper’: South Abkhaz a-ɣʹar-ɣʹár-ra ‘to rattle, to jingle; sound of
beating or striking (against something)’, a-ɣʹar-ɣʹár ‘rattle, clapper’; Abaza /
Tapanta ɣʹar-ɣʹár ‘rattle, clapper; description of the sound produced by moving
transport’.
Note: Common Abkhaz *ɣʹ = Proto-Indo-European *gʰ.
200. Proto-Indo-European *gʷʰrem-/*gʷʰrom-/*gʷʰrm̥ - ‘to roar, to growl, to howl, to

rage’: Latin fremō ‘to roar, to murmur, to growl, to rage, to snort, to howl’; Old
English grimman ‘to rage, to fret, to roar, to cry out, to grunt’; Old Saxon
grimman ‘to rage’; Old High German grimmen ‘to rage, to yell’. Note: The
Latin form could be from Proto-Indo-European *bʰrem-/*bʰrom-/*bʰrm̥ - ‘to
roar, to growl, to howl’ instead (derivative of *bʰer-/*bʰor-/*bʰr̥ - ‘to make a
sound, to hum, to buzz, to mutter’ listed above).
A. Common Abkhaz *gº(ə)rə́mə ‘to groan, to grumble’: Abaza / Tapanta
gºrəm ‘moan, groan’, gºrəm-ra ‘to moan, to groan; to moo, to bellow (of
animals)’; South Abkhaz a-gºrə́m-ra ‘to grumble, to mumble’.
B. Ubykh (reduplicated) *gºərgºə́rgº ‘the sound made by the rustling of water
or the rumble of wheels’.
201. Proto-Indo-European *k’eh-y- [*k’ah-y-] (> *k’āy-) ‘to caw, to croak’ (*h =
*ə̯₄): Sanskrit gā́ yati ‘to sing’, gāya-ḥ ‘song’, gā́ thā ‘song, verse’; Lithuanian
giedóti ‘to sing’; Old Russian gajati ‘to caw, to croak’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Northwest Caucasian *k’ʹǝjǝ ‘to shriek, to

howl, to mew, to caw’ (cf. Chirikba 1996a:203):
A. Common Abkhaz *k’ʹǝ́jǝ ‘to mew; to caw (of some birds, for example, of
raven)’: South Abkhaz a-k’ʹǝ́j-ra ‘to mew; to caw (of some birds, for
example, of raven)’
B. Proto-Circassian *k’ǝyǝ ‘to shriek, to howl’: Kabardian k’ǝy ‘to shriek, to
howl’; Bžedux č’ʹǝyǝ ‘to shriek, to howl’.
202. Proto-Indo-European *k’er-/*k’or-/*k’r̥ - ‘to cry out, to call, to screech’:

Sanskrit járate ‘to call out to, to address, to invoke; to crackle (fire)’; Crimean
Gothic criten ‘to cry’; Old Icelandic krutr ‘murmur’, krytja ‘to murmur, to
grumple’, krytr ‘noise, murmur’; Old English ceorran ‘to creak’, ceorian ‘to
murmur, to grumble’, ceorcian ‘to complain’, cracian ‘to resound’, crācettan
‘to croak’, crāwian ‘to crow’; Old Saxon *krāian ‘to crow’; Old High German
crāen, krāhen, chrāen, khrāen ‘to crow’; Old Chruch Slavic grajǫ, grajati ‘to
crow, to caw’.

92 Allan R. Bomhard
A. Proto-Circassian *k’ə(r)ǧə ‘to squeak, to creak’: Bžedux č’ʹərǧə ‘to
squeak, to creak’; Kabardian k’əǧ ‘to squeak, to creak’.
B. Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *k’ar-k’arə ‘to crackle’: South Abkhaz
á-k’ark’ar-ra ‘to cackle’. Note: The Indo-European forms may also be
compared with Common Abkhaz *q’ərə ‘to croak, to caw’ (see below).
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *q’ərə ‘to croak, to craw’: South

Abkhaz a-q’ə́r-ra ‘to croak, to caw’, (reduplicated) á-q’ər-q’ər-ħa description
of loud laughter; Bzyp a-q’rə́ ‘a kind of bird’. Note: The Indo-European forms
may also be compared with Proto-Circassian *k’ə(r)ǧə ‘to squeak, to creak’ and
Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *k’ar-k’arə ‘to cackle’ (see above).
203. Proto-Indo-European *k’ʷetʰ-/*k’ʷotʰ- ‘to say, to speak, to call: Armenian

koč ̣em (< *k’ʷotʰ-y-) ‘to call, to invite, to invoke, to name’, koč ̣ ‘call,
invitation’; Gothic qiþan ‘to say’; Old Icelandic kveða ‘to say’; Old English
cweþan ‘to say, to speak’; Old Frisian quetha ‘to speak’; Old Saxon queđan ‘to
speak’; Old High German quedan ‘to speak’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *q’ºatʰa ‘to tell, to report; to announce,

to make known’: Bžedux "ºātʰa ‘to tell, to report’; Kabardian "ºāta ‘to
announce, to make known’.
204. Proto-Indo-European (reduplicated) (onomatopoeic) *p’ar-p’ar- ‘(vb.) to

babble, to prattle, to chatter, to jabber; (n.) unclear speech, gibberish’: Sanskrit
barbara-ḥ ‘a blockhead, fool, barbarian, anyone not a Sanskrit speaker, not an
Aryan’; Greek βάρβαρος ‘barbarous, that is, not Greek, foreign’, βαρβαρίζω ‘to
behave like a barbarian, to speak like one; to speak broken Greek, to speak
gibberish’, βαρβαρικός ‘barbaric, foreign; like a foreigner’; Latin barbarus
(Greek loan) ‘of or belonging to a foreign country or region, foreign (from a
Greek point of view)’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *p’ar-p’arə́ ‘to chatter,

to jabber’ (onomatopoeic): South Abkhaz a-p’ar-p’ar-rá ‘to chatter, to jabber’,
a-p’ar-p’ár-jºə ‘chatterer’; Abaza / Tapanta p’ar-p’ar ‘endless chatter’.
205. Proto-Indo-European *we‿ ʕɦ- [*wa‿

ʕɦ-]/*wo‿
ʕɦ- (> *wā-/*wō-) ‘to call, to cry
ʕɦ = *ə̯₃): Greek ἠχή (< *+ᾱχᾱ́) ‘sound, noise’; Latin vāgiō ‘to cry, to
out’(*‿
whimper’; Gothic wōpjan ‘to call, to cry out’; Old Icelandic œpa ‘to cry, to
shout; to call, to cry out (to someone)’, óp ‘shout, shouting; crying, weeping’;
Old English wēpan ‘to weep’ (past participle wōpen), wōp ‘weeping’; Old
Frisian wēpa ‘to cry aloud’; Old Saxon wōpian ‘to bewail’; Old High German
wuoffen, wuofan ‘to bewail’, wuof ‘weeping, sobbing’; Old Church Slavic
vabljǫ, vabiti ‘to call, to entice’.

A. (1) Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *wə́wə ‘to howl’: South Abkhaz
a-wwə́-ra ‘to howl’; Abaza / Tapanta wə́w-ra ‘to howl’, wəw ‘howl’. (2)
Common Abkhaz *wáwə: Abaza / Tapanta waw ‘cry’; South Abkhaz a-
wáw ‘weeping, crying (at funerals)’.
B. Ubykh wəw- ‘to howl’, as in áwa wəwə́n ‘the dog is howling’.
Note also:
Northwest Caucasian: Ubykh wax- ‘to shout, to cry out’ (sǝwaxǝ́n ‘I cry out’),
waxǝ́ ‘shout, cry’ in waxǝq’ak’ʹa ‘the sound of crying, shouting’.
Notes:
1. The second entry is an alternative to the initial proposal. It requires that a
different laryngeal be reconstructed for the Proto-Indo-European root.
2. Ubykh x corresponds to *‿ ħh (= *ə̯₂) in Proto-Indo-European.
206. Proto-Indo-European *wer-/*wor- ‘to say, to speak, to tell’: Greek εἴρω (<
*+ερɩ̯ ω) ‘to say, to speak, to tell’; Hittite (3rd sg. pres.) ú-e-ri-ya-zi ‘to invite, to
summon, to name’; Palaic (3rd sg. pres.) ú-e-er-ti ‘to say, to call’; Latin verbum
‘word’; Gothic waurd ‘word’; Old Icelandic orð ‘word’, orðigr ‘wordy’, yrða
‘to speak’; Old English word ‘word’, ge-wyrd(e) ‘conversation’, wordig
‘talkative’; Old Saxon word ‘word’; Dutch woord ‘word’; Old High German
wort ‘word’; Old Prussian (nom. sg. m.) wīrds, wirds ‘word’ (acc. sg. m.
wirdan); Lithuanian var͂ das ‘name’.
A. Common Abkhaz *war-šº/sár ‘to speak noisily, loudly’: Bzyp a-war-šºár
‘to speak noisily, loudly’; Abaza / Tapanta war-sár ‘to speak noisily,
loudly’.
B. Ubykh wárada ‘song, tune’, wárada sq’án ‘I sing’.
XX. Numerals
207. Proto-Indo-European *ʔoy-no- ‘single, alone, solitary; one’ (with non-

apophonic -o-) (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Latin ūnus ‘one’ [Old Latin oinos]; Umbrian unu
‘one’; Old Irish óen, óin ‘one’; Welsh un ‘one’; Gothic ains ‘one’; Old
Icelandic einn ‘one’; Faroese ein ‘one’; Danish en ‘one’; Norwegian ein ‘one’;
Old Swedish en ‘one’; Old English ān ‘one; alone, sole, lonely; singular,
unique’; Old Frisian ān, ēn ‘one’; Old Saxon ēn ‘one’; Dutch een ‘one’; Old
High German ein ‘one’ (New High German ein); Albanian një ‘one’;
Lithuanian víenas (with unexplained initial v-) ‘one; alone’; Latvian viêns
‘one’; Old Prussian ains ‘one’; Old Church Slavic inъ ‘some(one), other’;
Russian Church Slavic inokyj ‘only, sole, solitary’; Russian inój [иной]
‘different, other’. It is also found in Greek οἴνη, οἰνός ‘roll of one (in dice)’.

94 Allan R. Bomhard
A. Common Abkhaz *ja-nǝ- ‘all, whole’: Abaza / Tapanta ján-la ‘whole (of
time term)’; Bzyp jan-gʹ ‘always, all the time’.
B. Proto-Circassian *yanǝ ‘whole’: Kabardian yan ‘whole (for example,
day)’.
Note: No doubt, the original semantic range was as follows in Northwest

Caucasian: (sg.) ‘one, every one’ ~ (pl.) ‘all’ ~ (coll.) ‘whole’.
Eventually, the connotations ‘one, every one’ were lost. For a discussion
of the semantic developments among forms with the meanings ‘whole’ ~
‘one, every one’ ~ ‘all’ in the Indo-European daughter languages, cf.
Buck 1949:§13.13 whole and §13.14 every; all (pl.).
Discussion: In Proto-Indo-European, there were three extended forms of the

basic stem *ʔoy- ‘single, alone, solitary; one’:
1. *ʔoy-no-: see above for examples.

2. *ʔoy-wo-: Avestan aēva- ‘one’; Old Persian aiva- ‘one’; Greek οἶος ‘alone,
lone, lonely’ (Cyprian οἶ+ος).
3. *ʔoy-kʰo-: Sanskrit éka-ḥ ‘one’; Mitanni (“Proto-Indic”) aika- ‘one’.
Now, as it happens, the basic stem *ʔoy- ‘single, alone, solitary; one’ extracted
from the three extended forms given above has a solid Nostratic etymology (cf.
Bomhard 2021.3:804—806, no. 681, for details). Related forms are found in
Afroasiatic (specifically, Semitic [Arabic] and Berber), Uralic (specifically,
Samoyed), and Altaic / Transeurasian (specifically, Tungus [Oroch]). This
indicates that the stem was ancient in Proto-Indo-European and that, therefore,
Proto-Indo-European must have been the source language from which the term
was borrowed by Northwest Caucasian.
As an aside, it may be noted that there must have been a certain amount of
fluidity in early Proto-Indo-European in the expression of the number ‘one’.
This is based upon the fact that there are competing terms attested in the
various Indo-European daughter languages. First, there are the derivatives of
the stem *ʔoy-, discussed above. Then, there was the stem *sem-, which served
as the basis for the following Greek and Armenian forms: Attic (nom. sg. m.)
εἷς ‘one’, Doric ἧς ‘one, Cretan ἔνς (< *ἕνς < *ἕμς < *sems) ‘one’; Attic (f.) μία
(< *σμ-ια) ‘one’; Armenian mi ‘one’. Next, there was the stem *pʰer-, which
served as the basis for the ordinal number in the daughter languages, thus:
*pʰer-/*pʰr̥ - ‘first’ (extended forms: *pʰr̥ H-wo-, *pʰr̥ H-mo-, *pʰrey-mo-, *pʰrey-
wo-, *pʰroH-tʰo-, *pʰroH-mo-, etc.). Finally, there was the stem *si-H, *sy-o-,
which served as the basis for: Hittite *šia- ‘one’ (nom. sg. c. 1-iš, 1-aš; acc. sg.
1-an; etc.); Greek (Homeric) (f.) ἴα ‘one’ (cf. Kloekhorst 2008:750—751) (see
below).

208. Proto-Indo-European *si-H, *sy-o- ‘one’: Hittite *šia- ‘one’ (nom. sg. c. 1-iš,
1-aš; acc. sg. 1-an; etc.); Greek (Homeric) (f.) ἴα ‘one’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *šʰʹǝ- in *šʰʹǝpʰa ‘first, for the first

time’: Bžedux šʰʹǝpʰa ‘first, for the first time’; Kabardian śǝpa ‘first, for the
first time’.
Note: Proto-Circassian šʰʹ is represented as *s in Proto-Indo-European.
209. Proto-Indo-European (*t’uʔʷ-o-, *t’uʔʷ-i- >) *t’(u)wo-, *t’(u)wi- ‘two’ (*ʔʷ =

*ə̯₁ʷ): Sanskrit (m.) dváu, dvā́ (Vedic also duváu, duvā́ ), (f./n.) dvé (Vedic also
duvé), dvi- (in composition) ‘two’, dviká-ḥ ‘consisting of two’, dvíḥ ‘twice’;
Avestan (m.) dva, (f./n.) baē ‘two’, biš ‘twice’; Greek δύω ‘two’ (uninflected
δύο), δίς ‘twice, doubly’; Latin duo, (f.) duae ‘two’, bīnī ‘twofold, twice’, bis
‘twice’; Old Irish dáu, dóu, dó ‘two’, dé- (in composition) ‘two-, double’; Old
Welsh dou ‘two’; Albanian (Gheg) (m.) dy, (f.) dȳ ‘two’; Gothic (m.) twai, (f.)
twōs, (n.) twa ‘two’; Old Icelandic (m.) tveir, (f.) tvKr, (n.) tvau ‘two’, tvennr,
tvinnr ‘consisting of two different things or kinds, twofold, in pairs’, tví- (in
compounds) ‘twice, double’, tvisvar, tysvar ‘twice’; Old English (m.) twēgen,
(f./n.) twā, (n.) tū ‘two’, twi- (prefix) ‘two’, twinn ‘double’, twiwa ‘twice’; Old
Frisian (m.) twēne, tvēne, (f./n.) tva ‘two’, twi- (prefix) ‘twice, double’, twia
(adv.) ‘twice, double’; Old High German (m.) zwēne, (f.) zwā, zwō, (n.) zwei
‘two’, zwi- (prefix) ‘twice, double’; Lithuanian (m.) dù, (f.) dvì ‘two’; Latvian
(m./f.) divi ‘two’; Old Prussian (m./f.) dwai ‘two’; Old Church Slavic (m.)
dъva, (f./n.) dъvě ‘two’; Hieroglyphic Luwian tuwa- ‘two’; Lycian kbi-,
(Milyan) tbi- ‘two’.
A. Proto-Circassian *Tq’º(a) ‘two’: Kabardian t’ʔºə ‘two (twice)’; Bžedux
t’º(a) ‘two (twice)’; Temirgoy t’ºə ‘two’; Ubykh t’q’ºa ‘two’. Note: In his
2007 review of Chirikba’s monograph Common West Caucasian, Sergej
Starostin reconstructs Proto-Circassian *ṭʡʷə ‘two’.
B. Abkhaz ʕºə (< *tʕºə < *t’q’ºə) ‘two’ (personal communication from John
Colarusso).
C. Ubykh t’q’ºá ‘two’.
XXI. Measurement
210. Proto-Indo-European *kʰan-dʰ-(/*kʰn̥ -dʰ-) ‘corner, edge, border’: Albanian

kënd, kand (m. pl. kënde, kande) ‘corner, angle; seam, edge, border’; Greek
κανθός ‘corner of the eye’.
Notes:
1. According to Orël (1998:178), Albanian kënd, kand ‘corner, angle; seam,
edge, border’ is an early borrowing from Proto-Slavic *kǫtъ ‘corner’ (cf.

96 Allan R. Bomhard
Russian kut [кут] ‘corner, blind alley’; Serbo-Croatian kȗt ‘corner, angle’;
Slovenian kǫ́t ‘corner’; Bulgarian kăt ‘corner, angle’; Czech kout ‘corner’;
Polish kąt ‘corner’), while Meyer (1891:174) derives it from Italian canto
‘corner, angle’. However, Derksen (2008:244) derives Proto-Slavic *kǫtъ
from Balto-Slavic *komp- and compares Lithuanian kam͂ pas ‘corner, angle;
nook’, thus invalidating the comparison with Proto-Slavic *kǫtъ.
2. The comparison of Albanian kënd, kand with Greek κανθός was suggested
by Mann (1984—1987:470), who reconstructs Proto-Indo-European
*kanthos, -us; *kant- ‘side, edge, corner’. Mann reconstructs *-th- to
accommodate the Celtic and Balto-Slavic forms he includes in his
etymology.
3. According to Beekes (2010.I:635—636) and Frisk (1970—1973.I:776—
777), there is no Indo-European etymology for Greek κανθός ‘corner of the
eye’. Beekes assumes that it is Pre-Greek in origin. Boisacq (1950:406)
reconstructs Proto-Indo-European *qanth- and also compares Proto-Slavic
*kǫtъ, in addition to Welsh cant ‘circle; rim, border, edge, boundary; tire,
belt, girdle, girth’ and Breton kant ‘circle, disk’, but this is questioned by
Chantraine (1968—1980:I:492). Chantraine also mentions the possibility
that Greek κανθός may be Pre-Greek in origin.
4. The comparison of Greek κανθός with the Celtic forms mentioned above
has been rightly rejected. Thus, we are left with the Albanian and Greek
forms as the only two possible candidates for inclusion here. Substrate
origin cannot be ruled out for Greek κανθός, while Albanian kënd, kand
may ultimately be a loanword after all, though none of the theories
advanced so far are convincing.
5. Relationship to the following (no. 209) (Proto-Indo-European *kʰan-tʰ-
[/*kʰn̥ -tʰ-]) unknown.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *káda ‘side(s)’: South Abkhaz a-káda

‘side(s)’.
211. Proto-Indo-European *kʰan-tʰ-(/*kʰn̥ -tʰ-) ‘rim, border, edge, boundary’ (Celtic

only): Welsh cant ‘circle; rim, border, edge, boundary; tire, belt, girdle, girth’
and Breton kant ‘circle, disk’.
Notes:
1. Relationship to the preceding (no. 208) (Proto-Indo-European *kʰan-dʰ-
[/*kʰn̥ -dʰ-]) unknown.
2. Not in Falileyev 2000 or Matasović 2009.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *qata ‘side, edge’: Abaza / Tapanta

qata ‘side, edge’.

212. Proto-Indo-European *metʰ-/*motʰ- ‘(vb.) to measure; (n.) measure, quantity’

(Baltic only): Lithuanian mãtas ‘measure, index; (dial.) size, quantity’, me͂ tas
‘time, period; (pl.) year’, matúoju, matúoti ‘to measure’; Latvian męts ‘time,
period’; Old Prussian mattei ‘measure’, mettan, metthe, mette ‘year’.
Notes:
1. Greek μέτρον (< *metʰ-ro-) ‘measure, goal, length, size, limit; meter’
(Greek loanword in Latin metrum ‘poetic rhythm, meter’) may belong here
as well, assuming that it is derived from a different Proto-Indo-European
root than that preserved in μήτρα ‘areal measure’ (cf. Sanskrit mā́ -tra-m
‘measure, quantity, sum, size, duration, etc.’) (< Proto-Indo-European
*meE- ‘to measure’).
2. It appears that there were several different roots for ‘to measure’ in Proto-
Indo-European: (1) *met’- (traditional *med-); (2) *meʔ- (traditional *mē-;
*meə̯₁-; *meh₁-; *me¦-; etc.); (3) *metʰ- (traditional *met-). Cf. Derksen
2015:307.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *ma(r)t:a ‘quantity, measure’:

Temirgoy māta ‘quantity, measure’; Kabardian mārda ‘quantity, measure’.
Note: Possible metathesis in Kabardian, in which case the Proto-Circassian
form would have been *mat:(r)a. This would be more compatible with the
Indo-European forms cited above, especially Greek μέτρον.
XXII. Verb Stems
213. Proto-Indo-European *ʔem- ‘to grab, to grip, to take; to get, to obtain’ (*ʔ =
*ə̯₁): Latin emō ‘to buy, to purchase; to take’; Lithuanian im̃ ti ‘to take’; Old
Church Slavic jęti ‘to take’, imati ‘to take, to gather’, iměti ‘to have’; Russian
imátʹ [имать] (dial.) ‘to have, to possess’, imétʹ [иметь] ‘to have, to possess, to
own; to get, to obtain’; Czech jímati ‘to take, to seize’; Serbo-Croatian jéti ‘to
take’, ìmati, imjeti ‘to have’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ámɦa ‘handle, grip’: South Abkhaz

ámaa ‘handle, grip’; Abaza / Tapanta ámɦa ‘handle, grip’ (indef. sg. ámɦa-k’).
Note: According to Chirikba (1996b:9), Common Abkhaz *ámɦa is a

derivative of *ma ‘hand’ and is to be analyzed as *a-ma-ɦa.
214. Proto-Indo-European *ʔepʰ-/*ʔopʰ- ‘to take, to grab’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Latin apīscor
‘to seize, to grasp; to get, to obtain’, apiō ‘to tie, to fasten’; Hittite (3rd sg. pres.
act.) e-ep-zi ‘to take, to seize, to grab, to pick, to capture’; Sanskrit āpnóti ‘to
reach, to overtake’.

98 Allan R. Bomhard
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *apə-šʹə́ ‘to connect, to bind’: Bzyp

apə-šʹ-ra ‘to connect, to bind’; Abaza / Tapanta ap-šʹə-l-ra ‘to connect, to bind’
(j-apə-l-šʹə́-l-d ‘she connected it’).
215. Proto-Indo-European *ʔes-/ʔs- ‘to be’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Hittite (3rd sg. pres. act.)
e-eš-zi ‘he/she/it is’; Sanskrit (sg.) ásmi ‘I am’, ási ‘you are’, ásti ‘he/she/it is’,
(pl.) smás ‘we are’, sthá ‘you are’, sánti ‘they are’; Avestan asti ‘he/she/it is’;
Greek (Homeric) εἰμί ‘I am’; Latin est ‘he/she/it is’; Umbrian est ‘he/she/it is’;
Venetic est ‘he/she/it is’; Old Irish is ‘he/she/it is’; Gothic ist ‘he/she/it is’; Old
Icelandic es ‘he/she/it is’; Old Lithuanian ẽsti ‘he/she/it is’; Old Church Slavic
jestь ‘he/she/it is’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Northwest Caucasian *šʹǝ- ‘to be, to become’

(cf. Chirikba 1996a:264): Ubykh šʹ- ‘to be, to become’ (sǝšʹǝ́n ‘I am’, etc.).
Perhaps also found in the following Ubykh forms: (1) yǝ-šʹ- ‘to do, to make’
(áysšʹǝn ‘I do it’, áynšʹǝn ‘he does it’, áyšʹšʹǝn ‘we do it’, etc.); (2) mǝšʹǝ́ ‘that
which is not ripe’, šʹayǝn ‘ripening, ripe’.
Notes:
1. Starostin—Nikolayev (1994: 663) compare Ubykh šʹǝ- ‘to be, to become’
with the following: Abkhaz -χa- ‘to be, to become’, Abaza / Tapanta -χa-
‘to be, to become’, used in compounds. However, this proposal seems
unlikely in view of the sound correspondences established by Chirikba
(1996a: 174—178), according to which Common Northwest Caucasian *šʹ
becomes Common Abkhaz *šʹ, Common Circassian *šʰʹ/*š:ʹ, Ubykh šʹ. It
is Chirikba’s views that are followed here.
2. Chirikba (1996a:264) also compares Common Circassian *šʰʹǝ-šʰʹǝ ‘to be
from, to belong to, to be part of’ (*šʰʹǝ- locative prefix). Not in Kuipers
1975.
Note: Ubykh šʹ is represented as *s in Proto-Indo-European.
216. Proto-Indo-European *ʔey-/*ʔoy-/*ʔi- ‘to go’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Greek (1st sg. pres.)
εἶμι ‘I go’, (1st pl. pres.) ἴμεν ‘we go’; Sanskrit (1st sg. pres.) émi ‘I go’, (3rd
sg. pres.) éti ‘goes’, (1st pl. pres.) imáḥ ‘we go’, (3rd pl. pres.) yánti ‘they go’,
(3rd sg. pres.) yā́ ti ‘goes, moves, rides’; Latin (1st sg. pres.) eō ‘I go’; Old
Lithuanian (3rd sg. pres.) eĩti ‘goes’; Old Prussian (3rd sg. pres.) ēit ‘goes’,
per-ēit ‘comes’; Old Church Slavic ido˛, iti ‘to go’; Luwian (3rd sg. pres.) i-ti
‘goes’; Hittite (imptv.) i-it ‘go!’; Tocharian A (1st pl.) ymäs ‘we go’, B (1st sg.)
yam, yaṁ ‘I go’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *jə ‘to come, to go’: Abaza / Tapanta
ɦá-j-ra ‘to come’, na-j-ra ‘to go’ (na- ‘thither’); South Abkhaz aá-j-ra ‘to
come’, a-ná-j-ra ‘to go’.

217. Proto-Indo-European *bʰeʔ-/*bʰoʔ- (> *bʰē-/*bʰō-) ‘to warm, to roast, to toast,

to parch’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Greek φώγω (< *bʰō-k’- < *bʰoʔ-k’-) ‘to roast, to toast, to
parch’; Old High German bāen, bājan ‘to warm by poultices, to foment, to
toast (bread)’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ba ‘dry’: South Abkhaz a-ba-rá ‘to
dry up’; Abaza / Tapanta a-ba-rá // bá-x̌ -ra ‘to dry up’, ba-x̌ , ba-p ‘dry’.
218. Proto-Indo-European *bʰek’-/*bʰok’- ‘to cut or split apart, to break apart’, (with
nasal infix) *bʰenk’-/*bʰonk’-: Sanskrit bhanákti ‘to break, to shatter’, bhagna-ḥ
‘broken, broken down, broken to pieces, shattered; etc.’; Armenian bekanem ‘to
break’; Old Irish bongid ‘to break, to reap’. Note: A slightly different root with
a similar semantic range can be reconstructed as well: Proto-Indo-European
*bʰak’- ‘to divide into parts, to apportion, to distribute’: Sanskrit bhájati ‘to
divide, to distribute; to receive; to enjoy’; Avestan bag- (bažaw) ‘to distribute’;
Greek φαγεῖν ‘to eat, to devour’; Tocharian A pāk, B pāke ‘part, portion’. For
details, cf. Rix 2001:65 and 66—67.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Northwest Caucasian *bǝk’ǝ ‘to press, to

squeeze, to pinch’ (cf. Chirikba 1996a:202 and 353):
A. Common Abkhaz *bǝk’ǝ ‘to pinch; to pinch the edge of patties, cookies
while preparing them’.
B. Proto-Circassian *Pk’ʹa ‘to trample down, to beat (a road); to stamp
leather; to sharpen (a sickle)’; Temirgoy pč’ǝ ‘to trample down, to beat (a
road)’, pč’a ‘to jump’; Šapsegh pśk’a ‘to jump’; Kabardian pk’ǝ ‘to stamp
leather; to sharpen (a sickle); to jump, to fly off’, pk’a ‘to jump; to
trample’. Note: Chirikba (1996a:202) writes Common Circassian *p’k’ʹǝ
‘to cut dough; to trample down, to beat (a road); to stamp leather’.
C. Ubykh bak’ʹ- ‘to press, to squeeze, to pinch’ (azbak’ʹǝn ‘I press, squeeze,
or pinch it’).
Note: For the semantics, cf. Old Icelandic þrúga ‘to press’, probably from the
same stem found in Welsh trychu ‘to cut, to hew, to pierce, to lop’;
Lithuanian trū́ kstu, trū́ kti ‘to rend, to break, to burst’, trū̃kis ‘crack, cleft,
gap’ (cf. Orël 2003:427 Proto-Germanic *þrūᵹanan). Cf. also Buck
1949:§9.342 press (vb.).
219. Proto-Indo-European *bʰel-/*bʰol- ‘to burn, to blaze’: (1) Proto-Indo-European

(extended form) *bʰlek’-/*bʰlok’-/*bʰl̥ k’-, *bʰelk’-/*bʰolk’-/*bʰl̥ k’- ‘to burn, to
blaze, to glow’: Sanskrit bhárgas- ‘splendor, radiance’; Greek φλέγω ‘to burn,
to blaze’; Latin fulgor ‘lightning’, flagrō ‘to blaze, to burn, to glow’; Old
Icelandic blakkr ‘dusky, black, dun’; Old English blKc ‘black’, blbcern,
blācern ‘lantern’; Old High German blah-, blach- ‘black’ (in compounds); Old
Church Slavic blagъ ‘good’. (2) Proto-Indo-European (extended form) *bʰlu-,
*bʰlu-H- (> *bʰlū-) ‘to burn, to blaze, to light up’: Old Icelandic blys ‘torch’;

100 Allan R. Bomhard
Old High German bluhhen ‘to burn, to light up’; Old English blysa ‘torch, fire’;
Middle Irish blosc ‘clear, evident’, bloscad ‘radiance’; Czech blčeti ‘to flash, to
blaze’, blýskati ‘to lighten, to flash’; Polish błysk ‘lightning’.
A. Proto-Circassian *Pla ‘to burn, to shine (intr.)’: Bžedux bla ‘to burn, to
shine (intr.)’; Kabardian bla ‘to burn, to shine (intr.)’.
B. Common Abkhaz *bələ́ ‘to burn’: Abaza / Tapanta bəl-rá ‘to burn, to put
into fire’, blə́bəl ‘very hot’, (reduplicated) blə́bəl-ra ‘to be (very) hot; to
burn (of a burn)’, a-blə́-ra ‘the place of burn, fire’; Bzyp a-blə́-ra ‘the
place of burn, fire’; South Abkhaz a-bəl-t’ºə́ ‘firewood’, a-bəl-rá ‘to burn,
to put into fire’; Ashkharywa a-bəl-t’á ‘firewood’.
220. Proto-Indo-European *bʰel-/*bʰol-/*bʰl̥ - ‘to glitter, to gleam, to shine’: Greek

φλέγω ‘(trans.) to burn, to scorch; (pass.) to become hot, to blaze up; (metaph.)
to kindle, to inflame; to make to blaze up, to rouse up, to excite; (intr.) to flame,
to blaze, to flash; to burst or break forth; to shine forth’; Latin fulgeō ‘to
lighten; to shine, to gleam, to glitter’, fulgur ‘lightning, thunderbolt’;
Lithuanian bãlas ‘white’, bálnas ‘white’, báltas ‘white’, (dial.) blìzgas ‘shine,
glimmer’, blizgjti ‘to shine, to sparkle’, blyškjti ‘to shine’; Old Church Slavic
bělъ ‘white’; Russian bélyj [белый] ‘white, clean’, belítʹ [белить] ‘to whiten; to
bleach, to blanch; to whitewash’. Note: For additional derivatives of Proto-
Indo-European *bʰel-/*bʰol-/*bʰl̥ - ‘to glitter, to gleam, to shine’, see the
preceding entries.
Northwest Caucasian: Kabardian blan [блэн] ‘to shine’ (cf. Djahukyan

1967:103). Note: For additional Northwest Caucasian cognates, see the
preceding entries.
221. Proto-Indo-European *bʰen- ‘to slay, to wound’: Gothic banja ‘strike, blow,
wound’; Old Icelandic bani ‘death, murder’, bana ‘to kill’, ben ‘mortal wound;
small bleeding wound’, bend ‘wound’; Old English bana ‘killer, slayer,
murderer’, benn ‘wound, mortal injury’; Old Frisian benethe ‘(accusation of)
homicide’; Old Saxon baneđi ‘mourning after a murder, death’; Old High
German bano ‘death, destruction’; Avestan bąn- ‘to make ill, to afflict’. For
discussion, cf. Kroonen 2013:51; Orël 2003:35 *baniþō and 35—36 *banjo; De
Vries 1977:32; Boutkan—Siebinga 2013:38.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *ban(a) ‘to fight’: Bžedux ya-ban ‘to

fight’; Kabardian bāna, ya-ban ‘to fight’.
222. Proto-Indo-European *bʰer-/*bʰor-/*bʰr̥ - ‘to fall, to fall down’ (extended form

*bʰrekʰ-/*bʰrokʰ-/*bʰr̥ kʰ-) (only in Sanskrit): Sanskrit bhṛśyati ‘to fall, to fall
down’, bhraśyate, bhráṁśate ‘to fall, to tumble, to drop or fall down, to fall
out’. For discussion, cf. Mayrhofer 1956—1980.II:525—526.

A. Common Abkhaz *bər(tə) ‘to reel, to stagger; to be confused, bewildered’:
South Abkhaz á-bər-ra ‘to stagger, to reel; to be confused, bewildered’;
Abaza / Tapanta bərt-rá ‘to reel, to stagger’.
B. Ubykh bar- ‘to stumble, to slip’.
223. Proto-Indo-European *bʰes-/*bʰos- ‘to breathe, to blow’: Sanskrit bhas- ‘to

breathe, to blow’ in: bhásma-ḥ, bhásman- ‘ashes’, bhāsmana-ḥ ‘made of or
consisting of ashes, ashy’, bhasita-ḥ ‘reduced to ashes’, bhastrā ‘leather bag,
bellows’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *bza ‘alive, life’: South Abkhaz a-bzá
‘alive’, a-bzá-za-ra ‘life’; Abaza / Tapanta bza ‘alive’, bzá-za-ra ‘life’.
Note: Proto-Indo-European *bʰVs- = Common Abkhaz *bzV-.
224. Proto-Indo-European *bʰewH-/*bʰowH-/*bʰuH- (> *bʰū-) ‘to come into being,

to become, to arise’: Sanskrit bhávati ‘to become, to be, to arise, to come into
being, to exist’, bhū́ ti-ḥ, bhūtí-ḥ ‘well-being, prosperity, wealth, fortune’; Greek
φύω ‘to bring forth, to produce, to put forth; to grow, to increase, to spring up,
to arise’; Latin (perfect) fuī ‘to be, to exist’; Old English bēon ‘to be, to exist, to
become, to happen’; Old Frisian (1st sg. pres.) bim ‘(I) am’; Old Saxon (1st sg.
pres.) bium, biom ‘(I) am’; Old High German (1st sg. pres.) bim ‘(I) am’
Lithuanian bū́ ti ‘to be, to exist’, bū̃vis ‘existence’; Russian bytʹ [быть] ‘to be’;
Old Church Slavic byti ‘to be’; Serbo-Croatian bı̏ ti ‘to be’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *baw(a) ‘to kiss, to breathe’: Bžedux

ya-bawə/bāwa, ya-baw ‘to kiss, to breathe’; Temirgoy bawa-n ‘to kiss, to
breathe’.
225. Proto-Indo-European *bʰit’- ‘to split, to cleave’ (also, with n-infix, *bʰint’-):
Sanskrit (1st sg.) bhinádmi ‘to split, to cleave, to pierce’ (3rd pl. bhindánti);
Latin findō ‘to split, to cleave, to separate, to divide’. Full-grade (*bʰeyt’-) in:
Gothic *beitan ‘to bite’; Old English bītan ‘to bite; to cut, to wound’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *bć’a ‘to reap, to crop’: Abzhywa

a-bc’a-rá ‘to reap, to crop’; Bzyp a-bć’a-rá ‘to reap, to crop’. Perhaps also:
Common Abkhaz *bəć’ə́ ‘to crumble, to crumple, to rumple’: Abaza / Tapanta
r-bc’-rá ‘to crumble, to crumple, to rumple’; Bzyp a-r-bć’-rá ‘to crumble, to
crumple, to rumple’; Abzhywa a-r-bəc’-rá ‘to crumble, to crumple, to rumple’.
Note: Common Abkhaz *ć’ = Proto-Indo-European *t’.
226. Proto-Indo-European *bʰugʰ- ‘curve, bend, corner, angle’ (only in Germanic):

Old Icelandic bugr ‘a bowing, winding’; Norwegian bug ‘lengthy curve’; Old

English byge ‘curve, bend, corner, angle’. Verb: Proto-Indo-European *bʰewgʰ-

/*bʰowgʰ-/*bʰugʰ- ‘to bend, to curve’: Gothic biugan ‘to bend, to bow’; Old
English bīegan ‘to bend, to turn, to turn back, to incline’; Dutch buigen ‘to
bend, to bow; to submit’; Old High German biogan ‘to bend, to curve’ (New
High German biegen).
Northwest Caucasian: Common Northwest Caucasian *bɣʹa ‘curved shape’ (?)

(cf. Chirikba 1996a:283 — Chirikba writes *b¦ʹa).
A. (?) Common Abkhaz *bɣʹa- in *bɣʹa-t’a ‘to shovel (of hen, or like a hen),
to scratch’ (*t’a ‘to ladle out, to scoop out’): South Abkhaz a-bɣʹát-ra, a-
bɣʹáta-ra ‘to shovel (of hen, or like a hen), to scratch’; Abaza / Tapanta
bɣʹat’a-rá ‘to shovel (of hen, or like a hen), to scratch’
B. Proto-Circassian *bɣa ‘breast’ (also used as preverb): Bžedux bɣa ‘breast’;
Kabardian bɣa ‘breast’. Note: Kuipers (1975:70) writes *bǧa ‘breast’.
C. Ubykh bɣʹá ‘upper part; cap, top; cover’ (also used as preverb), ácºǝya bɣʹá
‘roof’.
Note: For the semantics of the Northwest Caucasian forms, cf. Buck 1949:
§4.40 breast (front of chest); §4.41 breast (of woman); §12.33 top.
227. Proto-Indo-European *dʰeʔ-/*dʰoʔ- (> *dʰē-/*dʰō-) ‘to put, to place’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁):
Sanskrit (reduplicated) dadhā́ ti ‘to put, to place, to set, to lay’; Greek
(reduplicated) τίθημι ‘to set, to put, to place’; Latin faciō ‘to make, to build, to
construct (from parts, raw materials, etc.)’; Old English dōn ‘to make, to act, to
perform; to cause’; Old High German tuon ‘to do, to make’; Lithuanian dedù,
djti ‘to put, to place, to lay’; Hittite (3rd sg. pres. act.) da-a-i ‘to lay, to put, to
place’; Tocharian A tā-, B täs-/tättā- ‘to put, to place, to set’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *də ‘to join or attach together’: South
Abkhaz á-d-ra ‘to instruct, to commission someone to do something; to attach
something/someone to’, (preverb) d(ə)- ‘to attach; doing or being before
something’, aj-d-ra ‘to be together’; Abaza / Tapanta (preverb) d(ə)- ‘to attach;
doing or being before something’.
228. Proto-Indo-European *dʰer-/*dʰor-/*dʰr̥ - ‘to hold firmly, to support’, *dʰer-

mo-s ‘firm, strong’: Sanskrit dhāráyati ‘to hold, to bear, to carry; to hold up, to
support, to sustain, to maintain; to carry on; to hold in, to hold back, to keep
back, to restrain, to stop, to detain, to curb, to resist; to keep, to possess, to
have; to hold fast, to preserve’, dhárma-ḥ ‘that which is held fast or kept:
ordinance, statute, law, usage, practice, custom, customary observances;
religion, piety; prescribed course of conduct, duty’; Avestan dar- ‘to hold’; Old
Persian (1st sg.) dārayāmiy ‘to hold’; Latin firmus ‘strong, steadfast, stable,
enduring, powerful’, firmō ‘to make firm, to strengthen, to fortify, to sustain; to
confirm, to establish, to show, to prove, to declare, to make certain’ (derivative
of firmus); Lithuanian daraũ, dariaũ, darýti ‘to do’; Latvian darı̂ t ‘to do’.

Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *dára ‘to strengthen; very (much)’:

Bzyp dáara, daára, dára ‘very (much)’; Ashkharywa adára ‘very (much)’;
Sadz adára ‘very (much)’; Abaza / Tapanta dára ‘stingy (man)’, r-dára-ra ‘to
strengthen’, dára ‘very much’.
229. Proto-Indo-European *dʰer- ‘to twist, to turn (round)’ (unattested): (extended

forms) *dʰer-gʰ-/*dʰor-gʰ-/*dʰr̥ -gʰ-, *dʰr-egʰ-/*dʰr-ogʰ-/*dʰr̥ -gʰ- ‘to twist, to turn
(round)’: Greek τρέχω ‘to run, to move quickly’, τροχός ‘wheel’, τρόχος ‘a
running course’, τροχιός ‘round’; Armenian daṙnam (< *darjnam) ‘to turn, to
return’, durgn ‘a potter’s wheel’; Albanian dredh ‘to twist, to turn’; Old Irish
droch ‘wheel’, dreas ‘turn, course’. Note: For the semantic development of
Greek τρέχω, cf. Old Irish rethid ‘to run’, riuth ‘running’, roth ‘wheel’, rothán
‘the hair twisted and plaited’ < *retʰH-/*rotʰH- ‘to roll, to revolve, to turn’.
Northwest Caucasian: (1) Common Abkhaz *darə́ ‘to spin’: South Abkhaz
á-dar-ra ‘to spin with a double thread’. (2) Common Abkhaz (reduplicated)
*da(r)dərə́ ‘spindle’: Abaza / Tapanta dadər-ɣºə́ ‘spindle’; South Abkhaz
a-dardə́/a-dərdə́ ‘spindle’.
230. Proto-Indo-European *dʰuH- (> *dʰū-) ‘to shake, to shake off, to agitate’
(reduplicated *dʰu-dʰuH-): Sanskrit dhūnóti, dhūnuté, dhuváti ‘to shake, to
shake off, to remove; to agitate, to cause to tremble’ (perfect dudhuve; intensive
dodhūyate, dodhoti, dodhavīti), dhūtá-ḥ ‘shaken’; Greek θῡ́ω, θῡ́νω ‘(of any
violent motion:) to rush on or along; to storm, to rage’, θῡμός ‘spirit, courage,
anger, sense’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ʒə́ʒa ‘to shiver, to tremble’: Bzyp

a-ʒə́ʒ-ra ‘to shiver, to tremble’; Abzhywa a-ʒə́ʒa-ra ‘to shiver, to tremble’.
Notes:
2. Northwest Caucasian *ʒ = Proto-Indo-European *dʰ.
231. Proto-Indo-European *gʰeʔ-/*gʰoʔ- (> *gʰē-/*gʰō-), (extended form) *gʰeʔ-y/i-

/*gʰoʔ-y/i- (> *gʰēy-/*gʰōy-; *gʰei-/*gʰoi-) ‘to go, to leave, to depart; to
abandon, to forsake’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁): Greek (Homeric) (reduplicated) κιχᾱ́νω, (Attic)
κιγχάνω ‘to reach, hit, or light upon; to meet with, to find; (Homeric) to
overtake, to reach, to arrive at’, χῆρα (Ionic χήρη) ‘bereft of husband, widow’,
χῆρος ‘widowed, bereaved’, χώρα ‘the space in which a thing is’, χωρέω ‘to
make room for another, to give way, to draw back, to retire, to withdraw; to go
forward, to move on or along’, χῶρος ‘piece of ground, ground, place’, (adv.)
χωρίς ‘separately, asunder, apart, by oneself or by themselves’, (dat.) χήτει ‘in
lack of’, χατέω ‘to crave, to long for, to have need of, to lack’, χατίζω ‘to have
need of, to crave; to lack, to be without’, χατίζων ‘a needy, poor person’;
Sanskrit (reduplicated) já-hā-ti ‘to leave, to abandon, to desert, to quit, to

forsake, to relinquish’, (causative) hāpayati ‘to cause to leave or abandon; to

omit, to neglect; to fall short of, to be wanting’, hāni-ḥ ‘abandonment,
relinquishment, decrease, diminution; deprivation; damage, loss, failure, ruin;
insufficiency, deficit’; Latin hērēs ‘heir’; Gothic gaidw ‘lack’; Crimean Gothic
geen ‘to go’; Swedish gå ‘to go’; Danish gaa ‘to go’; Old English gān ‘to go, to
come, to proceed’, gād ‘want, lack’, gbsne ‘barren, deprived of, without;
wanting, scarce; dead’; Old Frisian gān, gēn ‘to go’; Old Saxon -gān in ful-gān
‘to accomplish’; Middle Dutch gaen ‘to go’; Old High German gān ‘to go’.
A. Proto-Circassian *ga ‘bad, insufficient, lacking’: Bžedux -ʒʹa ‘bad,
insufficient, lacking’; Kabardian -ga ‘bad, insufficient, lacking’.
B. Common Abkhaz *gə ‘to lack something’: South Abkhaz á-g-x̌ a-ra ‘to
lose flesh (tr.), to be late (intr.); to lack something’, a-g-rá ‘defect, lack of
something’; Abaza / Tapanta g-x̌ a-ra ‘to lack’.
C. Ubykh gʹ(a)- ‘to lack’.
232. Proto-Indo-European *gʰel-/*gʰol-/*gʰl̥ - ‘to stand, to stay; to cause to stand, to

place or set upright, to fix (in place)’ (Tocharian only): Tocharian A/B käly- ‘to
stand (intr.), to stay, to stand still; to last; to establish, to fix (in place); to
invite’. Perhaps also Proto-Indo-European *gʰol-gʰ- ‘stake, post’ (< ‘that which
is set upright’) preserved in Germanic and Baltic: Proto-Germanic *galᵹōn ‘the
post to which a person condemned to death is bound, that is, a stake, cross (for
crucifixion), or gallows’ > Gothic galga ‘stake, cross (for crucifixion),
gallows’; Old Icelandic galgi ‘gallows’, gelgja ‘pole, stake’; Old English
gealga ‘gallows, cross (for crucifixion)’; Old Frisian galga ‘gallows’; Dutch
galg ‘gallows’; Old High German galgo ‘gallows, cross (for crucifixion)’ (New
High German Galgen). Lithuanian žalgà ‘long, thin stake; rod’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *gə́la ‘to stand’: South Abkhaz a-gə́la-
ra ‘to stand’; Ashkharywa gə́la-ra ‘to stand’; Abaza / Tapanta gə́l-ra ‘to stand’.
233. Proto-Indo-European *gʰer-/*gʰor-/*gʰr̥ - ‘to scatter, to strew’: Lithuanian žyrù,

žìrstu, žìrti ‘to scatter, to strew’, išžìrti ‘to disperse, to scatter, to spread about’.
Note: Confused with words meaning ‘to glow, to sparkle, to glitter, etc.’
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ɣra ‘speckled, spotted’: South

Abkhaz á-ɣra ‘speckled, spotted’; Abaza / Tapanta ɣra ‘speckled, spotted’.
Note: Common Abkhaz *ɣ (< *ɢ) = Proto-Indo-European *gʰ.
234. Proto-Indo-European *gʰer-/*gʰor-/*gʰr̥ - ‘to take, to seize; to grasp, to grip, to

take hold of’ (unextended stem, only in Sanskrit): Sanskrit hárati ‘to bring, to
convey, to carry, to fetch; to carry away, to carry off, to seize, to take hold of,
to extricate; to rob, to plunder, to steal’. Extended forms in: Gothic greipan ‘to

grasp, to seize, to apprehend’; Old Icelandic grípa ‘to grasp, to seize’, grip ‘a
grip, grasp’; Old English grīpan ‘to seize, to take, to apprehend’, gripe ‘grasp,
grip, seizure’, grāp ‘grasp, grip’; Old Saxon grīpan ‘to grasp, to seize’; Old
High German grīfan ‘to grasp, to seize, to catch (hold of)’ (New High German
greifen); Middle High German grif ‘grip, grasp, hold; catch, clutch, snatch;
handful; handle, knob, lever’ (New High German Griff). Middle English
graspen ‘to seize with the hand’. Sanskrit gṛbhṇā́ ti ‘to grasp, to seize, to hold’.
Lithuanian griebiù, griẽbti ‘to seize’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Northwest Caucasian *ɣarə ‘prisoner’ (cf.

Chirikba 1996a: 282 — Chirikba writes *¦arə). Note: For the semantics, cf.
Buck 1949:§20.47 captive, prisoner: “Most of the words for ‘captive, prisoner’
(of war) are either from verbs ‘take, seize’ … or are deriv[atives] of nouns for
‘prison’ …”; §21.39 prison; jail: “Several of the words for ‘prison’ are derived
from verbs for ‘seize’ or ‘guard’…”:
A. Common Abkhaz *ɣárə ‘prisoner; poor (man)’: Abaza / Tapanta ɣar
‘prisoner’; South Abkhaz a-ɣár ‘poor (man)’.
B. Proto-Circassian *ɣarə ‘prisoner’ (Kuipers 1975:69 writes *ǧarə; Chirikba
1996a:282 writes *¦arə): Bžedux ɣarə ‘prisoner’; Kabardian ɣar
‘prisoner’.
C. Ubykh ɣər- ‘prisoner, slave’, ɣər-px’ádək’º ‘slave girl’.
Note: Common Northwest Caucasian *ɣ = Proto-Indo-European *gʰ.
235. Proto-Indo-European *gʰerH-/*gʰorH-/*gʰr̥ H- ‘to shake, to move to and fro’,

*gʰr̥ H-no-s ‘shaking, moving to and fro’: Sanskrit ghūrṇá-ḥ ‘shaking, moving
to and fro’, ghūrṇáti, ghū́ rṇate ‘to move to and fro, to shake, to be agitated, to
tremble, to roll about, to cause to whirl, to whirl, to turn around’.
Northwest Caucasian: (1) Common Abkhaz *gára ‘to shake, to waddle;

cradle’: Bzyp a-gár ‘cradle’, á-gar-čar-ra ‘to shake’; Abzhywa a-gára
‘cradle’; South Abkhaz a-garə́-gača-ra ‘to waddle’; Abaza / Tapanta gára
‘cradle’. (2) Common Abkhaz *gərə́: South Abkhaz á-gər-t’º, á-gər-k’º(ə)t’a
‘epilepsy’, a-gər-ʒá-t’º ‘sacrifice offered during prayer against migraine’
(ʒá-t’º ‘sacrifice’), a-gər-ʒ-nə́ħºa ‘prayer against headache, nose bleeding, etc.’
(3) Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *gərə-gərə́ ‘to waddle’: South Abkhaz
a-gərgər-ra ‘to waddle’.
236. Proto-Indo-European (extended form) *gʰl-ew-/*gʰl-ow-/*gʰl-u- ‘(vb.) to joke,

to jest, to be playful, etc.; (n.) a joke, jest, play’: Greek χλεύη ‘a joke, jest’; Old
Icleandic glý ‘glee, gladness’, glýja ‘to be gleeful’, glaðr ‘glad, cheerful’; Old
English glīw, glēo, glēow ‘glee, pleasure, mirth, play, sport’, glēam ‘revelry,
joy’, glKd ‘cheerful, glad, joyous; pleasant, kind, gracious’, glKdnes ‘gladness,
joy’; Old Lithuanian glaudas ‘amusement, fun’; Russian Church Slavic glumъ
‘noise, amusement’; Slovenian glúma ‘joke, foolishness’.

A. Proto-Circassian *gələ ‘(to feel) ticklish’; Bžedux ləʒʹə (< *ʒʹələ) ‘(to feel)
ticklish’; Kabardian gəl, gəl-k’əl ‘(to feel) ticklish’.
B. Ubykh gʹə-l- ‘to be delighted’ (caus. asə-gʹə́lən).
237. Proto-Indo-European (extended form) *gʰl-ey-/*gʰl-oy-/*gʰl-i- ‘to glide, to slip,

to slide; to be unstable, to totter’: Swedish glinta ‘to glide, to slip’; Old English
glīdan ‘to glide, to slip; to glide away, to vanish’, glidder ‘slippery’, gliddrian
‘to slip, to be unstable’, glīd ‘slippery, ready to slide; tottering’; Old Frisian
glīda ‘to glide’; Old Saxon glīdan ‘to glide’; Dutch glijden ‘to glide’; Old High
German glītan ‘to glide, to slip’; Lithuanian glitùs ‘smooth, slippery; sticky,
slimy’; Latvian glits ‘slippery, soggy’.
A. Proto-Circassian *gal(a) ‘to slip, to (slip and) fall’: Bžedux ʒʹāla ‘to slip,
to (slip and) fall’; Kabardian gāla ‘to slip, to (slip and) fall’, xa-gal ‘to fall
out of’.
B. (1) Common Abkhaz *gʹalá ‘to swing, to reel, to stagger; to gad about’:
South Abkhaz á-gʹala-ra ‘to swing, to reel, to stagger; to gad about’;
Ashkharywa gʹála-ra ‘to idle, to loaf’. (2) Common Abkhaz *gʹal-də́źə
‘idle, lounger; awkward, clumsy’: Bzyp a-gʹaldə́ź ‘idle, lounger; awkward,
clumsy’; South Abkhaz á-gʹaldəz-ra ‘to idle, to loaf; to droop, to dangle
(of something heavy)’. (3) Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *gʹalá-gʹalá ‘to
dangle’: South Abkhaz a-gʹalgʹala-rá ‘to dangle’.
238. Proto-Indo-European *gʷʰel-/*gʷʰol-/*gʷʰl̥ - ‘to wrong, to offend, to deceive’

(only in Latin): Latin fallō ‘to deceive, to trick, to mislead; to be in error, to be
wrong, to be mistaken’, fallax ‘deceitful, treacherous; misleading, deceptive;
not real, false, spurious, counterfeit’, falla ‘a trick’, fallācia ‘deceit, trick,
deceptive behavior’, falsus ‘erroneous, untrue, false, incorrect, wrong’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *gº-á-la ‘offense, injury, discontent,

resentment, anxiety’: South Abkhaz a-gºála ‘offense, injury, discontent,
resentment, anxiety’; Ashkharywa gºala-c’a-ra ‘anxiety’; Abaza / Tapanta
gºala ‘dream, hope’, gºal-ʒ-ɦa-ra ‘anxiety’.
239. Proto-Indo-European *gʷʰen-/*gʷʰon-/*gʷʰn̥ - ‘(vb.) to hit, to strike, to slay, to

kill, to wound, to harm, to injure; (n.) strike, blow, wound’: Hittite (3rd sg.
pres.) ku-en-zi ‘to strike, to kill’; Sanskrit hánti ‘to smite, to slay, to hurt, to kill,
to wound’; Avestan ǰainti ‘to beat, to kill’; Greek θείνω ‘to strike, to wound’,
φόνος ‘murder, homicide, slaughter’; Armenian ganem ‘to strike’; Latin
dēfendō ‘to repel, to repulse, to ward off, to drive away; to defend, to protect’,
offendō ‘to strike, to knock, to dash against’, offensō ‘to strike, to dash against’;
Old Irish gonim ‘to wound, to slay’, guin ‘a wound’; Old Icelandic gunnr ‘war,
battle’; Old English gūþ ‘war, battle’; Old Saxon gūđea ‘battle, war’; Old High

German gund- ‘battle, war’; Old Church Slavic gonjǫ, goniti ‘to chase, to
persecute’; Russian (dial.) gonítʹ [гонить] ‘to persecute’; Lithuanian genù, giñti
‘to drive’, geniù, genjti ‘to lop, to prune, to trim’.
A. Common Abkhaz *gºa ‘to push, to shove’: South Abkhaz á-gºa-ra ‘to
push, to shove’; Abaza / Tapanta á-gºa-ra ‘to push, to shove’.
B. Proto-Circassian *gº(a) ‘to pound, to husk (maize, millet, etc.)’: Bžedux
gº(a) ‘to pound, to husk (maize, millet, etc.)’; Kabardian gºə ‘to pound, to
husk (maize, millet, etc.)’.
240. Proto-Indo-European *gʷʰen-/*gʷʰon-/*gʷʰn̥ - ‘‘to swell, to abound; to fill, to

stuff, to cram’: Sanskrit ā-hanā́ -ḥ ‘swelling, distended’, ghaná-ḥ ‘compact,
solid, hard, firm, dense; full of (in compounds), densely filled with (in
compounds)’; Greek εὐθηνέω (Attic εὐθενέω) ‘to thrive, to prosper, to flourish,
to abound’; Armenian yogn (< *i- + *o-gʷʰon- or *o-gʷʰno-) ‘much’; Old
Church Slavic gonějǫ, goněti ‘to suffice, to have enough’; Lithuanian ganà
‘enough’. Perhaps also in Germanic: Proto-Germanic *gunðaz (< *gʷʰn̥ -to-)
‘abscess’ (< ‘that which is filled with pus’) (medical term) > Gothic gund
‘gangrene’; Norwegian (dial.) gund ‘scurf’; Old English gund ‘matter, pus’;
Old High German gunt ‘pus’.
A. Proto-Circassian *gºa ‘to fill, to stuff, to cram’: Temirgoy gºa ‘to fill, to
stuff, to cram’. Semantic development as in Sanskrit cited above.
B. Perhaps also preserved in Common Abkhaz *gºálə ‘clod; goiter, wen’ (<
‘that which is swollen’): South Abkhaz a-gºál ‘clod’; Abaza / Tapanta gºal
‘goiter, wen’ (medical term). Semantic development as in the Germanic
forms cited above.
241. Proto-Indo-European *gʷʰerH-/*gʷʰorH-/*gʷʰr̥ H- ‘to turn around, to revolve, to

roll; to move to and fro’ (only in Indo-Aryan): Sanskrit ghūrṇáti, ghū́ rṇate ‘to
move to and fro, to shake, to be agitated, to tremble; to roll about, to cause to
whirl, to turn around’, ghūrṇita-ḥ ‘rolling, turning, tossing’, ghūrṇamāna-ḥ
‘being agitated, shaking, trembling; revolving, turning around’; Prakrit ghulaï
‘to turn’, ghaṁghōra- ‘constantly turning’, ghummaï ‘to turn around’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *gºər-gºə́r/lə ‘round

object’ (> ‘wheel, hoop; ring; etc.’): Abaza / Tapanta gºərgºə́r ‘ring (of chain,
chain armor, etc.); small metal wheel’; South Abkhaz a-gºərgºə́l ‘wheel, hoop’,
a-gºərgºəl maćºəz ‘wedding ring’.

242. Proto-Indo-European *hepʰ- [*hapʰ-]/*hopʰ- ‘to embark upon, to undertake, to

start doing something’ (*h = *ə̯₄): Old Icelandic efna (< Proto-Germanic
*aƀnjanan) ‘to perform, to fulfill’, efni ‘material, stuff’; Old English efnan,
Kfnan ‘to carry out, to perform, to fulfill’, efne ‘material’; Old High German
uoben ‘to start to work, to practice, to worship’; Sanskrit ápas- ‘work, action;
sacred act, sacrificial act’, ā́ pas- ‘religious ceremony’, ápnas- ‘work, sacrificial
act’; Latin opus ‘work’, opera ‘effort, activity’.
Notes:
1. The material from the daughter languages pointing to a Proto-Indo-
European root meaning ‘wealth, riches’, though often compared with the
above forms, appears to belong to a different root: *Ḫopʰ- (*Ḫ = a
laryngeal preserved in Hittite, most likely *ə̯₃ here [cf. Hittite (adj.)
ḫappina- ‘rich’; Latin ops ‘wealth, power’, opulentus ‘rich, wealthy;
powerful, mighty’; Sanskrit ápnas- ‘possession, property’ (same form as
given above, but with a different meaning); Avestan afnah-vant- ‘rich in
property’]) (cf. Kloekhorst 2008b:296—297; Mayrhofer 1986—2001.I:88;
De Vaan 2008:431).
2. Greek ἄφενος ‘riches, wealth, plenty’ is best explained as a borrowing.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ápšʹə/a- ‘to venture, to undertake, to

start doing something; to decide, to resolve’: Abzhywa ápšʹ-ga-ra ‘to venture,
to undertake, to start doing something’; Bzyp ápšʹa-ga-ra ‘to venture, to
undertake, to start doing something; to decide, to resolve’ (~ *ga ‘to bring, to
carry’).
243. Proto-Indo-European *hew- [*haw-] ‘to grow, to increase (in quantity or size)’
(only in extended stems: I *hew-k’(s)- [*haw-k’(s)-] and II *hw-ek’(s)-) (*h =
*ə̯₄): Sanskrit vakṣáyati ‘to grow, to increase, to become tall; to accumulate, to
be great or strong, to be powerful’, ójas- ‘bodily strength, vigor, energy,
ability’, ojmán- ‘strength’, ukṣá-ḥ ‘large’; Greek αὔξω (= αὐξάνω) ‘to make to
grow, to increase’, (poetic) ἀ(+)έξω ‘to make to grow, to increase, to foster, to
strengthen; to heighten, to multiply’, αὔξησις ‘growth, increase’; Latin augeō
‘to increase in quantity or size, to make greater, to enlarge, to extend, to swell’,
auctus ‘an increasing, augmenting; increase, growth, abundance’, augmentum
‘the process of increasing’; Gothic aukan ‘to increase’, wahsjan ‘to grow’;
Lithuanian áugu, áugti ‘to grow, to increase’, áukštas ‘high, tall, lofty’;
Tocharian A ok- ‘to grow, to increase’, B auk- ‘to grow, to increase’, auki
‘increase’, auks- ‘to sprout, to grow up’.
Northwest Caucasian: (1) Common Abkhaz *awə́ ‘to get, to obtain’: South
Abkhaz aw-rá ‘to get, to obtain, to manage, to agree; to ripen (of fruit)’; Bzyp
aj-ə́w-ra ‘to get, to obtain, to manage, to agree; to ripen (of fruit)’; Abaza /
Tapanta aw-rá ‘to get, to obtain, to manage, to agree’, j-aw-ra ‘to ripen’. (2)

Common Abkhaz *awə́: South Abkhaz aw (indef. sg. awə́-k’) ‘long’; Abaza /
Tapanta awə́ (indef. sg. awə́-k’) ‘long’.
244. (1) Proto-Indo-European *hey- [*hay-] ‘to give, to divide, to distribute’ (*h =
*ə̯₄): Hittite (3rd pres. sg.) pa-a-i ‘to give’ (< *pe-+ai-); Tocharian A (inf.) essi,
B (inf.) aitsi ‘to give’; Greek (poet.) αἴνυμαι ‘to take’. (2) Proto-Indo-European
*hey-tʰo- [*hay-tʰo-], *hey-tʰi- [*hay-tʰi-] ‘part, portion, share’ (*h = *ə̯₄):
Avestan aēta- ‘the appropriate part’; Greek αἶσα (< *αἰτɩ̯ α) ‘a share in a thing;
one’s lot, destiny; the decree, dispensation of a god’; Oscan (gen. sg.) aeteis
‘part’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *aj-g(ʹ)-ʒá ‘to share, to be stingy’:

Bzyp áj-g-ʒa-ra ‘to share, to be stingy’; Abaza / Tapanta aj-gʹ-ʒa-ra ‘to share,
to be stingy’.
245. Proto-Indo-European *Hyeʔ- (> *yē-) ‘to throw, to hurl, to send forth’ (*ʔ =
*ə̯₁): Greek ἵημι (< *Hi-Hyeʔ-mi) ‘to send forth, to throw, to hurl; to release, to
let go’; Latin iaceō ‘to lie down, to recline’, iaciō, iēcī ‘to propel through the
air, to throw, to cast; to toss, to fling, to hurl; to throw down or onto the ground;
to throw off; to throw away’; Hittite *yezzi ‘to send’ in: (3rd sg. pres. act.)
pé-i-e-ez-zi ‘to send there’, (3rd sg. pres. act.) u-i-e-ez-zi ‘to send here’. Note:
The Hittite forms contain preverbs: pe- ‘thither, there’, u- ‘hither, here’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *ja ‘to lie (down)’: South Abkhaz
a-ja-rá ‘to lie (down)’. Note: Assuming semantic development as in Latin
iaceō ‘to lie down, to recline’ cited above (cf. Buck 1949:§12.14 lie).
246. Proto-Indo-European *kʰeh-m- [*kʰah-m-] > *kʰām- ‘to wish, to desire, to long
for’ (*h = *ə̯₄): Sanskrit kam- (causative kāmáyati, -te) ‘to wish, to desire, to
long for; to love, to be in love with; to have sexual intercourse with’, kamála-ḥ
‘desirous, lustful’, kā́ ma-ḥ ‘wish, desire, longing; affection, love; having a
desire for, desiring’; Avestan kāma- ‘wish, desire’; Old Persian kāma- ‘wish,
desire’; Latvian kãmêt ‘to hunger, to be hungry’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *kəmə-kəmə́ ‘to be

greedy’; South Abkhaz a-kəmkəm-ra ‘to be greedy’.
247. Proto-Indo-European *kʰer-/*kʰor-/*kʰr̥ - ‘to make a rasping sound, to be

hoarse; to creak, to croak’: Greek κρώζω ‘to cry like a crow, to caw; (of a
wagon) to creak, to groan’; Latin crōciō ‘to caw like a crow’; Old English
hrace, hracu ‘throat’, hrbcan ‘to clear the throat, to spit’; Middle Low German
rake ‘throat’; Old High German rahho (*hrahho) ‘jaws, mouth (of beast);
throat, cavity of mouth’, rāhhisōn ‘to clear one’s throat’; Lithuanian krokiù,
krõkti ‘to grunt’.

Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *qər-qər ‘snore,

snoring’: Bzyp á-x̌ ərx̌ ər-ħa ‘snore, snoring’.
248. Proto-Indo-European *kʰm̥ H- ‘to work, to toil, to labor’: Sanskrit śā́ myati ‘to
toil at, to exert oneself; to grow calm, to pacify’ (originally ‘to be tired’),
(participle) śān-tá-ḥ ‘calmed, pacified, stilled’; Greek κάμνω ‘to work, to labor,
to toil, to be weary’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *kamsá ‘to work as a (farm-)laborer;

to dance (awkwardly, clumsily)’: South Abkhaz a-kamsa-rá ‘to work as a
(farm-)laborer; to dance (awkwardly, clumsily)’.
249. Proto-Indo-European *k’el-/*k’ol-/*k’l- ‘to cleave, to split’ (extended form:

*k’l-ew-bʰ-/*k’l-ow-bʰ-/*k’l-u-bʰ- ‘to cleave, to split’): Proto-Germanic
*kleuƀanan ‘to cleave, to split’ > Old Icelandic kliúfa ‘to cleave, to split’; Old
English clēofan ‘to cleave, to split’; Old High German klioban ‘to cleave, to
split’. Proto-Germanic *kluƀōn ‘cleft, rift’ > Old Icelandic klofi ‘cleft, rift’; Old
Frisian klova ‘chasm’; Old High German klobo ‘snare, trap’. Greek γλύφω ‘to
carve, to cut out with a knife; to engrave’; Latin glūbō ‘to remove bark from a
tree, to peel away bark’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *k’alə ‘to cleave, to split’: Abzhywa

a-k’ál-ra ‘to cleave, to split squared timber for making shingle’.
250. Proto-Indo-European *k’el-/*k’ol-/*k’l- ‘to soften, to weaken; to be or become

soft, weak’: Old Icelandic klökkr ‘bending, pliable, soft’, klökkva ‘to soften’;
Low German klinker ‘weak’; Lithuanian glẽžnas ‘delicate, flabby, sickly, puny,
frail, weak, feeble’, glęžtù, gležiaũ, glèžti ‘to become weak, flabby’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *k’alá ‘slender, elegant, graceful’:

South Abkhaz a-k’alá ‘slender, elegant, graceful’.
251. Proto-Indo-European (extended form) *k’em-bʰ-/*k’om-bʰ-/*k’m̥ -bʰ- ‘to chew

(up), to bite, to crush’, *k’om-bʰo-s ‘tooth, spike, nail’: Greek γόμφος ‘bolt,
pin’, γομφίος ‘a grinder-tooth’; Sanskrit jámbhate, jábhate ‘to chew up, to
crush, to destroy’, jámbha-ḥ ‘tooth’, jámbhya-ḥ ‘incisor, grinder’; Albanian
dhëmb ‘tooth’; Old Icelandic kambr ‘comb’; Old English camb ‘comb’, cemban
‘to comb’; Old Saxon kamb ‘comb’; Old High German kamb, champ ‘comb’;
Lithuanian žam͂ bas ‘pointed object’; Old Church Slavic zǫbъ ‘tooth’; Russian
zub [зуб] ‘tooth’; Tocharian A kam, B keme ‘tooth’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *q’ǝm-q’ǝmǝ ‘(to eat)

greedily, being very hungry’: Bzyp q’ǝm-q’ǝ́m-wa ‘(to eat) greedily, being very
hungry’.

252. Proto-Indo-European (*k’en-/*k’on-/)*k’n- ‘to bend, twist, turn, or tie

together’: Greek γνάμπτω ‘to bend’, γναμπτός ‘bent, curved’; Old Icelandic
kneikja ‘to bend backwards with force’, knytja ‘to knit or tie together’, knýta ‘to
knit, to fasten by a knot, to bind, to tie’; Swedish kneka ‘to be bent’; Old
English cnyttan ‘to tie with a knot’, cnyttels ‘string, sinew’; Middle Low
German knutten ‘to tie’; New High German knicken ‘to crease, to bend, to fold,
to crack, to break, to split, to snap, to burst’, knütten (dial.) ‘to knit’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *k’ʹant’/dá ‘to swing, to rock, to

bend’: South Abkhaz a-k’ʹant’a-rá/á-k’ʹanda-ra ‘to swing, to rock, to bend’;
Abaza / Tapanta k’ʹant’a ‘elastic, resilient’, k’ʹant’a-ra ‘to bend’.
253. Proto-Indo-European *k’er(H)-/*k’or(H)-/*k’r̥ (H)- ‘to decay, to wear out, to

wither, to waste away, to become old’: Sanskrit járati ‘to grow old, to become
decrepit, to decay, to wear out, to wither, to be consumed, to break up, to
perish’, jára-ḥ ‘becoming old, wearing out, wasting’, jaraṇá-ḥ ‘old, decayed’,
jīrṇá-ḥ ‘old, worn out, withered, wasted, decayed’, jūrṇá-ḥ ‘decayed, old’,
járat- ‘old, ancient, infirm, decayed, dry (as herbs), no longer frequented (as
temples) or in use’, jarā́ ‘old age’; Armenian cer ‘old’; Greek γεραιός ‘old’,
γέρων ‘(n.) an old man; (adj.) old’, γῆρας ‘old age’; Old Icelandic karl ‘man,
old man’; Old English carl ‘man’ (Norse loan), ceorl ‘free man of the lowest
class; free man; common man; husband; man, hero’; Old High German karl
‘man, husband’; Old Church Slavic zrěti ‘to ripen, to mature’, zrělъ ‘ripe’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *q’arɦºáǯə/*q’ərɦºáǯə ‘very old,

decrepit’: South Abkhaz a-q’arjºáǯ/a-q’ərjºáǯ ‘very old, decrepit’.
254. Proto-Indo-European *kʷʰatʰ- ‘to move vigorously to and fro, to shake, to rock,
to agitate’ (Latin only): Latin quatiō ‘to move vigorously to and fro, to shake,
to rock, to agitate’, quassus ‘shaking’. Note: Not related to Greek πάσσω (<
*πάσ-τι̯-ω) (Attic πάττω) ‘to strew, to sprinkle’, πάσμα ‘sprinkling; (medic.)
powder’, παστέος ‘to be besprinkled’, παστός ‘sprinkled with salt, salted’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *kºaćá ‘to stir, to move (aside)’: Bzyp
a-kºaća-ra ‘to stir, to move (aside)’; Abzhywa a-kºaća-rá ‘to stir, to move
(aside)’.
Note: Common Abkhaz *ć = Proto-Indo-European *tʰ.
255. Proto-Indo-European *k’ʷeh- [*k’ʷah-] (> *k’ʷā-) ‘to walk, to go’ (*h = *ə̯₄):
Sanskrit (redup.) jí-gā-ti, (aor.) á-gā-t ‘to go’; Avestan (aor.) gāt̰ ‘to walk, to
go’; Armenian kam (< *k’ʷeh-mi [*k’ʷah-mi] > *k’ʷā-mi) ‘to stay, to stand, to
halt; to stop, to rest; to wait; to appear; to dwell’; Greek (redup. 3rd sg. pres.)
*βί-βᾱ-τι ‘to go’, (Attic) (1st sg.) βίβημι ‘to go’, (Homeric) (ptc.) βιβᾱ́ς

‘walking’, (Laconian) (3rd pl.) βίβαντι ‘to go’; Lithuanian (dial.) góti ‘to rush,
to hurry’; Latvian (1st sg. pret.) gāju ‘to go’.
Northwest Caucasian (cf. Chirikba 1996a:207 and 403: Common Northwest

Caucasian *k’ºʹa- ‘to walk, to go’):
A. Common Abkhaz *k’ºa- in *k’ºa-ša ‘to dance’ (*ša = ‘to wind, to twine’):
South Abkhaz á-k’ºaša-ra ‘(to) dance’; Abaza / Tapanta k’ºaša-rá ‘(to)
dance’.
B. Common Circassian *k’ºa/ə ‘to go, to cover a distance (tr./intr.)’: Bžedux
k’º(a) ‘to go, to cover a distance (tr./intr.)’; Kabardian k’º(a) ‘to go, to
cover a distance (tr./intr.)’. Note: Kuipers (1975:60, §85) reconstructs
Proto-Circassian *k’º(a) ‘to go, to cover a distance (tr./intr.)’.
C. Ubykh k’ʹa- ‘to go, to leave’ (šʹəɣak’ʹán ‘let’s go’).
256. Proto-Indo-European *k’ʷedʰ-/*k’ʷodʰ- ‘to strike, to beat, to smash’: Middle

High German quetzen, quetschen ‘to bruise, to mash, to crush’; Middle Low
German quetsen, quessen, quetten ‘to crush, to squeeze’; Dutch kwetsen ‘to
injure, to wound’; Swedish kvadda ‘to smash to pieces’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *k’ºad(a) ‘to disappear, to get lost, to

perish’: Bžedux k’ºadə ‘to disappear, to get lost, to perish’; Kabardian k’ºad ‘to
disappear, to get lost, to perish’.
257. Proto-Indo-European *k’ʷehbʰ- [*k’ʷahbʰ-]/*k’ʷohbʰ- (> *k’ʷābʰ-/*k’ʷōbʰ-) ‘to

dip (in water), to submerge’ (*h = *ə̯₄): Greek βάπτω ‘to dip in water; to dye’,
βαφή ‘dipping of red-hot iron into water; to dip in dye’; Old Icelandic kefja ‘to
dip, to put under water’, kvefja ‘to submerge, to swamp’, kvKfa, kœfa ‘to
quench, to choke, to drown’, kvafna ‘to be suffocated, choked (in water,
stream)’; Middle High German er-queben ‘to suffocate’.
A. Common Abkhaz *k’ºabá ‘to wash, to bathe’: South Abkhaz á-k’ºaba-ra
‘to wash, to bathe’; Abaza / Tapanta k’ºaba-rá ‘to wash, to bathe’.
B. Ubykh k’ºaba- ‘to wash, to bathe’.
258. Proto-Indo-European (extended form) *k’ʷe‿ ħh-dʰ- [*k’ʷa‿

ħh-dʰ-]/*k’ʷo‿
ħh-dʰ- (>
*k’ʷādʰ-/*k’ʷōdʰ-) ‘to push or press in, to tread (under foot)’ (*‿ ħh = *ə̯₂):
Sanskrit gā́ hate ‘to dive into, to bathe in, to plunge into; to penetrate, to enter
deeply into’, gāḍha-ḥ ‘pressed together, close, fast, strong, thick, firm’; Prakrit
gāhadi ‘to dive into, to seek’; Sindhi ˆāhaṇu ‘to tread out grain’; Punjabi
gāhṇā ‘to tread out, to tread under foot, to travel about’; Hindi gāhnā ‘to tread
out, to caulk’; Serbo-Croatian gȁziti ‘to wade, to tread’, gaz ‘ford’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *k’ºaħa ‘to knead (dough, clay, mud,
etc.); to trample, to stamp’: South Abkhaz á-k’ºaħa-ra, a-k’ºaħa-rá ‘to knead

(dough, clay, mud, etc.); to trample, to stamp’; Abaza / Tapanta k’ºħa-ra ‘to
knead (dough, clay, mud, etc.); to trample, to stamp’.
259. Proto-Indo-European *k’ʷes- ‘to extinguish’: Lithuanian gestù, gèsti ‘to go out,
to die out, to become dim’; Old Church Slavic u-gasiti ‘to put out’.
A. Proto-Circassian *k’ºasa ‘to go out (as fire, light); to escape, to run away,
to desert, to elope’: Bžedux k’ºāsa ‘to go out (as fire, light)’; Kabardian
k’ºāsa ‘to escape, to run away, to desert, to elope’.
B. Common Abkhaz *k’ºášə ‘to harden, to be petrified (of wood); to be
reduced to ashes; to be annihilated’: South Abkhaz a-k’ºáš mca ‘fire (mca)
made of hardened wood’, a-k’ºáš-x̌ a-ra ‘to harden, to be petrified (of
wood); to be reduced to ashes; to be annihilated’.
260. Proto-Indo-European *le‿ ħh- [*la‿ħh-] (extended form *le‿ ħh-w/u- [*la‿ħh-w/u-])
‘to pour, to pour out (liquids)’ (*‿
ħh = *ə̯₂): Hittite laḫ- in: (nom. sg.) la-aḫ-ni-iš
‘flask, flagon, frequently of metal (silver, gold, copper)’ (acc. pl. la-ḫa-an-ni-
uš), (1st sg. pret.) la-a-ḫu-un ‘to pour, to pour out (liquids)’, (2nd sg. imptv.)
la-a-aḫ ‘pour!’; laḫ(ḫ)u- in: (3rd sg. pres.) la(-a)-ḫu(-u)-wa(-a)i, la-ḫu-uz-zi, la-
a-ḫu-u-wa-a-iz[-zi] ‘to pour (liquids, fluids; containers of these); to cast
(objects from metal); to flow fast, to stream, to flood (intr.)’, (reduplicated ptc.)
la-al-ḫu-u-wa-an-ti-it ‘poured’, (reduplicated 3rd sg. pres.) li-la-ḫu-i, le-el-ḫu-
wa-i, li-il-ḫu-wa-i ‘to pour’, (reduplicated acc. sg.) le-el-ḫu-u-un-da-in ‘a
vessel’; Luwian (1st sg. pret.) la-ḫu-ni-i-ḫa ‘to pour’ (?); Greek ληνός (Doric
λᾱνός) ‘anything shaped like a tub or a trough: a wine-vat, a trough (for
watering cattle), a watering place’ (< *lā-no-s < *le‿ ħh-no-s [*la‿
ħh-no-s]).
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *λaħa ‘rivulet’: Šapsegh λaħa ‘rivulet’.
261. Proto-Indo-European *le‿ ħhʷ- [*la‿ħhʷ-] (> *lāw-), (*lə‿ħhʷ- >) *lu‿ħhʷ- (> *lū-)
‘to hit, to strike, to beat’ (*‿
ħhʷ = *ə̯₂ʷ): Sanskrit lū- (3rd sg. pres. act. lunā́ ti,
[Vedic] lunoti) ‘to cut, to sever, to divide, to pluck, to reap, to gather; to cut off,
to destroy, to annihilate’, láva-ḥ ‘act of cutting, reaping (of grain), mowing,
plucking, or gathering’, lāva-ḥ ‘cutting, cutting off, plucking, reaping,
gathering; cutting to pieces, destroying, killing’, laví-ḥ ‘cutting, sharp, edge (as
a tool or instrument); an iron instrument for cutting or clearing’, lūna-ḥ ‘cut, cut
off, severed, lopped, clipped, reaped, plucked; nibbled off, knocked out; stung;
pierced, wounded; destroyed, annihilated’, lūnaka-ḥ ‘a cut, wound, anything
cut or broken; sort, species, difference’, lavítra-m ‘sickle’; Old Icelandic ljósta
(< *lew-s-) ‘to strike, to smite; to strike, to hit (with a spear or arrow)’, ljóstr
‘salmon spear’, lost ‘blow, stroke’, lýja ‘to beat, to hammer; to forge iron; to
wear out, to exhaust; (reflexive) to be worn, exhausted’, lúi ‘weariness’, lúinn
‘worn, bruised; worn out, exhausted’; Norwegian (dial.) lua ‘to unwind’; Old

Irish loss ‘the point or end of anything, tail’; Welsh llost ‘spear, lance, javelin,
tail’ (< *lustā).
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *laħºá ‘to pound, to thresh; mortar’:

Abaza / Tapanta laħºa-rá ‘to pound, to husk (grains)’, čʹ-laħºa-ra ‘mortar for
threshing grains’ (*čʹa ‘wheat’) ; South Abkhaz a-laħºa-rá ‘to thresh (grains)’;
Bzyp a-laħº(a)rə́ ‘mortar for threshing grains’; Abzhywa a-laħºa-rá ‘mortar for
threshing grains’.
262. Proto-Indo-European *mas- ‘to entice, to lure, to instigate; to allure, tempt, or

induce someone to do something wrong, bad, or evil’; Lithuanian mãsinti ‘to
incite; to instigate, to stir up; to lure, to seduce, to attract, to entice’, masẽnis
‘enticement, temptation; tempter, seducer’; Norwegian mas ‘bother, trouble,
difficulty, fuss; fretting, importunity’, mase ‘to struggle, to toil, to slave away;
to fret, to fuss, to nag, to harp’, maset(e) ‘fussy; harping, nagging; taxing,
toilsome’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *məs(a) ‘guilty, dishonest; culprit’:

Bžedux məsa ‘guilty, culprit’; Kabardian məsa ‘guilty, culprit; dishonest,
uneducable’; Temirgoy məsa ‘guilty, culprit; foreign’, wə-məsa, wə-məs ‘to
unmask, to catch in a lie, to prove wrong’ (tr.).
263. Proto-Indo-European *mat’- ‘to be wet, moist’: Greek μαδάω ‘to be moist’;
Latin madeō ‘to be wet’; Sanskrit máda-ḥ ‘any exhilarating or intoxicating
drink; hilarity, rapture, excitement, inspiration, intoxication; ardent passion for,
sexual desire or enjoyment, wantonness, lust, ruttishness, rut (especially of an
elephant); pride, arrogance, presumption, conceit of or about; semen’, mádati
‘to be glad, to rejoice, to get drunk’, mádya-ḥ ‘(adj.) intoxicating, exhilarating,
gladdening, lovely; (n.) any intoxicating drink, vinous or spiritous liquor, wine,
Soma’; Avestan mada- ‘intoxicating drink’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *mat’ə́jə ‘drizzle’: Bzyp á-mat’əj

‘drizzle; nectar’, mat’ə́jk’a ‘melted wax’ (metaphorically, ‘state of a man under
the influence of the evil eye’).
264. Proto-Indo-European (?) *mus- ‘to murmer, to mutter, to whisper to oneself’

(only in Latin): Latin mussō ‘to murmer, to mutter, to whisper to oneself; to
keep quiet about’ (usually considered to be onomatopoeic), (derivative) mussitō
‘to grumble inaudibly, to mutter to oneself’. Note: According to Ernout—
Meillet (1979:425), Latin mussō was influenced by Greek μύζω ‘to make the
sound μὺ μῦ, to mutter, to moan; to murmur, to growl’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Northwest Caucasian *mǝśa/ǝ ‘to call (out), to

swear’ (cf. Chirikba 1996a:258):

A. Common Abkhaz *mśǝ ‘to swear’ (cf. Chirikba 1996b:115): Bzyp a-mś-rá
‘to swear’; Abzhywa a-ms-rá ‘to swear’. Note: Chirikba (1996a:258)
writes *mǝśǝ.
B. Ubykh mǝśa- ‘to call (out); to read’ (sǝmǝ́śan ‘I call’), mǝ́śāk’ʹa ‘student at
school who is learning how to read’.
Notes:
1. Proto-Indo-European *u is represented as *ǝ in Northwest Caucasian.
2. Common Northwest Caucasian *ś is represented as *s in Proto-Indo-
European.
265. Proto-Indo-European *negʰ-/*nogʰ- ‘to strike, to split, to pierce’: Old Irish ness
‘wound’; Old Church Slavic nožь ‘knife’, pro-noziti ‘to pierce through’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *nag(a) ‘misshapen; to disfigure’:

Kabardian naga-"ºəga ‘misshapen’, bzaga-nāga ‘bad, nasty, evil’, wə-nag ‘to
disfigure’; Temirgoy naǯʹa-"ºəʒʹa ‘misshapen’.
266. Proto-Indo-European *pʰatʰ- ‘to beat, to knock; to strike, to smite’ (only in

Greek): Greek πατάσσω ‘to beat, to knock; to strike, to smite’, παταγμός ‘a
beating’, etc.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *pʰatʰa ‘to damage, to wear out (a

surface)’: Bžedux ǧa-pʰatʰa-n ‘to damage, to wear out (a surface)’.
267. Proto-Indo-European *pʰe‿ ħh- [*pʰa‿ ħh-]/*pʰo‿

ħh- > *pʰā-/*pʰō- ‘to protect, to
guard, to defend’ (*‿ ħh = *ə̯₂): Hittite (1st pres. sg. act.) pa-aḫ-ḫa-aš-ḫi, pa-aḫ-
ḫa-aš-mi ‘to protect, to guard, to defend; to observe (agreements), to keep
(oaths), to obey (commands), to keep (a secret)’; Tocharian B pāsk- ‘to guard,
to protect; to practice (moral behavior)’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *px̌ a ‘authority’: Abaza / Tapanta px̌ a

‘authority, respect, honor’. Common Abkhaz *px̌ ə́-kºə (< *px̌ a ‘authority’, *kºə
‘vow’) ‘duty, obligation; fate’: South Abkhaz a-px̌ ə́-kº ‘duty, obligation; fate’.
ħh- = Common Abkhaz *px̌ V.

Note: Proto-Indo-European *pʰV‿
268. Proto-Indo-European *pʰer-/*pʰor-/*pʰr̥ - ‘(vb.) to fly, to flee; (n.) feather,

wing’: Hittite (3rd sg.) pár-aš-zi ‘to flee’; Sanskrit parṇá-m ‘wing, feather’;
Latin -perus in properus ‘quick, rapid, hasty’, properō ‘to hasten’; Russian
Church Slavic perǫ, pъrati ‘to fly’, pero ‘feather’.

A. Common Abkhaz *pərə́ ‘to fly’: South Abkhaz a-pər-rá ‘to fly’, á-pər-
pər-ra ‘to flit, to flutter, to flap’; Ashkharywa: (Kuv) pər-rá, (Apsua) bər-
rá ‘to fly’; Bzyp jə-pərpər-wá ‘doing something quickly’, á-pər-ħa
‘quickly, swiftly’.
B. Ubykh pər- ‘to fly’.
269. Proto-Indo-European *pʰetʰ-/*pʰotʰ- ‘to fly, to rush, to pursue; to fall, to fall

down’: Hittite pát-tar ‘wing’, (3rd pl. pres.) pít-ti-(ya-)an-zi ‘to flee, to fly, to
hasten’; Sanskrit pátati ‘to fly, to soar, to rush on; to fall down or off; to set in
motion, to set out on foot; to rush on, to hasten’, (causative) patáyati ‘to fly or
move rapidly along, to speed’, pátram ‘wing, feather’, pátvan- ‘flying, flight’;
Greek πέτομαι ‘to fly; (also of any quick motion) to fly along, to dart, to rush;
to be on the wing, to flutter’, πίπτω ‘to fall, to fall down’, πτερόν ‘feather,
bird’s wing’; Latin petō ‘to make for, to go to, to seek’; Old Irish én (< *ethn- <
*pet-no-s) ‘bird’; Welsh edn ‘bird’; Old Breton etn- ‘bird’; Old Icelandic fjöðr
‘feather, quill’; Old English feþer ‘feather’, (pl.) feþra ‘wings’; Old Frisian
fethere ‘feather’; Old Saxon fethara ‘feather’; Old High German fedara
‘feather’, fettāh ‘wing’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *pat-pátə ‘to flutter, to

quiver (of bird); to flounder, to wallow’: South Abkhaz a-pat-pát-ra ‘to flutter,
to quiver (of bird); to flounder, to wallow’; Bzyp a-pat-mát-ra ‘to flutter, to
quiver (of bird); to flounder, to wallow’.
270. Proto-Indo-European *pʰetʰ-/*pʰotʰ- ‘to twist together, to weave together’:

Hittite (nom.-acc. sg.) pa-at-tar, pát-tar ‘basket (made of wicker or reed)’.
Perhaps also: Proto-Germanic *faþō (‘wickerwork’ >) ‘hedge, fence’ > Gothic
faþa ‘hedge, fence, dividing wall’; Middle High German vade, vate ‘hedge,
fence’. And, in the meaning ‘thread’: Old High German fadam, fadum ‘thread,
yarn’ (New High German Faden ‘thread’), fadamōn ‘to spin, to sew’; Old
Welsh etem ‘thread, yarn’. Note: The Germanic and Celtic forms are usually
derived from Proto-Indo-European *pʰetʰ-/*pʰotʰ- ‘to be wide, open, spacious,
spread out; to stretch, to extend, to spread out’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *patá ‘to get tangled, to become

enmeshed (of thread)’: South Abkhaz áj-la-pata-ra ‘to get tangled, to become
enmeshed (of thread)’.
271. Proto-Indo-European *pʰetʰ-/*pʰotʰ- ‘to be wide, open, spacious, spread out; to

stretch, to extend, to spread out’: Avestan paθana- ‘wide, broad’; Greek
πετάννῡμι ‘to spread out’, πέταλος ‘broad, flat’, πέτασμα ‘anything spread out’,
πέτηλος ‘outspread, stretched’, ἀναπετής ‘expanded, spread out, wide open’;
Latin pateō ‘to be open’, patulus ‘extending over a wide space, wide-open,
broad’; Old Welsh etem ‘fathom’; Old Icelandic faðmr ‘outstretched arms,

embrace; fathom’, faðma ‘to embrace’; Old English fKþm ‘outstretched arms,
embrace; cubit, fathom’; Old Saxon (pl.) fathmos ‘outstretched arms, embrace’;
Old High German fadam, fadum ‘cubit’ (New High German Faden).
Northwest Caucasian *pə́tə ‘a bit, a small portion, a little’: South Abkhaz

pət-k’, a-pə́t ‘a bit, a small portion, a little’, pət-r-áamta ‘for some time’, pət-
jºə́-k’ ‘several, some people’. For the semantics, cf. Latin tenuis in the sense
‘present in a very small quantity, scanty, meager (of material and non-material
things)’ (Oxford Latin Dictionary [1968], p. 1922) < Proto-Indo-European
*tʰen-/*tʰon-/*tʰn̥ - ‘to extend, to spread, to stretch’.
272. Proto-Indo-European *pʰol- ‘to fall, to fall down’: Armenian pʰlanim ‘to fall
in’; Old Icelandic falla ‘to fall’, fall ‘fall, death, ruin, decay, destruction’, fella
‘to fell, to make to fall, to kill, to slay’; Old English feallan ‘to fall, to fall
down, to fail, to decay, to die; to prostrate oneself’, feall, fiell ‘fall, ruin,
destruction, death’, fiellan ‘to make to fall, to fell, to pull down, to destroy, to
kill; to humble’; Old Saxon fallan ‘to fall’, fellian ‘to fell’; Old High German
fallan ‘to fall’ (New High German fallen), fellan ‘to fell’ (New High German
fällen); Lithuanian púolu, pùlti ‘to fall (up)on, to attack, to assault, to fall’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *palá ‘ snowflake’: South Abkhaz

a-pál ‘snowflake’, (reduplicated) palá-palá (adv.) ‘falling by flakes (of snow)’.
273. Proto-Indo-European (reduplicated) *pʰor-pʰor- ‘to move, wave, or sway in a

flapping manner’ (only in Slavic): Old Church Slavic porporъ ‘flag’; Czech
praper ‘flag’; Polish proporzec ‘streamer, small flag’. Derivative of Proto-
Indo-European *pʰer-/*pʰor-/*pʰr̥ - ‘(vb.) to fly, to flee; (n.) feather, wing’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *par-párə ‘to flap

(wings); to twitch (for example, of eyes)’: South Abkhaz a-par-par-rá ‘to flap
(wings); to twitch (for example, of eyes)’.
274. Proto-Indo-European *(s)tʰeh- [*(s)tʰah-] (> *(s)tʰā-) ‘to stand’ (*h = *ə̯₄):
Sanskrit (reduplicated) tíṣṭhati ‘to stand’; Greek (reduplicated) ἵστημι (Doric
ἵστᾱμι) ‘to stand’; Latin (reduplicated) sistō ‘to cause to stand, to put, to place’,
status ‘standing, standing position’; Luwian tā- ‘to step, to arrive’. Note also:
Hittite ištantāye/a- ‘to stay put, to linger, to be late’; Gothic standan ‘to stand’;
Old Icelandic standa ‘to stand’; Old English standan ‘to stand’; Old Saxon
standan ‘to stand’; Old High German stantan ‘to stand’.
A. Proto-Circassian *tʰə ‘to stand’: Bžedux tʰə ‘to stand’; Kabardian tə ‘to
stand’ (only with local prefixes).
B. Common Abkhaz *ta ‘stand, place of, home’: South Abkhaz a-tá-zaa-ra,
a-ta-rá ‘to be inside’, a-t-rá ‘place of something’, ta- (preverb) ‘inside’;

Abaza / Tapanta tá-z-la-ra ‘to be inside’, ta-rá ‘place of something’, ta-

(preverb) ‘inside’, ta ‘stand, place of, home’.
275. Proto-Indo-European *tʰekʰ-/*tʰokʰ- ‘to seek, to ask for’ (only in Germanic):

Old Icelandic þiggja ‘to receive, to accept’; Danish tigge ‘to beg’; Swedish
tigga ‘to beg, to beg for’; Norwegian tigge ‘to beg (om for), to beseech, to
implore; to solicit’; Old English þicgan ‘to take, to receive, to accept’; Old
Saxon thiggian ‘to ask, to request; to endure’; Old High German dicken, digen
‘to beg for, to request’. Note: Old Irish and Lithuanian cognates have been
proposed, but these are questionable and, therefore, are not included here.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *taqə́ ‘to wish, to desire’: Abzhywa

a-tax̌ -rá ‘(to) wish, (to) desire’; Abaza / Tapanta taqə́-ra ‘(to) wish, (to) desire’;
Bzyp a-tax̌ -rá ‘(to) wish, (to) desire’.
276. Proto-Indo-European *tʰekʰ-/*tʰokʰ- ‘to thrive, to flourish, to succeed, to

prosper’, (with nasal infix) *tʰenkʰ-/*tʰonkʰ-: Proto-Germanic *þeŋχan- or
*þiŋχan- ‘to thrive, to prosper’ > Gothic þeihan ‘to prosper, to succeed, to
thrive’; Old English þēon ‘to thrive, to prosper, to flourish, to grow, to increase,
to ripen’; Old Saxon thīhan ‘to thrive, to prosper, to flourish’; Dutch gedijen ‘to
thrive, to prosper, to flourish’; Old High German dīhan ‘to thrive, to prosper, to
increase, to develop, to grow, to succeed’ (New High German gedeihen). These
forms have been compared with the following, though there is substantial
disagreement among different scholars here: Lithuanian tenkù, tèkti ‘to fall to,
to fall on, to suffice, to happen, to have to’; tinkù, tìkti ‘to suit, to match, to
please’; (dial.) ‘to agree, to meet, to find, to reach, to happen, to suffice’;
Latvian tikt ‘to become, to attain, to arrive (at), to reach’; Ukrainian tʹaknuty ‘to
be helpful’; Old Irish tocad ‘fortune, chance, good luck’; Middle Welsh tynghet
‘destiny, fate’. Cf. Orël 2003:421; Kroonen 2013:542; Fraenkel 1962—
1965.II:1077 and II:1092—1093; Derksen 2015:462 and 465; Smoczyński
2007.I:668 and I:676—677; Hock (ed.) 2019:1257 and 1275—1277; etc.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Northwest Caucasian *tqa ‘to prosper, to live

in abundance; to eat much and tasty’ (cf. Chirikba 1996a:212).
A. Proto-Circassian *Tx̌ a ‘to prosper, to live in abundance’: Bžedux tx̌ a ‘to
prosper, to live in abundance’; Kabardian tx̌ a ‘to prosper, to live in
abundance’.
B. Common Abkhaz *qa-ɦá ‘sweet, tasty’ (*-ɦa suffix): Abzhywa á-x̌ aa
‘sweet, tasty’; Bzyp á-x̌ aa ‘sweet, tasty’; Ashkharywa á-q(a)ɦa ‘sweet,
tasty’; Abaza / Tapanta q(a)ɦá ‘sweet, tasty’.
Note: Common Northwest Caucasian *q is represented as *kʰ in Proto-Indo-

European.

277. Proto-Indo-European *tʰekʷʰ- (with nasal infix: *tʰe-n-kʷʰ-) ‘to stretch out, to
reach out’ > ‘to reach, to arrive at, to come up to, etc.’ (Baltic only): Lithuanian
tenkù, tekaũ, tèkti ‘to come up to, to approach, to reach; to fall to one’s lot; to
be allotted, apportioned; to come into one’s possession; to have enough; to
extend out, to stretch out, to reach out’; Latvian tikt ‘to become, to attain, to
arrive (at), to reach’. For the semantics, cf. Buck 1949:§9.55 arrive (intr.) and
arrive at, reach (trans.).
Notes:
1. Probably not related to the following Germanic forms: Old Icelandic
þiggja ‘to receive, to accept’; Danish tigge ‘to beg’; Swedish tigga ‘to beg,
to beg for’; Norwegian tigge ‘to beg (om for), to beseech, to implore; to
solicit’; Old English þicgan ‘to take, to receive, to accept’; Old Saxon
thiggian ‘to ask, to request; to endure’; Old High German dicken, digen ‘to
beg for, to request’.
2. Also probably not related to Old Irish ad-teich ‘to find refuge with
someone, to entreat, to pray to’, which Matasović (2009:26) convincingly
derives from Proto-Celtic *ad-tekʷ-o- ‘to run to, to approach’, itself a
derivative of Proto-Celtic *tekʷ-o- ‘to run, to flee’ (cf. Matasović 2009:
377). Strong support for Matasović’s position is provided by the Middle
Welsh cognate (1st sg.) athechaf ‘to flee from, to avoid’, which Matasović
(2009:26) derives from Proto-Celtic *ab-tekʷ-o- instead of the Proto-Celtic
*ad-tekʷ-o- needed to explain the Old Irish form.
3. Hittite (3rd sg. pres. act.) te-ek-ku-uš-ši-[ez-zi] ‘to show, to present
(oneself)’, (2nd sg. pres. act.) te-ek-ku-uš-ša-nu-ši ‘to (make) show, to
reveal, to (make) present someone’, (3rd sg. pres. act.) te-ek-ku-uš-še-eš-ta
‘to become visible’, etc. are usually compared with Avestan daxš- ‘to
teach’, daxšta- ‘sign’ (cf, Kloekhorst 2008:864—865). However, it seems
more likely that the Hittite forms are derivatives of Proto-Indo-European
*tʰekʷʰ- ‘to stretch out, to reach out’ (> *tʰekʷʰ-s-ye/o- ‘to point out, to
show, to reveal; to be revealed, to become visible, etc.’) and that they are
to be compared with the Baltic forms cited above rather than with Avestan
daxš- ‘to teach’, daxšta- ‘sign’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *tʰaq:º(a) ‘to strew, to pour out’:

Temirgoy tāqº(a) ‘to strew, to pour dry substances’, ğa-taqºa-n ‘to pour out of
(a container)’; Kabardian tāq’ºa ‘to strew, to pour dry substances’ (with local
prefixes, yə-, xa- ‘into’). For the semantics, cf. Buck 1949:§9.34 spread out;
strew.
278. Proto-Indo-European *tʰel-kʰ-/*tʰol-kʰ-/*tʰl̥ -kʰ- ‘to push, to thrust, to knock, to

strike’: Welsh talch ‘fragment, flake’; Old Irish tolc, tulc ‘blow, strike’; Old
Church Slavic tlъkǫ, tlěšti ‘to knock’; Russian tolkat' [толкать] ‘to push, to
shove’, tolkač [толкач] ‘stamp; pusher’; Czech tlak ‘pressure’.

Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *t:aλa ‘to splash, to threaten; to shake

(fist), to wave threateningly; to rattle (the saber)’: Temirgoy tāλa ‘to splash, to
threaten’, ǧa-taλa-n ‘to shake (fist), to wave threateningly; to rattle (the saber)’;
Kabardian dāλa ‘to splash, to threaten’, ǧa-dāλa ‘to shake (fist), to wave
threateningly; to rattle (the saber)’.
279. Proto-Indo-European *tʰer-s-, *tʰr-es- ‘to tremble, to shake’: Sanskrit trásati

‘to tremble, to quiver’; Avestan tǝrǝs- ‘to be afraid’; Greek τρέω ‘to tremble, to
quiver’; Latin terreō ‘to frighten, to terrify’, terror ‘fright, fear, terror, alarm,
dread’. Note also Proto-Indo-European *tʰr-em-/*tʰr-om-/*tʰr-m̥ - ‘to tremble, to
shake’: Greek τρέμω ‘to tremble, to quiver’, τρόμος ‘a trembling, quaking,
quivering (especially with fear)’; Latin tremō ‘to tremble, to quake’; Old
Church Slavic tręsǫ, tręsti ‘to shake’; Tocharian A träm- ‘to be furious’, B
tremi ‘anger’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *trə́śə ‘to startle’: Bzyp á-trəś-ra ‘to
startle’, Abzhywa a-trə́s-ra ‘to startle’; Abaza / Tapanta trə́s-ra ‘to rush, to
throw oneself towards something; to attack’.
280. Proto-Indo-European *t’eAʷ- [*t’aAʷ-] (> *t’āw-) ‘to burn, to blaze’: Sanskrit
dāvá-ḥ ‘forest fire’, dāváyati ‘to burn, to consume by fire’; Greek δαίω (<
*δα+-ɩ̯ ω) ‘to light up, to make to burn, to kindle; to blaze, to burn fiercely’, δαΐς
‘firebrand, pine-torch’, (Homeric) δάος ‘torch’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *t’ə́ɦºa ‘monster swallowing sun or

moon (during eclipse)’: South Abkhaz a-t’ə́jº ‘monster swallowing sun or moon
(during eclipse)’, a-t’ə́jº-k’-ra ‘solar/lunar eclipse’; Bzyp a-t’ºə́jº, a-t’ºə́ja
‘monster swallowing sun or moon (during eclipse)’; Ahchypsy a-t’ə́jº ‘monster
swallowing sun or moon (during eclipse)’. Note: Labialization in Bzyp and
Ahchypsy may be secondary.
281. Proto-Indo-European *t’em-/*t’om-/*t’m̥ - ‘to grow, to increase’: Tocharian B

tsamo ‘growing’, tsmotstse ‘growing, increasing’, tsmoññe ‘growth, increase’,
tsäm- ‘to grow (in size or number)’. Perhaps also in Iranian (if from Proto-
Indo-European *t’m̥ H-s- or *t’m̥ H-kʰ- ‘to grow, to increase; to heap up, to
accumulate, to collect’ > Proto-Iranian *dās- >): Ossetic dasun, dast ‘to collect,
to heap up’; Khotan Saka dāsa- ‘collection, heap’. Note: Adams (2013:804)
derives the Tocharian forms from Proto-Indo-European *t’em(H)-/*t’om(H)-
/*t’m̥ (H)- ‘to build’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *t’am-t’ámə ‘plump,

soft’: South Abkhaz á-t’amt’am ‘plump, soft’, jə-t’amt’ám-wa ‘soft (of dough,
ripe fruit)’; Abaza / Tapanta t’am-t’am ‘stout, corpulent, plump; ripe (of soft,
juicy fruit)’.

282. Proto-Indo-European (extended form) *t’er-bʰ-/*t’or-bʰ-/*t’r̥ -bʰ- ‘to bend, to

twist (together)’: Sanskrit dṛbháti ‘to string together, to arrange, to tie, to
fasten’; Old English tearflian ‘to turn, to roll, to wallow’; Old High German
zerben ‘to be twisted’.
Northwest Caucasian: (1) Common Abkhaz *t’arə́ ‘to be flexible, viscous,

bending’: South Abkhaz á-t’ar-ra ‘to be flexible, viscous, bending’. (2)
Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *t’ərə́-t’ərə́ ‘tall and lithe, elegant (of man)’:
Abzhywa (reduplicated) á-t’ar-t’ar-ra ‘tall and lithe, elegant (of man)’; Bzyp
á-t’ər-t’ər-ra ‘tall and lithe, elegant (of man)’.
283. Proto-Indo-European *t’ew-/*t’ow-/*t’u- ‘to hit, to strike’: Old Irish dorn

‘fist’, ·durni ‘to strike with fists’; Welsh dwrn ‘fist’; Breton dourn ‘hand’; Old
Icelandic tjón ‘damage, loss’, týna ‘to lose, to destroy, to put to death’,
(reflexive) týnast ‘to perish’, týning ‘destruction’; Old English tēona ‘injury,
suffering, injustice, wrong, insult, contumely, quarrel’, tēonian ‘to irritate’,
tīenan ‘to annoy, to irritate’; Old Saxon tiono ‘evil, harm, injury, wrong,
hostility, enmity’, gitiunian ‘to do wrong’; Latvian dùre, dûris ‘fist’, duŕu,
dũru, du9t ‘to sting, to thrust’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *t’awə ‘to bump (one’s head)’:

Temirgoy ya-t’awə ‘to bump (one’s head)’.
284. Proto-Indo-European (*t’er-/)*t’or-/*t’r- ‘to run, to flow’ (unattested);

(extended forms) (1) *t’r-eA- [*t’r-aA-] > *t’rā-; (2) *t’r-em-/*t’r-om-/*t’r-m̥ -;
(3) *t’r-ew-/*t’r-ow-/*t’r-u- ‘to run, to flow’: Sanskrit drā́ ti ‘to run, to hasten’,
drámati ‘to run about, to roam, to wander’, drávati ‘to run, to hasten’, dravá-ḥ
‘running, flowing’, dravantī ‘river’, druta-ḥ ‘speedy, swift’; Greek δρησμός
‘flight, running away’, (aor.) ἔδραμον ‘to run, to move quickly’, δρόμος
‘course, running, race’; Gothic trudan ‘to tread, to step’; Old Icelandic troða ‘to
tread’; Old English tredan, ‘to tread, to step on, to trample’, treddian ‘to tread,
to walk’, trod (f. trodu) ‘track, trace’; Old Frisian treda ‘to tread’; Old Saxon
tredan ‘to tread’; Old High German tretan ‘to tread’, trottōn ‘to run’.
Northwest Caucasian: (1) Proto-Circassian *t’ərza ‘to sport, to gambol (of a

horse)’: Temirgoy t’ərza ‘to sport, to gambol (of a horse)’. (2) Proto-Circassian
*t’ara ‘to sport, to gambol (of a horse)’: Temirgoy t’ara-n ‘to sport, to gambol
(of a horse)’.
285. Proto-Indo-European *wel-/*wol-/*wl̥ - ‘to turn, to roll, to revolve’: Sanskrit

válati, válate ‘to turn, to turn around, to turn to’; Armenian gelum ‘to twist, to
press’, glem ‘to roll’, glor ‘round’; Greek εἰλέω (< *+ελ-ν-έω) ‘to roll up, to
pack close, to wind, to turn around, to revolve’, εἰλύω ‘to enfold, to enwrap’;
Latin volvō ‘to roll, to wind, to turn around, to twist around’; Old Irish fillid ‘to
fold, to bend’; Gothic agwalwjan ‘to roll away’, at-walwjan ‘to roll to’; Old

Icelandic valr ‘round’, velta ‘to roll’, válka ‘to toss to and fro, to drag with
oneself’, válk ‘tossing to and fro (especially at sea)’; Old English wielwan ‘to
roll’, wealwian ‘to roll’, wealte ‘a ring’, wealcan ‘to roll, to fluctuate (intr.); to
roll, to whirl, to turn, to twist (tr.)’, wealcian ‘to roll (intr.)’, gewealc ‘rolling’,
welung ‘revolution (of a wheel)’; Middle English walken ‘to walk, to roll, to
toss’, walkien ‘to walk’; Middle Dutch welteren ‘to roll’, walken ‘to knead, to
press’; Old High German walzan ‘to roll, to rotate, to turn about’, walken,
walchen ‘to knead, to roll paste’; Tocharian B wäl- ‘to curl’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *waλa ‘to totter, to reel’: Bžedux wāλa

‘to totter, to reel’; Temirgoy wāλa ‘wave; to undulate’.
286. (1) Proto-Indo-European *wer-/*wor-/*wr̥ - in: *wer-tʰ-/*wor-tʰ-/*wr̥ -tʰ- ‘to

twist, to turn’: Sanskrit vártate ‘to turn, to to turn one’s self, to turn round, to
roll, to revolve; to move, to go’, vártaṇa-ḥ ‘spindle, distaff; the act of turning or
moving, revolving; rolling on, moving forward, moving about’; Latin vertō ‘to
turn, to turn round; to turn oneself’, versus ‘row, line, furrow’; Gothic wairþan
‘to become’; Old Icelandic verða ‘to become, to happen, to come to pass’; Old
English weorþan ‘to become, to come into being, to arise; to happen’, (suffix)
-weard indicating direction to or from a point: ‘towards, to’; Old Saxon werđan
‘to become’; Dutch worden ‘to be, to become’; Old High German werdan ‘to
become’ (New High German werden); Lithuanian vers̃ ti ‘to turn over’, vars̃ tas
‘the turn of a plow’, vartýti ‘to turn, to turn over’; Old Church Slavic vrьtěti ‘to
turn around’; Czech vrátiti ‘to return, to send back’, vřeteno ‘spindle’; Russian
vertétʹ [вертеть] ‘to twirl, to turn round and round’, veretenó [веретено]
‘spindle, pivot, axle’; Tocharian A/B wärt- ‘to turn’, B *wrete ‘circle, turning’.
(2) Proto-Indo-European *wer-/*wor-/*wr̥ - in: *wer-k’-/*wor-k’-/*wr̥ -k’- ‘to
bend, to twist, to turn’: Sanskrit vṛṇákti ‘to bend, to turn; to turn away, to
avert’. (3) Proto-Indo-European *wer-/*wor-/*wr̥ - in: *wr-ey-kʰ-/*wr-oy-kʰ-
/*wr-i-kʰ- ‘to bend, to twist, to turn; to make crooked’, *wr-oy-kʰo- ‘turn,
curvature’: Greek ῥοικός ‘crooked; curvature’, ῥικνός ‘withered, shriveled,
crooked’; Old English wrēon (< Proto-Germanic *wrīχan) ‘to cover, to clothe,
to envelope; to conceal, to hide’. (4) Proto-Indo-European *wer-/*wor-/*wr̥ - in:
*wr-ey-k’ʷ-/*wr-oy-k’ʷ-/*wr-i-k’ʷ- ‘to bend, to twist, to turn, to make crooked’:
Gothic *wraiqs ‘curved, winding, twisting (of roads)’; Old Frisian wrāk
‘crooked’; (?) Greek ῥαιβός ‘crooked, bent’.
Northwest Caucasian: (?) Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *vǝr-vǝr- ‘the sound

of swiftly turning round’: South Abkhaz (reduplicated) á-vǝr-vǝr-ħºa ‘the
sound of swiftly turning round’; Abaza / Tapanta (reduplicated) vǝr-vǝr-ħºa
‘the sound of swiftly turning round’. Cf. Chirikba 1996a:63 and 68.
287. Proto-Indo-European *yeʔ-/*yoʔ- (> *yē-/*yō-) ‘to do, to make’ (*ʔ = *ə̯₁):
Hittite (3rd sg. pres. act.) i-e-z-zi ‘to do, to make’; Luwian (2nd sg. pres. act.)
a-a-ya-ši ‘to do, to make’, (3rd sg. pres. act.) a-ti; Hieroglyphic Luwian (3rd sg.

pres. act.) á-ia-ti-i ‘to do, to make’; Lycian (3rd sg. pres. act.) adi, edi ‘to do, to
make’. Perhaps also: Tocharian B yām- ‘to do, to make, to commit, to effect, to
handle, to act; to treat as’ (cf. Puhvel 1984— .1/2:335—347; not in Kloekhorst
2008).
A. Common Abkhaz *jǝ ‘to be born; birth’: Bzyp a-j-rá // a-jǝ́-ra ‘to be born;
birth’; Abzhywa a-j-rá ‘to be born; birth’; Abaza / Tapanta (archaic) j-ra
‘to be born; birth; to heal, to close (of wound)’, ɦa-r-jǝ́-ra ‘to give birth
to’; Ashkharywa ā-r-jǝ́-ra ‘to give birth to’; South Abkhaz a-r-jǝ́-ra ‘to
give birth to (of animals)’. Note: Assuming semantic development from ‘to
make, to produce, to create’ (cf. Buck 1949:§4.71 beget [of father] and
§4.72 bear [of mother]).
B. Ubykh verb stem yǝ-da- ‘to do, to make’; yǝ-šʹ- ‘to do, to make’ (áysšʹǝn ‘I
do it’, áynšʹǝn ‘he does it’, áyšʹšʹǝn ‘we do it’, etc.), yǝšʹła ‘the manner or
way in which something is made or done’.
288. Proto-Indo-European *yetʰ-/*yotʰ- ‘to exert oneself, to endeavor, to strive’:

Sanskrit yátati, yátate ‘to exert oneself, to endeavor; to make, to produce’,
yáti-ḥ ‘a sage of subdued passions’, yatná-ḥ ‘effort, endeavor, exertion, energy,
diligence, perseverance’; Avestan yateiti, yatayeiti ‘to strive after; to place in
order’; Tocharian B yāt- ‘to be capable of; to have power over, to tame’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *yatʰa ‘to rage (of storm), to swell (of
wound); to let oneself go, to become insolent’: Temirgoy yāta ‘to rage (of
storm), to swell (of wound); to let oneself go, to become insolent’; Kabardian
yāta ‘to rage (of storm), to swell (of wound); to let oneself go, to become
insolent’.
XXIII. Northwest Caucasian Lexical Parallels to Proto-Indo-European

Roots Subject to Root Structure Constraint Laws
Now, Proto-Indo-European had constraints on permissible root structure

sequences. In terms of the Glottalic Model of Proto-Indo-European consonantism,
these root structure constraint rules may be stated as follows:
1. Each root had to contain at least one non-glottalic consonant.

2. When both obstruents were non-glottalic, they had to agree in voicing.
The Proto-Indo-European root structure constraint laws thus become merely a

voicing agreement rule with the corollary that two glottalics cannot cooccur in a
root. Comparison with the other Eurasiatic languages indicates, however, that the
forbidden root types must have once existed. Two rules may be formulated to
account for the elimination of the forbidden types:

1. A rule of progressive voicing assimilation may be set up to account for the

elimination of roots whose consonantal elements originally did not agree in
voicing: *T ~ *B > *T ~ *P, *B ~ *T > *B ~ *D, etc.
2. A rule of regressive deglottalization may be set up to account for the elimination
of roots containing two glottalics: *C’VC’ > *CVC’, etc.
The question then naturally arises as to precisely when these constraints first
appeared in Proto-Indo-European. The contact between Proto-Indo-European with
Northwest Caucasian that we have been exploring in this paper may provide an
answer to this question. Northwest Caucasian has the forbidden sequences, though,
it should be noted that there are sporadic examples of regressive deglottalization in
Northwest Caucasian as well, such as, for instance, Ashkharywa kºt’əw ‘hen’ and
Abaza / Tapanta kºt’əw ‘hen’, with regressive deglottalization, as opposed to South
Abkhaz a-k’ºt’ə́ ‘hen’ and Sadz a-k’ºət’t’ǽ ‘hen’, without deglottalization. If lexical
comparisons exist between Proto-Indo-European and Northwest Caucasian in which
the forbidden root types are found, it would indicate that the root structure
constraints must have developed in Proto-Indo-European after the period of contact
between Proto-Indo-European and Northwest Caucasian but before the individual
Indo-European daughter languages began to develop. The following are possible
lexical comparisons indicating that this is indeed the case:
A. Examples of regressive deglottalization (*C’VC’- > *CVC’-):
289. Proto-Indo-European *k’at’- > (with regressive deglottalization) *kʰat’- ‘to

totter, to fall’: Sanskrit śad- ‘to fall, to perish; to wither, to decay’; Latin cadō
‘to fall; to fall down, to drop; to perish (especially in death)’. For the semantics,
cf. Buck 1949:§10.23 fall (vb.). Note: Distinct from Proto-Indo-European
*k’et’-/*k’ot’- > (with regressive deglottalization) *kʰet’-/*kʰot’- ‘to strive, to
make strenuous effort; to succeed, to triumph’: Sanskrit śad- (perfect śāśadúḥ,
participle śā́ śadāna-ḥ) ‘to cause to go, to impel, to drive on; to excel, to
distinguish oneself, to triumph’. Perhaps also Old Icelandic hetja ‘a hero,
champion, gallant man’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Northwest Caucasian *k’ʹat’/da ‘to tremble, to

rock, to shake, to swing’ (cf. Chirikba 1996a:204):
A. Common Abkhaz (reduplicated) *k’ʹat’a-k’ʹata ‘to rock, to swing (of a thin

top of some-thing, for example, of tree)’: South Abkhaz á-k’ʹat’k’ʹat’a-ra
‘to rock, to swing (of a thin top of something, for example, of tree)’; Bzyp
á-kºćº a-k’ʹat’k’ʹát’-ra ‘top of tree’. Cf. also Common Abkhaz *k’ʹant’/da
‘to swing, to rock, to bend’: Abaza / Tapanta k’ʹant’a ‘elastic, resilient’,
k’ʹant’a-ra ‘to bend’; South Abkhaz a-k’ʹant’a-rá, a-k’ʹanda-rá ‘to swing,
to rock, to bend’.
B. Ubykh k’ʹāda- ‘to tremble, to rock, to shake, to swing’.

290. Proto-Indo-European *k’et’-/*k’ot’- > (with regressive deglottalization) *kʰet’-

/*kʰot’- ‘to strive, to make strenuous effort; to succeed, to triumph’: Sanskrit
śad- (perfect śāśadúḥ, participle śā́ śadāna-ḥ) ‘to cause to go, to impel, to drive
on; to excel, to distinguish oneself, to triumph’. Perhaps also Old Icelandic
hetja ‘a hero, champion, gallant man’. Notes: (1) Distinct from śad- ‘to fall, to
fall off, to fall out’ (cf. Mayrhofer 1956—1980.II:204—205). (2) Not related to
Greek κέκασμαι (< *-καδ-) ‘to surpass, to excel, to overcome’ (cf. Kümmel
2000:512—514; Rix 2001:325 ? *k̑ end-, but *k̑ ed- is also possible).
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *k’at’á ‘incessently, without stop’:

South Abkhaz a-k’at’á-ħºa ‘incessently, without stop’.
291. Proto-Indo-European *k’ʷat’- > (with regressive deglottalization) *kʷʰat’- ‘to

cackle, to cluck’: Lithuanian kadù, kadjti ‘to cackle, to cluck’; Irish cadhan ‘a
wild goose, a barnacle-goose’. Note: Mann (1984—1987:1017) reconstructs
Proto-Indo-European *qu̯ ad- ‘to cackle, to cluck’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *k’ºət’ə́(w) ‘hen’: Ashkharywa kºt’əw

‘hen’; South Abkhaz a-k’ºt’ə́ ‘hen’; Sadz a-k’ºət’t’ǽ ‘hen’; Abaza / Tapanta
kºt’əw ‘hen’. Note: Regressive deglottalization in Ashkharywa and Abaza /
Tapanta.
292. Proto-Indo-European *k’ʷek’-/*k’ʷok’- > (with regressive deglottalization)

*kʷʰek’-/*kʷʰok’- ‘to disappear, to vanish, to wither’: Common Slavic *čèznǫti
‘to disappear, to vanish’ > Russian (dial.) čéznutʹ [чезнуть] ‘to disappear, to
vanish, to perish’; Polish czeznąć (obs.) ‘to wither, to disappear, to vanish’;
Bulgarian čézna ‘to disappear, to vanish’. Perhaps also Old Icelandic hvika ‘to
quail, to shrink, to waver’, hvikan ‘a quaking, vavering’, hvikr ‘quaking’,
hvikull ‘shifty, changeable’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *k’ºak’ə ‘to change, to get spoiled’:

Bžedux za-k’ºač’ʹə ‘to change, to get spoiled’; Kabardian za-k’ºak’ ‘to change,
to get spoiled’. (za- ‘to oneself’.)
293. Proto-Indo-European *p’ek’-/*p’ok’- > (with regressive deglottalization)

*pʰek’-/*pʰok’- ‘to be sleepy, tired’ (only in Germanic): Proto-West Germanic
*fakan- ‘to be sleepy, tired’, *fak(k)a- ‘sleepy, tired’ > Middle Dutch vaken ‘to
sleep’, vake, vaec ‘sleepiness’; Old Low Franconian facon ‘to sleep’; Middle
Low German vāk ‘sleepiness’; Low German fakk ‘tired, weak’. Note: Kroonen
(2013:124—125) reconstructs Proto-Germanic *fakk/gōn- ‘to become sleepy’
and includes Modern English (to) fag ‘to tire, to become weary’, (obsolete) ‘to
hang loose, to flap’ and Scottish English (to) faik ‘to fail from weariness; to
cease moving’. However, English (to) fag is usually taken to be “of unknown
origin. Weekley (1921:543), on the other hand, takes fag ‘drudge, weariness’ to
be a “schoolboy perversion of fatigue”. However, this is rejected outright by

Lieberman (2008:67—70) as “a product of etymological despair”. Lieberman

further notes that the meanings ‘drudge’ and ‘weary’ are “late senses”. Thus, it
appears that the English forms cited by Kroonen really do not belong here.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *Pq’a ‘bed, bedding’: Bžedux p’a ‘bed,

bedding’; Šapsegh pq’a, p’a ‘bed, bedding’.
294. Proto-Indo-European *p’ek’-/*p’ok’- > (with regressive deglottalization)

*pʰek’-/*pʰok’- ‘interval, section, compartment, partition. division’ (only in
Germanic): Proto-West Germanic *faka- > Old English fKc ‘space of time,
division, interval’; Old Frisian fek, fak ‘part of house, niche’; Middle Dutch vac
‘compartment, section’; Old High German fah ‘wall, compartment’. Note:
Assuming derivation from an unattested verb *pʰek’-/*pʰok’- ‘to strike, to split
(apart), to break (apart), to divide’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *p’q’a ‘to beat, to strike’: Abzhywa

á-p’q’a-ra ‘to beat, to strike’; Abaza / Tapanta p’q’a-rá, bq’a-rá ‘to beat, to
strike, to slap; to thresh’, bq’á-ga, p’q’á-ga ‘thresher’; Bzyp á-pq’a-ra ‘to beat,
to strike’.
295. Proto-Indo-European *p’et’-/*p’ot’- > (with regressive deglottalization) *pʰet’-

/*pʰot’- ‘to twist, to turn, to bend’: Old Icelandic fattr ‘(easily) bent
backwards’, fetta ‘to bend back’; Greek πέδησις ‘a bending’. Perhaps also
Tocharian B peti ‘flattery’ (if not an Iranian loanword [cf. Adams 2013:423—
424]), assuming semantic development as in South Abkhaz cited below.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *p’at’á ‘to entangle, to mat (of

thread); to make confused (in the room); to intermix things’: Abaza / Tapanta
la-r-p’at’a-rá ‘to entangle, to mat (of thread); to make confused (in the room);
to intermix things’; South Abkhaz a-p’at’a-rá ‘to be delirious, to talk nonsense,
to mix truth with lies, to lie’.

/*pʰot’- ‘(vb.) to constrain, to restrain; to bind tight; to fetter, to shackle; (n.)
fetter, shackle’: Greek (f.) πέδη ‘fetter, shackle’, (denominative) πεδάω ‘to bind
with fetters; to shackle, to trammel, to constrain’, πεδόομαι ‘to be impeded’;
Latin pedica ‘fetter, shackle; snare’, impediō ‘to hinder, to impede, to obstruct;
to restrict the movement of (by hobbling, binding, entangling, etc.)’; Old
Icelandic fjötra ‘to fetter’, fjöttur ‘fetter, shackle’; Old English feter, fetor
‘fetter. shackle’, feterian ‘to fetter, to bind’; Old High German fezzara ‘fetter’;
Hittite patalli(ya)- ‘fetter (?), tether (?)’; Luwian patalḫa(i)- ‘to fetter’. Note:
Thus, not derived from or related to Proto-Indo-European *pʰet’-/*pʰot’- ‘foot’
as has sometimes been suggested.

Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *p’ət’a ‘to jam, to press, to pinch’:

Bžedux p’ət’a ‘to crush, to press’, da-p’ət’a ‘to jam, to pinch’; Kabardian p’ət’
‘to crush, to press’, da-p’ət’a ‘to jam, to pinch’.
For the semantics, cf. Modern Greek σφίγγω ‘to bind tight’ also sometimes ‘to
press, to squeeze (especially the hand)’ (cf. Buck 1949:9.342 press [vb.]).

/*pʰot’- ‘to go, to move; to fall’: Sanskrit pádyati, -te ‘to fall down or drop with
fatigue; to perish; to go, to go to; to attain, to obtain’; Old Icelandic feta ‘to
step’; Old English fetan ‘to fall’; Old High German fezzan, gi-fezzan ‘to fall’;
Old Church Slavic padǫ, pasti / padajǫ, padati ‘to fall’; Russian pádatʹ
[падать], pastʹ [пасть] ‘to fall; to fall down, into, on, from; to drop, to drop
down; to be degraded, ruined’. Note: Thus, not derived from or related to
Proto-Indo-European *pʰet’-/*pʰot’- ‘foot’ as is sometimes suggested.
A. Circassian: Kabardian p’ăt’ăwă ‘to stir, to move’. Kabardian loanwords in:
Ashkharywa p’at’áw(a)-ra ‘to stir, to move’; Abaza / Tapanta p’at’áw-ra
‘to stir, to move’; Abzhywa a-p’at’áw-ra ‘to stir, to move’.
B. Ubykh p’at’awa- ‘to wriggle (about), to fidget’.
298. Proto-Indo-European (*t’ek’-)/*t’ok’- > (with regressive deglottalization)

*tʰek’-/*tʰok’- ‘to knock, to beat, to strike’: Proto-Germanic *þek-/*þak- ‘to
knock, to beat, to strike’ > Old Icelandic þjaka ‘to thwack, to thump, to smite’,
þjakaðr ‘worn, fainting, exhausted’, þjökka ‘to thwack, to thump, to beat, to
chastise’, þykkr (< *þjökk- < *þekk-) ‘a thwack, thump, blow, a hurt’; Old
English þaccian ‘to clap, to pat, to stroke, to touch gently, to smack, to beat’;
Middle English þakken ‘to pat, to stroke’. Perhaps also: Sanskrit tāják, tāját
‘suddenly, abruptly’; Tocharian B (adv.) tetekā- ~ tetekāk ~ tetkāk ‘suddenly,
immediately’; assuming semantic development as in Bzyp á-t’əq’-ħºa ‘quickly,
instantly’ cited below.
A. Common Abkhaz *t’ə́q’ə ‘to knock, to beat’: South Abkhaz a’t’ə́q’-ra ‘to
beat unmercifully’; Bzyp á-t’əq’-ħºa ‘quickly, instantly’; Abaza / Tapanta
t’əq’-t’ə́q’ ‘descriptive of a hollow knock, a tap’.
B. Ubykh t’q’ada- ‘to strike, to hit’.
B. Examples of progressive voicing assimilation

(*T ~ *B > *T ~ *P, *B ~ *T > *B ~ *D, etc.):
299. Proto-Indo-European *bʰetʰ-/*bʰotʰ- > (with progressive voicing assimilation)

*bʰedʰ-/*bʰodʰ- ‘to strike, to pierce; to fight’, *bʰodʰ-wo- ‘battle, fight(ing),
strife, war’: Old Icelandic (poet.) böð ‘battle’, böðull ‘executioner’; Norwegian

bøddel ‘executioner, hangman’; Old English beadu, beado ‘battle, fighting,

strife, war’; Old Saxon badu- ‘battle’; Old High German batu ‘battle’; Middle
Irish bodb, badb ‘crow; goddess of war’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *wəbatʰa ‘to break’: Bžedux wəbatʰa-n

‘to break (for example, a plate) (tr.)’.
300. Proto-Indo-European *bʰetʰ-/*bʰotʰ- > (with progressive voicing assimilation)

*bʰedʰ-/*bʰodʰ- ‘hip, haunch, thigh’: Old Church Slavic bedra ‘thigh’; Russian
bedró [бедро] ‘hip, haunch; (medical) femur, thigh-bone’; Czech bedra (pl.)
‘loins, hips’; Serbo-Croatian bèdro ‘thigh’. Perhaps also Sanskrit (Vedic) bādh-
in jñu-bā́ dh- ‘bending the knees’. Note: The original meaning of Proto-Indo-
European *bʰedʰ-/*bʰodʰ- may have been ‘to be or become bent, crooked,
twisted; to bend, to twist’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *bət:ə ‘hunchbacked’: Bžedux bət:ə

‘hunchbacked’.
301. Proto-Indo-European *kʰebʰ-/*kʰobʰ- > (with progressive voicing assimilation)

*kʰepʰ-/*kʰopʰ- ‘stem, stalk, halm; grass, hay, straw’ (only in Lithuanian):
Lithuanian šãpas ‘stem, stalk, halm, blade (of grass), straw; mote’, šápauti ‘to
gather straw’. Derksen (2015:440) compares Sanskrit śā́ pa-ḥ ‘driftwood, drift,
floating’ here but prudently notes that this is “[a]n old, but highly uncertain
etymology” (see also Mayrhofer 1956—1980.II:324 and 1986—2001.II:629
Proto-Indo-European *ḱóp-o-).
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *qə́-bə ‘roof, thatch’: Bžedux a-x̌ ə́b
‘roof, roofing’, a-x̌ ə́b-ra ‘to roof, to thatch’; Abzhywa a-x̌ ə́b-ra ‘to roof, to
thatch’; Abaza / Tapanta qə́b ‘roofing (material); hay roof’, qəb-ra ‘to roof, to
thatch’.
302. Proto-Indo-European *pʰegʰ-/*pʰogʰ- > (with progressive voicing assimilation)

*pʰekʰ-/*pʰokʰ- ‘to hit, to beat, to strike’: Old English feohtan ‘to fight’, feoht
‘fighting, battle’; Old Frisian fiuchta ‘to fight’; Old High German fehtan ‘to
fight’ (New High German fechten); Tocharian B pyāk- ‘to strike (downwards),
to batter; to beat (a drum); to penetrate (as a result of a downward blow)’;
Albanian -pjek in përpjek ‘to hit, to knock, to strike’.
Northwest Caucasian: Proto-Circassian *pʰəg(a) ‘to butt, to gore’: Bžedux

pʰəʒʹa, ya-pʰəʒʹə ‘to butt, to gore’; Kabardian pəga, ya-pəg ‘to butt, to gore’.

*pʰekʰ-/*pʰokʰ-, (adj.) *pʰokʰ-ró-s ‘fair, beautiful’ (only in Germanic): Proto-
Germanic *faᵹraz ‘fair, beautiful’ > Gothic *fagrs ‘fitting, proper, suitable’;
Old Icelandic fagr ‘fair, fine, beautiful’, fegrð ‘beauty’, fegra ‘to embellish, to

beautify’; Modern Icelandic fagur ‘proud’; Norwegian (poet.) fager ‘beautiful,

fair, handsome’, fagna ‘excellent, worthy’; Swedish fager ‘fair, pretty, fine,
beautiful’; Old English fKger ‘fair, lovely, beautiful; pleasant, agreeable;
attractive’; Old High German fagar ‘fair, beautiful’.
A. Proto-Circassian *pʰaɣa ‘proud, arrogant, haughty’: Bžedux pʰāɣa ‘proud,
arrogant, haughty’; Kabardian pāɣa ‘proud, arrogant, haughty’. Circassian
loanwords in Abkhaz: South Abkhaz a-págʹa ‘proud, arrogant, haughty’;
Abaza / Tapanta págʹa ‘proud, arrogant, haughty’. Note: Kuipers (1975:10)
writes Proto-Circassian *pʰaĝa.
B. Ubykh paǧá or pa:ǧá ‘proud’.
Note: Proto-Circassian *ɣ = Proto-Indo-European *gʰ (> *kʰ in the above

example, due to progressive voicing assimilation).

*pʰekʰ-/*pʰokʰ- ‘to satisfy, to please; to be joyful, happy, pleased, satisfied; to
rejoice’ (only in Germanic): Gothic faginōn ‘to rejoice’, fulla-fahjan ‘to satisfy,
to serve’, fahēþa ‘gladness, joy’, ga-fēhaba ‘satisfactorily, properly’ (?); Old
Icelandic fagna ‘to rejoice’, fagnaðr ‘joy’, feginn ‘glad, joyful’; Old English
fKgen ‘glad, joyful, rejoicing’, ge-fēon, ge-feohan ‘to be glad, to rejoice, to
exult’; Old High German gi-fehan ‘to rejoice’, gi-feho ‘joy’.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *pə-gá-la ‘to bring something for

somebody who is going to be met’: South Abkhaz a-p-gá-la-ra ‘to bring
something for somebody who is going to be met’, a-p-gá-la ‘luck, success’;
Abaza / Tapanta p-ga-l-ra ‘to bring something for somebody who is going to be
met’.
305. Proto-Indo-European *tʰegʷʰ- > (with progressive voicing assimilation) *tʰekʷʰ-

in *tʰekʷʰ-mén- ‘a kind of disease’ (Sanskrit only): Sanskrit takmán- (-ā́ ) ‘a kind
of disease, or probably, a whole class of diseases, accompanied by eruptions of
the skin’. Note: Tocharian B teki ‘disease, illness’, tekiññe ‘sick, diseased’,
tekīta ‘a sufferer, patient, sick person (?)’ may belong here as well, assuming
development from Proto-Indo-European *tʰokʷʰ-.
Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz *tágºə ‘swelling of neck’s glandule’:

Bzyp a-tágº ‘swelling of neck’s glandule’.
Note: The Abkhaz forms cited above are taken from Chirikba 1996b, and the
Circassian froms are from Kuipers 1975. Several other works have also
been consulted (such as Tuite—Schulze 1998). The Indo-European
material is taken from the standard etymological dictionaries listed in the
references, with heavy reliance on the etymological work currently being

done by a group of scholars in Leiden, The Netherlands (Beekes 2010;

Boutkan—Siebinga 2005; Cheung 2007; De Vaan 2008; Derksen 2008
and 2015; Kloekhorst 2008b; Kroonen 2013; Martirosysan 2008; and
Matisović 2009; also Bomhard 2008 as part of the same series).
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[email protected]
[corrected 25 December 2023]

Bomhard - Prehistoric Language Contact On The Steppes

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What is the thesis of the paper?

What is the thesis of the paper?

What languages does the author claim Proto-Indo-European came into contact with?

What languages does the author claim Proto-Indo-European came into contact with?

Prehistoric language

contact on the steppes:

Prehistoric Language Contact on the Steppes: The Case of

(1) Indo-European; (2) Northwest Caucasian; (3) language

© 2023 by Allan R. Bomhard (see below).

COPYRIGHT NOTICE: This open-access work is published under a

UNDER THE CREATIVE UNDER THE CREATIVE COMMONS LICENSE,

What exactly is Proto-Indo-European, and where did it come from? Which

1. The most likely homeland of speakers of the unified Indo-European parent

© Allan R. Bomhard, 2023; Open-access under the terms of https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0

2. Proto-Indo-European had neighbors: Uralic languages were spoken to the

© Allan R. Bomhard, 2023; Open-access under the terms of https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0

Figure 3: The glottalic reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European consonant system

(b) bʰ p = (p’) bh/b ph/p

Figure 4: Reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European phonological system during

Obstruents: I pʰ tʰ kʸʰ kʰ kʷʰ

Laryngeals: ʔ (= ə̯₁) h (= ə̯₄) ‿

Resonants: m/m̥ n/n̥ l/l̥ r/r̥ w/u y/i

Vowels: e o a (i) (u) ə

© Allan R. Bomhard, 2023; Open-access under the terms of https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0

Obstruents: I pʰ tʰ kʸʰ kʰ kʷʰ

As we delve further into the prehistory of Proto-Indo-European, we begin to see

Figure 5: The Northwest Caucasian family tree:

Abaza / Tapanta Abkhaz

© Allan R. Bomhard, 2023; Open-access under the terms of https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0

The phonological system reconstructed for Common Abkhaz by Chirikba

Figure 6: Common Abkhaz phonological system:

Stops Affricates Spirants Resonants Glides

The phonological system reconstructed for Proto-Circassian by Kuipers

Figure 7: The Proto-Circassian phonological system:

The Ubykh phonemic system is discussed at length by Vogt (1963:13—33). Cf.

Figure 8: The early Proto-Northwest Caucasian phonological system:

© Allan R. Bomhard, 2023; Open-access under the terms of https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0

At this point, it might be helpful to reproduce the sound correspondences

Figure 9: Northwest Caucasian sound correspondences:

Common Common Ubykh Common Abkhaz

© Allan R. Bomhard, 2023; Open-access under the terms of https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0

© Allan R. Bomhard, 2023; Open-access under the terms of https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0

(*ƛʹ *čʰʹ šʹ *x̌)

The following sound correspondences can be provisionally established between

© Allan R. Bomhard, 2023; Open-access under the terms of https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0

Figure 10: Sound correspondences:

Proto-Indo-European Common Abkhaz Proto-Circassian

© Allan R. Bomhard, 2023; Open-access under the terms of https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0

Figure 11: The phonological system reconstructed for “Proto-Pontic” by Colarusso:

Before discussing Colarusso’s theories, it would be helpful to outline some of

© Allan R. Bomhard, 2023; Open-access under the terms of https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0

Figure 12: “Fortified Proto-Indo-European” phonological system as reconstructed

Vowels: ə ~ a (plus tonal stress)

Next, Colarusso investigates morphological similarities, beginning with a series

Proto-Indo-European Proto-Northwest Caucasian

1. Athematic *-Ø Athematic stems

© Allan R. Bomhard, 2023; Open-access under the terms of https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0

8. Secondary NPs: *-no- Derivational suffix *-nə-

Figure 14: Participles, abstracts, case forms, etc. common to Proto-Indo-European

(ƛʹ čʰʹ šʹ *x̌)

8. Secondary NPs: -no- Derivational suffix -nə-

5. Accusative -m/-n Oblique: Circassian -m, Ubykh -n

1. Anaphora: so-, to- śa ‘what’, tʰə ‘where’

1. perH- ‘before’ (< ‘front’) pʰa-r-(a-y-) ‘front-along- (dat.-dir.-)’

3. Proto-Indo-European ʔo-pʰh(-i) ‘in front of, before, towards’ (ʔ = ə̯₁; h =

4. Proto-Indo-European ʔotʰ(i)- ‘back, away (from)’ (ʔ = *ə̯₁): Lithuanian

Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz áta- in áta-k’ǝ ‘to answer, to

7. Proto-Indo-European bʰē̆/bʰō̆ emphatic particle: Gothic ba (encl. ptc.) ‘if,

interrogative element) and j-an-bá ‘when?’ (< an ‘when’ + ba

10. Proto-Indo-European hen- [han-](/hn̥ -) in hen-tʰero- [han-tʰero-], hen-

Note: Proto-Indo-European n̥ is reflected as a in Northwest Caucasian.

A. Common Abkhaz -q’ʹa in -ć’º-q’ʹa affirmative suffix: ‘precise, accurate’.

15. Proto-Indo-European -mos dative-ablative plural ending, -mi(s) instrumental

17. Proto-Indo-European ne/o-+se/o- ‘then, for, because’: Hittite na-aš-šu,

Northwest Caucasian: Common Abkhaz ná-sə ‘then, afterwards’ (na

18. Proto-Indo-European pʰer-/pʰor-/*pʰr̥ - base of prepositions and preverbs with

20. Proto-Indo-European sem-/som- ‘together, together with; one’ (originally ‘to

Note: Common Abkhaz c’ = Proto-Indo-European t’.

23. Proto-Indo-European demonstrative stem ʔe-/ʔo-, ʔey-/ʔoy-/ʔi- (< ʔe-

24. Proto-Indo-European demonstrative pronoun ʔobʰo- (< ʔo-+-bʰo-) ‘this, that’

25. Proto-Indo-European demonstrative stem ʔeno-/ʔono (< ʔe-+-no-/ʔo-+