Department of Energy

Fundamentals Handbook

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
AND REACTOR THEORY
Module 2
Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)
Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

NEUTRON SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Neutron Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Intrinsic Neutron Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Installed Neutron Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

NUCLEAR CROSS SECTIONS AND NEUTRON FLUX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
Atom Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
Cross Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7
Mean Free Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Calculation of Macroscopic Cross Section and Mean Free Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Effects of Temperature on Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Neutron Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Self-Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

REACTION RATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Reaction Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Reactor Power Calculation . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Relationship Between Neutron Flux and Reactor Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

NEUTRON MODERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Neutron Slowing Down and Thermalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Macroscopic Slowing Down Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Moderating Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

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TABLE OF CONTENTS DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)

PROMPT AND DELAYED NEUTRONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Neutron Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Neutron Generation Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

NEUTRON FLUX SPECTRUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Prompt Neutron Energies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Thermal and Fast Breeder Reactor Neutron Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Most Probable Neutron Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

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Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Typical Neutron Absorption Cross Section vs. Neutron Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Figure 2 Prompt Fission Neutron Energy Spectrum for Thermal Fission

of Uranium-235 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Figure 3 Comparison of Neutron Flux Spectra for Thermal and Fast Breeder Reactor . . . 34

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LIST OF TABLES DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Neutron Production by Spontaneous Fission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Table 2 Moderating Properties of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Table 3 Delayed Neutron Precursor Groups for Thermal Fission in Uranium-235 . . . . . 30

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Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 REFERENCES

REFERENCES

Foster, Arthur R. and Wright, Robert L. Jr., Basic Nuclear Engineering, 3rd Edition, Allyn
and Bacon, Inc., 1977.

Jacobs, A.M., Kline, D.E., and Remick, F. J., Basic Principles of Nuclear Science and
Reactors, Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1960.

Kaplan, Irving, Nuclear Physics, 2nd Edition, Addison-Wesley Company, 1962.

Knief, Ronald Allen, Nuclear Energy Technology: Theory and Practice of Commercial
Nuclear Power, McGraw-Hill, 1981.

Lamarsh, John R., Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, Addison-Wesley Company, 1977.

Lamarsh, John R., Introduction to Nuclear Reactor Theory, Addison-Wesley Company,

1972.

General Electric Company, Nuclides and Isotopes: Chart of the Nuclides, 14th Edition,
General Electric Company, 1989.

Academic Program for Nuclear Power Plant Personnel, Volume III, Columbia, MD,
General Physics Corporation, Library of Congress Card #A 326517, 1982.

Glasstone, Samuel, Sourcebook on Atomic Energy, Robert F. Krieger Publishing

Company, Inc., 1979.

Glasstone, Samuel and Sesonske, Alexander, Nuclear Reactor Engineering, 3rd Edition,
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1981.

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Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 NEUTRON SOURCES

NEUTRON SOURCES

Neutrons from a variety of sources are always present in a reactor core. This is
true even when the reactor is shut down. Some of these neutrons are produced by
naturally occurring (intrinsic) neutron sources, while others may be the result of
fabricated (installed) neutron sources that are incorporated into the design of the
reactor. The neutrons produced by sources other than neutron-induced fission
are often grouped together and classified as source neutrons.

EO 1.1 DEFINE the following terms:

a. Intrinsic neutron source

b. Installed neutron source

EO 1.2 LIST three examples of reactions that produce neutrons in

intrinsic neutron sources.

EO 1.3 LIST three examples of reactions that produce neutrons in

installed neutron sources.

Neutron Sources

In addition to neutron-induced fission, neutrons are produced by other reactions. The neutrons
produced by reactions other than neutron-induced fission are called source neutrons. Source
neutrons are important because they ensure that the neutron population remains high enough to
allow a visible indication of neutron level on the most sensitive monitoring instruments while the
reactor is shutdown and during the startup sequence. This verifies instrument operability and
allows monitoring of neutron population changes. Source neutrons can be classified as either
intrinsic or installed neutron sources.

Intrinsic Neutron Sources

Some neutrons will be produced in the materials present in the reactor due to a variety of
unavoidable reactions that occur because of the nature of these materials. Intrinsic neutron
sources are those neutron-producing reactions that always occur in reactor materials.

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NEUTRON SOURCES DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

A limited number of neutrons will always be present, even in a reactor core that has never been
operated, due to spontaneous fission of some heavy nuclides that are present in the fuel. Uranium-
238, uranium-235, and plutonium-239 undergo spontaneous fission to a limited extent. Uranium-
238, for example, yields almost 60 neutrons per hour per gram. Table 1 illustrates a comparison
of the rate at which different heavy nuclides produce neutrons by spontaneous fission.
Californium-252 is not an intrinsic neutron source, but will be discussed in the section on installed
neutron sources.

TABLE 1
Neutron Production by Spontaneous Fission
Nuclide T1/2 (Fission) T1/2 (-decay) neutrons/sec/gram
235
92 U 1.8 x 1017 years 6.8 x 108 years 8.0 x 10-4
238
92 U 8.0 x 1015 years 4.5 x 109 years 1.6 x 10-2
239
94 Pu 5.5 x 105 years 2.4 x 104 years 3.0 x 10-2
240
94 Pu 1.2 x 1011 years 6.6 x 103 years 1.0 x 103
252
98 Cf 66.0 years 2.65 years 2.3 x 1012

Another intrinsic neutron source is a reaction involving natural boron and fuel. In some reactors,
natural boron is loaded into the reactor core as a neutron absorber to improve reactor control or
increase core life-time. Boron-11 (80.1% of natural boron) undergoes a reaction with the alpha
particle emitted by the radioactive decay of heavy nuclides in the fuel to yield a neutron as shown
below.

   

The boron-11 must be mixed with, or in very close proximity to, the fuel for this reaction because
of the short path length of the alpha particle. For a reactor core with this configuration, this (,n)
reaction is an important source of neutrons for reactor startup.

In a reactor that has been operated, another source of neutrons becomes significant. Neutrons may
be produced by the interaction of a gamma ray and a deuterium nucleus. This reaction is commonly
referred to as a photoneutron reaction because it is initiated by electromagnetic radiation and results
in the production of a neutron. The photoneutron reaction is shown below.


    

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Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 NEUTRON SOURCES

There is an abundant supply of high energy gammas in a reactor that has been operated because
many of the fission products are gamma emitters. All water-cooled reactors have some
deuterium present in the coolant in the reactor core because a small fraction of natural hydrogen
is the isotope deuterium. The atom percentage of deuterium in the water ranges from close to
the naturally occurring value (0.015%) for light water reactors to above 90% deuterium for heavy
water reactors. Therefore, the required conditions for production of photoneutrons exist.
The supply of gamma rays decreases with time after shutdown as the gamma emitters decay;
therefore, the photoneutron production rate also decreases. In a few particular reactors,
additional D2O (heavy water) may be added to the reactor to increase the production of
photoneutrons following a long shutdown period.

Installed Neutron Sources

Because intrinsic neutron sources can be relatively weak or dependent upon the recent power
history of the reactor, many reactors have artificial sources of neutrons installed. These neutron
sources ensure that shutdown neutron levels are high enough to be detected by the nuclear
instruments at all times. This provides a true picture of reactor conditions and any change in
these conditions. An installed neutron source is an assembly placed in or near the reactor for
the sole purpose of producing source neutrons.

One strong source of neutrons is the artificial nuclide californium-252, which emits neutrons at
the rate of about 2 x 1012 neutrons per second per gram as the result of spontaneous fission.
Important drawbacks for some applications may be its high cost and its short half-life (2.65
years).

Many installed neutron sources use the (,n) reaction with beryllium. These sources are
composed of a mixture of metallic beryllium (100% beryllium-9) with a small quantity of an
alpha particle emitter, such as a compound of radium, polonium, or plutonium. The reaction
that occurs is shown below.


    

The beryllium is intimately (homogeneously) mixed with the alpha emitter and is usually
enclosed in a stainless steel capsule.

Another type of installed neutron source that is widely used is a photoneutron source that
employs the (,n) reaction with beryllium. Beryllium is used for photoneutron sources because
its stable isotope beryllium-9 has a weakly attached last neutron with a binding energy of only
1.66 MeV. Thus, a gamma ray with greater energy than 1.66 MeV can cause neutrons to be
ejected by the (,n) reaction as shown below.


    

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NEUTRON SOURCES DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

Many startup sources of this type use antimony and beryllium because after activation with
neutrons the radioactive antimony becomes an emitter of high energy gammas. The photoneutron
sources of this type are constructed somewhat differently from the (,n) types. One design
incorporates a capsule of irradiated antimony enclosed in a beryllium sleeve. The entire assembly
is then encased in a stainless steel cladding. A large reactor may have several neutron sources of
this type installed within the core.

Summary
The important information in this chapter is summarized below.

Neutron Sources Summary

& Intrinsic neutron sources are sources of neutrons from materials that are in
the reactor for other purposes such as fuel, burnable poison, or moderator.

& Installed neutron sources are materials or components placed in the reactor
specifically for the purpose of producing source neutrons.

& Examples of intrinsic neutron sources are listed below.

Spontaneous fission of heavy nuclides in fuel, such as uranium-238,

uranium-235, and plutonium-239, results in fission fragments and
free neutrons.

Boron-11 mixed with the fuel undergoes an alpha-neutron reaction

and becomes nitrogen-14.

Deuterium present in the reactor coolant undergoes a gamma-

neutron reaction and becomes hydrogen-1.

& Examples of installed neutron sources are listed below.

Spontaneous fission of californium-252 results in fission fragments

and free neutrons.

Beryllium-9 undergoes an alpha-neutron reaction (alpha from the

decay of plutonium, polonium, or radium) and becomes carbon-12.

Beryllium-9 undergoes a gamma-neutron reaction (high energy

gamma from decay of antimony-124) and becomes beryllium-8.

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Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) NUCLEAR CROSS SECTIONS AND NEUTRON FLUX

NUCLEAR CROSS SECTIONS AND NEUTRON FLUX

To determine the frequency of neutron interactions, it is necessary to describe the

availability of neutrons to cause interaction and the probability of a neutron
interacting with material. The availability of neutrons and the probability of
interaction are quantified by the neutron flux and nuclear cross section.

EO 2.1 DEFINE the following terms:

a. Atom density d. Barn

b. Neutron flux e. Macroscopic cross section
c. Microscopic cross section f. Mean free path

EO 2.2 EXPRESS macroscopic cross section in terms of microscopic cross

section.

EO 2.3 DESCRIBE how the absorption cross section of typical nuclides

varies with neutron energy at energies below the resonance
absorption region.

EO 2.4 DESCRIBE the cause of resonance absorption in terms of nuclear

energy levels.

EO 2.5 DESCRIBE the energy dependence of resonance absorption peaks

for typical light and heavy nuclei.

EO 2.6 EXPRESS mean free path in terms of macroscopic cross section.

EO 2.7 Given the number densities (or total density and component
fractions) and microscopic cross sections of components,
CALCULATE the macroscopic cross section for a mixture.

EO 2.8 CALCULATE a macroscopic cross section given a material density,

atomic mass, and microscopic cross section.

EO 2.9 EXPLAIN neutron shadowing or self-shielding.

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NUCLEAR CROSS SECTIONS AND NEUTRON FLUX Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

Introduction

Fission neutrons are born with an average energy of about 2 MeV. These fast neutrons interact
with the reactor core materials in various absorption and scattering reactions. Collisions that
result in scattering are useful in slowing neutrons to thermal energies. Thermal neutrons may
be absorbed by fissile nuclei to produce more fissions or be absorbed in fertile material for
conversion to fissionable fuel. Absorption of neutrons in structural components, coolant, and
other non-fuel material results in the removal of neutrons without fulfilling any useful purpose.

To safely and efficiently operate a nuclear reactor it is necessary to predict the probability that
a particular absorption or scattering reaction will occur. Once these probabilities are known, if
the availability of neutrons can be determined, then the rate at which these nuclear reactions take
place can be predicted.

Atom Density

One important property of a material is the atom density. The atom density is the number of
atoms of a given type per unit volume of the material. To calculate the atom density of a
substance use Equation (2-1).

'

(2-1)

where:

N = atom density (atoms/cm3)

' = density (g/cm3)
NA = Avogadro's number (6.022 x 1023 atoms/mole)
M = gram atomic weight

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Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) NUCLEAR CROSS SECTIONS AND NEUTRON FLUX

Example:

A block of aluminum has a density of 2.699 g/cm3. If the gram atomic weight of
aluminum is 26.9815 g, calculate the atom density of the aluminum.

Solution:

NA
N
M
g atoms
2.699 6.022 x 1023
3 mole
cm
g
26.9815
mole
atoms
6.024 x 1022
cm 3

Cross Sections

The probability of a neutron interacting with a nucleus for a particular reaction is dependent
upon not only the kind of nucleus involved, but also the energy of the neutron. Accordingly,
the absorption of a thermal neutron in most materials is much more probable than the absorption
of a fast neutron. Also, the probability of interaction will vary depending upon the type of
reaction involved.

The probability of a particular reaction occurring between a neutron and a nucleus is called the
microscopic cross section ( ) of the nucleus for the particular reaction. This cross section will
vary with the energy of the neutron. The microscopic cross section may also be regarded as the
effective area the nucleus presents to the neutron for the particular reaction. The larger the
effective area, the greater the probability for reaction.

Because the microscopic cross section is an area, it is expressed in units of area, or square
centimeters. A square centimeter is tremendously large in comparison to the effective area of
a nucleus, and it has been suggested that a physicist once referred to the measure of a square
centimeter as being "as big as a barn" when applied to nuclear processes. The name has
persisted and microscopic cross sections are expressed in terms of barns. The relationship
between barns and cm2 is shown below.

1 barn = 10-24 cm2

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NUCLEAR CROSS SECTIONS AND NEUTRON FLUX Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

Whether a neutron will interact with a certain volume of material depends not only on the
microscopic cross section of the individual nuclei but also on the number of nuclei within that
volume. Therefore, it is necessary to define another kind of cross section known as the
macroscopic cross section ( ). The macroscopic cross section is the probability of a given
reaction occurring per unit travel of the neutron. is related to the microscopic cross section
( ) by the relationship shown below.

N (2-2)

where:

= macroscopic cross section (cm-1)

N = atom density of material (atoms/cm3)
= microscopic cross-section (cm2)

The difference between the microscopic and macroscopic cross sections is extremely important
and is restated for clarity. The microscopic cross section ( ) represents the effective target area
that a single nucleus presents to a bombarding particle. The units are given in barns or cm2.
The macroscopic cross section ( ) represents the effective target area that is presented by all of
the nuclei contained in 1 cm3 of the material. The units are given as 1/cm or cm-1.

A neutron interacts with an atom of the material it enters in two basic ways. It will either
interact through a scattering interaction or through an absorption reaction. The probability of
a neutron being absorbed by a particular atom is the microscopic cross section for absorption,
a. The probability of a neutron scattering off of a particular nucleus is the microscopic cross
section for scattering, s. The sum of the microscopic cross section for absorption and the
microscopic cross section for scattering is the total microscopic cross section, T.

T = a + s

Both the absorption and the scattering microscopic cross sections can be further divided. For
instance, the scattering cross section is the sum of the elastic scattering cross section ( se) and
the inelastic scattering cross section ( si).

s = se + si

The microscopic absorption cross section ( a) includes all reactions except scattering. However,
for most purposes it is sufficient to merely separate it into two categories, fission ( f) and
capture ( c). Radiative capture of neutrons was described in the Neutron Interactions chapter
of Module 1.

a = f + c

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Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) NUCLEAR CROSS SECTIONS AND NEUTRON FLUX

The variation of absorption cross sections with neutron energy is often complicated. For many
elements the absorption cross sections are small, ranging from a fraction of a barn to a few
barns for slow (or thermal) neutrons.

For a considerable number of nuclides of moderately high (or high) mass numbers, an
examination of the variation of the absorption cross section with the energy of the incident
neutron reveals the existence of three regions on a curve of absorption cross section versus
neutron energy. This cross section is illustrated in Figure 1. First, the cross section decreases
steadily with increasing neutron energy in a low energy region, which includes the thermal range
(E < 1 eV). In this region the absorption cross section, which is often high, is inversely
proportional to the velocity (v). This region is frequently referred to as the "1/v region,"
because the absorption cross section is proportional to 1/v, which is the reciprocal of neutron
velocity. Following the 1/v region, there occurs the "resonance region" in which the cross
sections rise sharply to high values called "resonance peaks" for neutrons of certain energies,
and then fall again. These energies are called resonance energies and are a result of the affinity
of the nucleus for neutrons whose energies closely match its discrete, quantum energy levels.
That is, when the binding energy of a neutron plus the kinetic energy of the neutron are exactly
equal to the amount required to raise a compound nucleus from its ground state to a quantum
level, resonance absorption occurs. The following example problem further illustrates this point.

Figure 1 Typical Neutron Absorption Cross Section vs. Neutron Energy

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NUCLEAR CROSS SECTIONS AND NEUTRON FLUX Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

Assuming that uranium-236 has a nuclear quantum energy level at 6.8 MeV above its ground
state, calculate the kinetic energy a neutron must possess to undergo resonant absorption in
uranium-235 at this resonance energy level.

BE = [Mass( 235U) + Mass(neutron) - Mass(236U)] x 931 MeV/amu

BE = (235.043925 + 1.008665 - 236.045563) x 931 MeV/amu

BE = (0.007025 amu) x 931 MeV/amu = 6.54 MeV

6.8 MeV - 6.54 MeV = 0.26 MeV

The difference between the binding energy and the quantum energy level equals the amount of
kinetic energy the neutron must possess. The typical heavy nucleus will have many closely-
spaced resonances starting in the low energy (eV) range. This is because heavy nuclei are
complex and have more possible configurations and corresponding energy states. Light nuclei,
being less complex, have fewer possible energy states and fewer resonances that are sparsely
distributed at higher energy levels.

For higher neutron energies, the absorption cross section steadily decreases as the energy of the
neutron increases. This is called the "fast neutron region." In this region the absorption cross
sections are usually less than 10 barns.

With the exception of hydrogen, for which the value is fairly large, the elastic scattering cross
sections are generally small, for example, 5 barns to 10 barns. This is close to the magnitude
of the actual geometric cross sectional area expected for atomic nuclei. In potential scattering,
the cross section is essentially constant and independent of neutron energy. Resonance elastic
scattering and inelastic scattering exhibit resonance peaks similar to those associated with
absorption cross sections. The resonances occur at lower energies for heavy nuclei than for light
nuclei. In general, the variations in scattering cross sections are very small when compared to
the variations that occur in absorption cross sections.

Mean Free Path

If a neutron has a certain probability of undergoing a particular interaction in one centimeter of

travel, then the inverse of this value describes how far the neutron will travel (in the average
case) before undergoing an interaction. This average distance traveled by a neutron before
interaction is known as the mean free path for that interaction and is represented by the symbol
. The relationship between the mean free path () and the macroscopic cross section (*) is
shown below.


(2-3)
(

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Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) NUCLEAR CROSS SECTIONS AND NEUTRON FLUX

Calculation of Macroscopic Cross Section and Mean Free Path

Most materials are composed of several elements, and because most elements are composed of
several isotopes, most materials involve many cross sections, one for each isotope involved.
Therefore, to include all the isotopes within a given material, it is necessary to determine the
macroscopic cross section for each isotope and then sum all the individual macroscopic cross
sections. Equation (2-4) can be used to determine the macroscopic cross section for a composite
material.
* = N1 )1 + N2 )2 + N3 )3 + ....... Nn)n (2-4)
where:
Nn = the number of nuclei per cm3 of the nth element
)n = the microscopic cross section of the nth element
The following example problems illustrate the calculation of the macroscopic cross section for
a single element and for combinations of materials.
Example 1:

Find the macroscopic thermal neutron absorption cross section for iron, which has a
density of 7.86 g/cm3. The microscopic cross section for absorption of iron is 2.56 barns
and the gram atomic weight is 55.847 g.

Solution:

Step 1: Using Equation (2-1), calculate the atom density of iron.

'

Step 2: Use this atom density in Equation (2-2) to calculate the macroscopic
cross section.
(
)

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NUCLEAR CROSS SECTIONS AND NEUTRON FLUX Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

Example 2:

An alloy is composed of 95% aluminum and 5% silicon (by weight). The density of the
alloy is 2.66 g/cm3. Properties of aluminum and silicon are shown below.

Element Gram Atomic Weight )a (barns) )s (barns)

Aluminum 26.9815 0.23 1.49
Silicon 28.0855 0.16 2.20

1. Calculate the atom densities for the aluminum and silicon.

2. Determine the absorption and scattering macroscopic cross sections for thermal
neutrons.

3. Calculate the mean free paths for absorption and scattering.

Solution:

Step 1: The density of the aluminum will be 95% of the total density. Using
Equation (2-1) yields the atom densities.

'

'

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 DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93
Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) NUCLEAR CROSS SECTIONS AND NEUTRON FLUX

Step 2: The macroscopic cross sections for absorption and scattering are
calculated using Equation (2-4).

a NAl a,Al NSi a,Si

atoms atoms
5.64 x 1022 0.23 x 10 24
cm 2 2.85 x 1021 0.16 x 10 24
cm 2
3 3
cm cm
1
0.0134 cm

s NAl s,Al NSi s,Si

atoms atoms
5.64 x 1022 1.49 x 10 24
cm 2 2.85 x 1021 2.20 x 10 24
cm 2
3 3
cm cm
1
0.0903 cm

Step 3: The mean free paths are calculated by inserting the macroscopic cross
sections calculated above into Equation (2-3).

1
a
a

1
1
0.01345 cm
74.3 cm

1
s
s

1
1
0.0903 cm
11.1 cm

Thus, a neutron must travel an average of 74.3 cm to interact by absorption in this alloy, but it
must travel only 11.1 cm to interact by scattering.

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 DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93
NUCLEAR CROSS SECTIONS AND NEUTRON FLUX Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

Effects of Temperature on Cross Section

As discussed, the microscopic absorption cross section varies significantly as neutron energy
varies. The microscopic cross sections provided on most charts and tables are measured for a
standard neutron velocity of 2200 meters/second, which corresponds to an ambient temperature
of 68(F. Therefore, if our material is at a higher temperature, the absorption cross section will
be lower than the value for 68(F, and any cross sections which involve absorption (for example,
)a, )c, )f ) must be corrected for the existing temperature.
The following formula is used to correct microscopic cross sections for temperature. Although
the example illustrates absorption cross section, the same formula may be used to correct capture
and fission cross sections.

)
)

where:

) = microscopic cross section corrected for temperature

)o = microscopic cross section at reference temperature (68(F or 20(C)
To = reference temperature (68(F) in degrees Rankine ((R) or Kelvin ((K)
T = temperature for which corrected value is being calculated

NOTE: When using this formula, all temperatures must be converted to (R or (K.

(R = (F + 460
(K = (C + 273

Example:

What is the value of )f for uranium-235 for thermal neutrons at 500(F? Uranium-235
has a )f of 583 barns at 68(F.

Solution:

)
)

( 
( 

NP-02 Page 14 Rev. 0

 DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93
Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) NUCLEAR CROSS SECTIONS AND NEUTRON FLUX

Neutron Flux

Macroscopic cross sections for neutron reactions with materials determine the probability of one
neutron undergoing a specific reaction per centimeter of travel through that material. If one
wants to determine how many reactions will actually occur, it is necessary to know how many
neutrons are traveling through the material and how many centimeters they travel each second.

It is convenient to consider the number of neutrons existing in one cubic centimeter at any one
instant and the total distance they travel each second while in that cubic centimeter. The number
of neutrons existing in a cm3 of material at any instant is called neutron density and is
represented by the symbol n with units of neutrons/cm3. The total distance these neutrons can
travel each second will be determined by their velocity.

A good way of defining neutron flux (1) is to consider it to be the total path length covered by
all neutrons in one cubic centimeter during one second. Mathematically, this is the equation
below.

1 = nv (2-5)

where:

1 = neutron flux (neutrons/cm2-sec)

n = neutron density (neutrons/cm3)
v = neutron velocity (cm/sec)

The term neutron flux in some applications (for example, cross section measurement) is used
as parallel beams of neutrons traveling in a single direction. The intensity (I) of a neutron beam
is the product of the neutron density times the average neutron velocity. The directional beam
intensity is equal to the number of neutrons per unit area and time (neutrons/cm2-sec) falling on
a surface perpendicular to the direction of the beam.

One can think of the neutron flux in a reactor as being comprised of many neutron beams
traveling in various directions. Then, the neutron flux becomes the scalar sum of these
directional flux intensities (added as numbers and not vectors), that is, 1 = I1 + I2 + I3 +...In .
Since the atoms in a reactor do not interact preferentially with neutrons from any particular
direction, all of these directional beams contribute to the total rate of reaction. In reality, at a
given point within a reactor, neutrons will be traveling in all directions.

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 DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93
NUCLEAR CROSS SECTIONS AND NEUTRON FLUX Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

Self-Shielding

In some locations within the reactor, the flux level may be significantly lower than in other areas
due to a phenomenon referred to as neutron shadowing or self-shielding. For example, the
interior of a fuel pin or pellet will "see" a lower average flux level than the outer surfaces since
an appreciable fraction of the neutrons will have been absorbed and therefore cannot reach the
interior of the fuel pin. This is especially important at resonance energies, where the absorption
cross sections are large.

Summary

The important information in this chapter is summarized below.

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 DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93
Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) NUCLEAR CROSS SECTIONS AND NEUTRON FLUX

Nuclear Cross Section and Neutron Flux Summary

& Atom density (N) is the number of atoms of a given type per unit volume of
material.

& Microscopic cross section ()) is the probability of a given reaction occurring
between a neutron and a nucleus.

& Microscopic cross sections are measured in units of barns, where 1 barn = 10-24
cm2.

& Macroscopic cross section (*) is the probability of a given reaction occurring per
unit length of travel of the neutron. The units for macroscopic cross section are
cm-1.

& The mean free path () is the average distance that a neutron travels in a material
between interactions.

& Neutron flux (1) is the total path length traveled by all neutrons in one cubic
centimeter of material during one second.

& The macroscopic cross section for a material can be calculated using the equation
below.
* = N)

& The absorption cross section for a material usually has three distinct regions. At
low neutron energies (<1 eV) the cross section is inversely proportional to the
neutron velocity.

& Resonance absorption occurs when the sum of the kinetic energy of the neutron
and its binding energy is equal to an allowed nuclear energy level of the nucleus.

& Resonance peaks exist at intermediate energy levels. For higher neutron energies,
the absorption cross section steadily decreases as the neutron energy increases.

& The mean free path equals 1/*.

& The macroscopic cross section for a mixture of materials can be calculated using
the equation below.

* = N1 )1 + N2 )2 + N3 )3 + ....... Nn)n

& Self-shielding is where the local neutron flux is depressed within a material due to
neutron absorption near the surface of the material.

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REACTION RATES DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

REACTION RATES

It is possible to determine the rate at which a nuclear reaction will take place
based on the neutron flux, cross section for the interaction, and atom density of the
target. This relationship illustrates how a change in one of these items affects the
reaction rate.

EO 2.10 Given the neutron flux and macroscopic cross section,

CALCULATE the reaction rate.

EO 2.11 DESCRIBE the relationship between neutron flux and reactor

power.

Reaction Rates

If the total path length of all the neutrons in a cubic centimeter in a second is known, (neutron
flux (1)), and if the probability of having an interaction per centimeter path length is also known
(macroscopic cross section (*)), multiply them together to get the number of interactions taking
place in that cubic centimeter in one second. This value is known as the reaction rate and is
denoted by the symbol R. The reaction rate can be calculated by the equation shown below.

R = 1* (2-6)

where:

R = reaction rate (reactions/sec)

1 = neutron flux (neutrons/cm2-sec)
* = macroscopic cross section (cm-1)
Substituting the fact that * = N ) into Equation (2-6) yields the equation below.

1 )

where:

) = microscopic cross section (cm2)

N = atom density (atoms/cm3)

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Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 REACTION RATES

The reaction rate calculated will depend on which macroscopic cross section is used in the
calculation. Normally, the reaction rate of greatest interest is the fission reaction rate.

Example:

If a one cubic centimeter section of a reactor has a macroscopic fission cross section of
0.1 cm-1, and if the thermal neutron flux is 1013 neutrons/cm2-sec, what is the fission rate
in that cubic centimeter?

Solution:

Rf f

neutrons
1 x 1013 0.1 cm 1
2
cm sec
fissions
1 x 1012
cm 3 sec

In addition to using Equation (2-6) to determine the reaction rate based on the physical properties
of material, it is also possible to algebraically manipulate the equation to determine physical
properties if the reaction rate is known.

Example:

A reactor operating at a flux level of 3 x 1013 neutrons/cm2-sec contains 1020 atoms of

uranium-235 per cm3. The reaction rate is 1.29 x 1012 fission/cm3. Calculate f and f.

Solution:

Step 1: The macroscopic cross section can be determined by solving

Equation (2-6) for f and substituting the appropriate values.

Rf f

Rf
f

fissions
1.29 x 1012
cm 3 sec
neutrons
3 x 1013
cm 2 sec
1
0.043 cm

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REACTION RATES DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

Step 2: To find the microscopic cross section, replace f with (N x f) and solve
for f.

Rf N f

Rf
f
N
fissions
1.29 x 1012
cm 3 sec
atoms neutrons
1 x 1020 3 x 1013
cm 3 cm 2 sec
22 1 barn
4.3 x 10 cm 2
24
1 x 10 cm 2
430 barns

Reactor Power Calculation

Multiplying the reaction rate per unit volume by the total volume of the core results in the total
number of reactions occurring in the core per unit time. If the amount of energy involved in each
reaction were known, it would be possible to determine the rate of energy release (power) due
to a certain reaction.

In a reactor where the average energy per fission is 200 MeV, it is possible to determine the
number of fissions per second that are necessary to produce one watt of power using the
following conversion factors.

1 fission = 200 MeV

1 MeV = 1.602 x 10-6 ergs
1 erg = 1 x 10-7 watt-sec

1 erg 1 MeV 1 fission fissions

1 watt 3.12 x 1010
7
1 x 10 watt sec 1.602 x 10 6erg 200 MeV second

This is equivalent to stating that 3.12 x 1010 fissions release 1 watt-second of energy.

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Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 REACTION RATES

The power released in a reactor can be calculated based on Equation (2-6). Multiplying the
reaction rate by the volume of the reactor results in the total fission rate for the entire reactor.
Dividing by the number of fissions per watt-sec results in the power released by fission in the
reactor in units of watts. This relationship is shown mathematically in Equation (2-7) below.

th f V
P (2-7)
10 fissions
3.12 x 10
watt sec

where:

P = power (watts)
th = thermal neutron flux (neutrons/cm2-sec)
f = macroscopic cross section for fission (cm-1)
V = volume of core (cm3)

Relationship Between Neutron Flux and Reactor Power

In an operating reactor the volume of the reactor is constant. Over a relatively short period of
time (days or weeks), the number density of the fuel atoms is also relatively constant. Since the
atom density and microscopic cross section are constant, the macroscopic cross section must also
be constant. Examining Equation (2-7), it is apparent that if the reactor volume and macroscopic
cross section are constant, then the reactor power and the neutron flux are directly proportional.
This is true for day-to-day operation. The neutron flux for a given power level will increase very
slowly over a period of months due to the burnup of the fuel and resulting decrease in atom
density and macroscopic cross section.

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REACTION RATES DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

Summary

The important information in this chapter is summarized below.

Reaction Rates Summary

& The reaction rate is the number of interactions of a particular type occurring in a
cubic centimeter of material in a second.

& The reaction rate can be calculated by the equation below.

R=1*

& Over a period of several days, while the atom density of the fuel can be considered
constant, the neutron flux is directly proportional to reactor power.

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Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 NEUTRON MODERATION

NEUTRON MODERATION

In thermal reactors, the neutrons that cause fission are at a much lower energy
than the energy level at which they were born from fission. In this type of
reactor, specific materials must be included in the reactor design to reduce the
energy level of the neutrons in an efficient manner.

EO 2.12 DEFINE the following concepts:

a. Thermalization d. Average logarithmic energy decrement

b. Moderator e. Macroscopic slowing down power
c. Moderating ratio

EO 2.13 LIST three desirable characteristics of a moderator.

EO 2.14 Given an average fractional energy loss per collision,

CALCULATE the energy loss after a specified number of
collisions.

Neutron Slowing Down and Thermalization

Fission neutrons are produced at an average energy level of 2 MeV and immediately begin to
slow down as the result of numerous scattering reactions with a variety of target nuclei. After
a number of collisions with nuclei, the speed of a neutron is reduced to such an extent that it has
approximately the same average kinetic energy as the atoms (or molecules) of the medium in
which the neutron is undergoing elastic scattering. This energy, which is only a small fraction
of an electron volt at ordinary temperatures (0.025 eV at 20(C), is frequently referred to as the
thermal energy, since it depends upon the temperature. Neutrons whose energies have been
reduced to values in this region (< 1 eV) are designated thermal neutrons. The process of
reducing the energy of a neutron to the thermal region by elastic scattering is referred to as
thermalization, slowing down, or moderation. The material used for the purpose of thermalizing
neutrons is called a moderator. A good moderator reduces the speed of neutrons in a small
number of collisions, but does not absorb them to any great extent. Slowing the neutrons in as
few collisions as possible is desirable in order to reduce the amount of neutron leakage from the
core and also to reduce the number of resonance absorptions in non-fuel materials. Neutron
leakage and resonance absorption will be discussed in the next module.

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NEUTRON MODERATION DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

The ideal moderating material (moderator) should have the following nuclear properties.

large scattering cross section

small absorption cross section

large energy loss per collision

A convenient measure of energy loss per collision is the logarithmic energy decrement. The
average logarithmic energy decrement is the average decrease per collision in the logarithm of
the neutron energy. This quantity is represented by the symbol (Greek letter xi).

ln Ei ln Ef

Ei (2-8)
ln
Ef

where:

= average logarithmic energy decrement

Ei = average initial neutron energy
Ef = average final neutron energy

The symbol is commonly called the average logarithmic energy decrement because of the fact
that a neutron loses, on the average, a fixed fraction of its energy per scattering collision. Since
the fraction of energy retained by a neutron in a single elastic collision is a constant for a given
material, is also a constant. Because it is a constant for each type of material and does not
depend upon the initial neutron energy, is a convenient quantity for assessing the moderating
ability of a material.

The values for the lighter nuclei are tabulated in a variety of sources. The following commonly
used approximation may be used when a tabulated value is not available.

2
2
A
3

This approximation is relatively accurate for mass numbers (A) greater than 10, but for some low
values of A it may be in error by over three percent.

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Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 NEUTRON MODERATION

Since represents the average logarithmic energy loss per collision, the total number of collisions
necessary for a neutron to lose a given amount of energy may be determined by dividing into
the difference of the natural logarithms of the energy range in question. The number of collisions
(N) to travel from any energy, Ehigh, to any lower energy, Elow, can be calculated as shown below.

ln Ehigh ln Elow
N

Ehigh
ln
Elow

Example:

How many collisions are required to slow a neutron from an energy of 2 MeV to a
thermal energy of 0.025 eV, using water as the moderator? Water has a value of 0.948
for .

Solution:

Ehigh
ln
Elow
N

2 x 106 eV
ln
0.025 eV
0.948

19.2 collisions

Sometimes it is convenient, based upon information known, to work with an average fractional
energy loss per collision as opposed to an average logarithmic fraction. If the initial neutron
energy level and the average fractional energy loss per collision are known, the final energy level
for a given number of collisions may be computed using the following formula.

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NEUTRON MODERATION DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

(2-9)

where:

Eo = initial neutron energy

EN = neutron energy after N collisions
x = average fractional energy loss per collision
N = number of collisions

Example:

If the average fractional energy loss per collision in hydrogen is 0.63, what will be the
energy of a 2 MeV neutron after (a) 5 collisions? (b) 10 collisions?

Solution:

a)

b)

Macroscopic Slowing Down Power

Although the logarithmic energy decrement is a convenient measure of the ability of a material
to slow neutrons, it does not measure all necessary properties of a moderator. A better measure
of the capabilities of a material is the macroscopic slowing down power. The macroscopic
slowing down power (MSDP) is the product of the logarithmic energy decrement and the
macroscopic cross section for scattering in the material. Equation (2-10) illustrates how to
calculate the macroscopic slowing down power.

! ( (2-10)

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Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 NEUTRON MODERATION

Moderating Ratio

Macroscopic slowing down power indicates how rapidly a neutron will slow down in the material
in question, but it still does not fully explain the effectiveness of the material as a moderator. An
element such as boron has a high logarithmic energy decrement and a good slowing down power,
but it is a poor moderator because of its high probability of absorbing neutrons.

The most complete measure of the effectiveness of a moderator is the moderating ratio. The
moderating ratio is the ratio of the macroscopic slowing down power to the macroscopic cross
section for absorption. The higher the moderating ratio, the more effectively the material
performs as a moderator. Equation (2-11) shows how to calculate the moderating ratio of a
material.

s
MR (2-11)
a

Moderating properties of different materials are compared in Table 2.

TABLE 2
Moderating Properties of Materials
Number of Macroscopic
Moderating
Material Collisions to Slowing Down
Ratio
Thermalize Power
H2O 0.927 19 1.425 62
D2O 0.510 35 0.177 4830
Helium 0.427 42 9 x 10-6 51
Beryllium 0.207 86 0.154 126
Boron 0.171 105 0.092 0.00086
Carbon 0.158 114 0.083 216

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NEUTRON MODERATION DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

Summary

The important information in this chapter is summarized below.

Neutron Moderation Summary

& Thermalization is the process of reducing the energy level of a neutron from the
energy level at which it is produced to an energy level in the thermal range.

& The moderator is the reactor material that is present for the purpose of
thermalizing neutrons.

& Moderating ratio is the ratio of the macroscopic slowing down power to the
macroscopic cross section for absorption.

& The average logarithmic energy decrement (!) is the average change in the
logarithm of neutron energy per collision.

& Macroscopic slowing down power is the product of the average logarithmic energy
decrement and the macroscopic cross section for scattering.

& There are three desirable characteristics of a moderator.

1. large scattering cross section

2. small absorption cross section
3. large energy loss per collision

& The energy loss after a specified number of collisions can be calculated using the
equation below.

EN = Eo (1 - x)N

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Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 PROMPT AND DELAYED NEUTRONS

PROMPT AND DELAYED NEUTRONS

Not all neutrons are released at the same time following fission. Most neutrons
are released virtually instantaneously and are called prompt neutrons. A very
small fraction of neutrons are released after the decay of fission products and are
called delayed neutrons. Although delayed neutrons are a very small fraction of
the total number of neutrons, they play an extremely important role in the control
of the reactor.

EO 3.1 STATE the origin of prompt neutrons and delayed neutrons.

EO 3.2 STATE the approximate fraction of neutrons that are born as

delayed neutrons from the fission of the following nuclear fuels:

a. Uranium-235
b. Plutonium-239

EO 3.3 EXPLAIN the mechanism for production of delayed neutrons.

EO 3.4 EXPLAIN prompt and delayed neutron generation times.

EO 3.5 Given prompt and delayed neutron generation times and

delayed neutron fraction, CALCULATE the average generation
time.

EO 3.6 EXPLAIN the effect of delayed neutrons on reactor control.

Neutron Classification

The great majority (over 99%) of the neutrons produced in fission are released within about 10-13
seconds of the actual fission event. These are called prompt neutrons. A small portion of fission
neutrons are delayed neutrons, which are produced for some time after the fission process has
taken place. The delayed neutrons are emitted immediately following the first beta decay of a
fission fragment known as a delayed neutron precursor. An example of a delayed neutron
precursor is bromine-87, shown below.


 

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PROMPT AND DELAYED NEUTRONS DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

For most applications, it is convenient to combine the known precursors into groups with
appropriately averaged properties. These groups vary somewhat depending on the fissile
material in use. Table 3 lists the characteristics for the six precursor groups resulting from
thermal fission of uranium-235. The fraction of all neutrons that are produced by each of these
precursors is called the delayed neutron fraction for that precursor. The total fraction of all
neutrons born as delayed neutrons is called the delayed neutron fraction (). The fraction of
delayed neutrons produced varies depending on the predominant fissile nuclide in use. The
delayed neutron fractions () for the fissile nuclides of most interest are as follows: uranium-233
(0.0026), uranium-235 (0.0065), uranium-238 (0.0148), and plutonium-239 (0.0021).

TABLE 3
Delayed Neutron Precursor Groups
for Thermal Fission in Uranium-235
Half-Life Delayed Neutron Average Energy
Group
(sec) Fraction (MeV)
1 55.7 0.00021 0.25
2 22.7 0.00142 0.46
3 6.2 0.00127 0.41
4 2.3 0.00257 0.45
5 0.61 0.00075 0.41
6 0.23 0.00027 -
Total - 0.0065 -

Neutron Generation Time

The neutron generation time is the time required for neutrons from one generation to cause the
fissions that produce the next generation of neutrons. The generation time for prompt neutrons
(5* - pronounced "ell-star") is the total time from birth to rebirth. Three time intervals are
involved: (a) the time it takes a fast neutron to slow down to thermal energy, (b) the time the
now thermal neutron exists prior to absorption in fuel, and (c) the time required for a fissionable
nucleus to emit a fast neutron after neutron absorption.

Fast neutrons slow to thermal energies or leak out of the reactor in 10-4 seconds to 10-6 seconds,
depending on the moderator. In water moderated reactors, thermal neutrons tend to exist for
about 10-4 seconds before they are absorbed. Fission and fast neutron production following
neutron absorption in a fissionable nucleus occurs in about 10-13 seconds. Thus, fast reactors
have an 5* of about 10-6 seconds, while thermal reactors have an 5* of about 10-6 seconds + 10-4
seconds, which is about 10-4 seconds to 10-5 seconds.

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Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 PROMPT AND DELAYED NEUTRONS

On the other hand, the average generation time for the six delayed neutron groups is the total
time from the birth of the fast neutron to the emission of the delayed neutron. Again, three time
intervals are involved: (a) the time it takes a fast neutron to slow down to thermal energy,
(b) the time the thermal neutron exists prior to absorption, and (c) the average time from neutron
absorption to neutron emission by the six precursor groups. The average time for decay of
precursors from uranium-235 is 12.5 seconds. The other terms in the delayed neutron
generation time are insignificant when compared to this value, and the average delayed neutron
generation time becomes  12.5 seconds.

A neutron generation time in the range of 10-4 seconds to 10-5 seconds or faster could result in
very rapid power excursions, and control would not be possible without the dependence upon
delayed neutrons to slow down the rate of the reaction. The average generation time, and hence
the rate that power can rise, is determined largely by the delayed neutron generation time. The
following equation shows this mathematically.

   (2-12)

Example:

Assume a prompt neutron generation time for a particular reactor of 5 x 10-5 seconds and
a delayed neutron generation time of 12.5 seconds. If  is 0.0065, calculate the average
generation time.

Solution:

  



This example demonstrates the effect delayed neutrons have on the neutron generation time and
thus reactor control. If a reactor were to be operated in a sustained chain reaction using only
prompt neutrons ( = 0), the generation time from the previous example would be about
5 x 10-5 seconds. However, by operating the reactor such that a 0.0065 fraction of neutrons are
delayed, the generation life time is extended to 0.0813 seconds, providing time for adequate
operator control. Therefore, although only a small fraction of the total neutron population,
delayed neutrons are extremely important to the control and maintenance of a sustained fission
chain reaction.

Summary

The important information in this chapter is summarized on the following page.

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PROMPT AND DELAYED NEUTRONS DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

Prompt and Delayed Neutrons Summary

& Prompt neutrons are released directly from fission within 10-13 seconds of the
fission event.

& Delayed neutrons are released from the decay of fission products that are called
delayed neutron precursors. Delayed neutron precursors are grouped according to
half-life. Half-lives vary from fractions of a second to almost a minute.

& The fraction of neutrons born as delayed neutrons is different for different fuel
materials. Following are values for some common fuel materials.

Uranium-235 0.0065
Plutonium-239 0.0021

& Delayed neutrons are produced by a classification of fission products known as

delayed neutron precursors. When a delayed neutron precursor undergoes a
- decay, it results in an excited daughter nucleus which immediately ejects a
neutron. Therefore, these delayed neutrons appear with a half-life of the delayed
neutron precursor.

& The delayed neutron generation time is the total time from the birth of the fast
neutron to the emission of the delayed neutron in the next generation. Delayed
neutron generation times are dominated by the half-life of the delayed neutron
precursor. The average delayed neutron generation time is about 12.5 seconds.

& A prompt neutron generation time is the sum of the amount of time it takes a fast
neutron to thermalize, the amount of time the neutron exists as a thermal neutron
before it is absorbed, and the amount of time between a fissionable nuclide
absorbing a neutron and fission neutrons being released. Prompt neutron
generation time is about 5 x 10-5 seconds.

& The average neutron generation time can be calculated from the prompt and
delayed neutron generation times and the delayed neutron fraction using
Equation (2-12).

  

& Delayed neutrons are responsible for the ability to control the rate at which power
can rise in a reactor. If only prompt neutrons existed, reactor control would not be
possible due to the rapid power changes.

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Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 NEUTRON FLUX SPECTRUM

NEUTRON FLUX SPECTRUM

The number of neutrons that exist at a given energy level varies. A plot of either
the fraction of neutrons or the neutron flux at a given energy versus the energy
level is called a neutron energy spectrum. The neutron energy spectrum varies
widely for different types of reactors.

EO 4.1 STATE the average energy at which prompt neutrons are

produced.

EO 4.2 DESCRIBE the neutron energy spectrum in the following

reactors:

a. Fast reactor
b. Thermal reactor

EO 4.3 EXPLAIN the reason for the particular shape of the fast,
intermediate, and slow energy regions of the neutron flux
spectrum for a thermal reactor.

Prompt Neutron Energies

The neutrons produced by fission

are high energy neutrons, and
almost all fission neutrons have
energies between 0.1 MeV and
10 MeV. The neutron energy
distribution, or spectrum, may best
be described by plotting the
fraction of neutrons per MeV as a
function of neutron energy, as
shown in Figure 2. From this
figure it can be seen that the most
probable neutron energy is about
0.7 MeV. Also, from this data it
can be shown that the average
energy of fission neutrons is about
2 MeV. Figure 2 is the neutron
energy spectrum for thermal
fission in uranium-235. The values Figure 2 Prompt Fission Neutron Energy Spectrum for
will vary slightly for other Thermal Fission of Uranium-235
nuclides.

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NEUTRON FLUX SPECTRUM DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

Thermal and Fast Breeder Reactor Neutron Spectra

The spectrum of neutron energies produced by fission varies significantly from the energy
spectrum, or flux, existing in a reactor at a given time. Figure 3 illustrates the difference in
neutron flux spectra between a thermal reactor and a fast breeder reactor. The energy
distribution of neutrons from fission is essentially the same for both reactors, so the differences
in the curve shapes may be attributed to the neutron moderation or slowing down effects.

Figure 3 Comparison of Neutron Flux Spectra for

Thermal and Fast Breeder Reactor

No attempt is made to thermalize or slow down neutrons in the fast breeder reactor (liquid metal
cooled); therefore, an insignificant number of neutrons exist in the thermal range. For the
thermal reactor (water moderated), the spectrum of neutrons in the fast region (> 0.1 MeV) has
a shape similar to that for the spectrum of neutrons emitted by the fission process.

In the thermal reactor, the flux in the intermediate energy region (1 eV to 0.1 MeV) has
approximately a 1/E dependence. That is, if the energy (E) is halved, the flux doubles. This
1/E dependence is caused by the slowing down process, where elastic collisions remove a
constant fraction of the neutron energy per collision (on the average), independent of energy;
thus, the neutron loses larger amounts of energy per collision at higher energies than at lower
energies. The fact that the neutrons lose a constant fraction of energy per collision causes the
neutrons to tend to "pile up" at lower energies, that is, a greater number of neutrons exist at the
lower energies as a result of this behavior.

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Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 NEUTRON FLUX SPECTRUM

In the thermal region the neutrons achieve a thermal equilibrium with the atoms of the moderator
material. In any given collision they may gain or lose energy, and over successive collisions
will gain as much energy as they lose. These thermal neutrons, even at a specific temperature,
do not all have the same energy or velocity; there is a distribution of energies, usually referred
to as the Maxwell distribution (e.g., Figure 2). The energies of most thermal neutrons lie close
to the most probable energy, but there is a spread of neutrons above and below this value.

Most Probable Neutron Velocities

The most probable velocity (vp) of a thermal neutron is determined by the temperature of the
medium and can be determined by Equation (2-13) .

2 k T
vp (2-13)
m

where:

vp = most probable velocity of neutron (cm/sec)

k = Boltzman's constant (1.38 x 10-16 erg/ K)
T = absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin ( K)
m = mass of neutron (1.66 x 10-24 grams)

Example:

Calculate the most probable velocities for neutrons in thermal equilibrium with their
surroundings at the following temperatures. a) 20 C, b) 260 C.

Solution:

a) Calculate the most probable velocity for 20 C using Equation (2-13).

2 k T
vp
m

16 erg
2 1.38 x 10 293 K
K
24
1.66 x 10 g
cm 1 m
2.2 x 105
sec 100 cm
m
2200
sec

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NEUTRON FLUX SPECTRUM DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics)

b) Calculate the most probable velocity for 260 C using Equation (2-13).

2 k T
vp
m

16 erg
2 1.38 x 10 533 K
K
24
1.66 x 10 g
cm 1 m
2.977 x 105
sec 100 cm
m
2977
sec

From these calculations it is evident that the most probable velocity of a thermal neutron
increases as temperature increases. The most probable velocity at 20 C is of particular
importance since reference data, such as nuclear cross sections, are tabulated for a neutron
velocity of 2200 meters per second.

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Reactor Theory (Neutron Characteristics) DOE-HDBK-1019/1-93 NEUTRON FLUX SPECTRUM

Summary

The important information in this chapter is summarized below.

Neutron Flux Spectrum Summary

& Prompt neutrons are born at energies between 0.1 MeV and 10 MeV. The
average prompt neutron energy is about 2 MeV.

& Fast reactors have a neutron energy spectrum that has the same shape as the
prompt neutron energy spectrum.

& Thermal reactors have a neutron energy spectrum that has two pronounced
peaks, one in the thermal energy region where the neutrons are in thermal
equilibrium with the core materials and another in the fast region at energies
where neutrons are produced. The flux in the intermediate region (1 eV to
0.1 MeV) has a roughly 1/E dependence.

& The neutron flux spectrum for the fast energy region of a thermal reactor has a
shape similar to that of the spectrum of neutrons emitted by the fission process.

& The reason for the 1/E flux dependence at intermediate energy levels in a
thermal reactor is due to the neutrons' tendency to lose a constant fraction of
energy per collision. Since the neutrons lose a greater amount at the higher
energies, the neutrons tend to "pile up" at lower energies where they lose less
energy per collision.

& The neutron flux spectrum for the slow region of a thermal reactor contains a
peak at the energy where the neutrons are in thermal equilibrium with the atoms
of the surrounding material.

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