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Peanut
In the English-speaking world, peanut growing is most important in the United States. It was mainly a
garden crop for much of the colonial period before shifting to mostly animal feedstock until human
consumption grew in the 1930s.[15] The United States Department of Agriculture initiated a program
to encourage agricultural production and human consumption of peanuts in the late 19th and early
20th centuries.[15]
Peanut butter was developed in the 1880s and 1890s in the United States and Canada.[16]
Composition
Nutrition
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Parts
Allergies
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The hygiene hypothesis of allergy states that a lack of early childhood exposure to infectious agents
like germs and parasites could be causing the increase in food allergies.[29]
Studies comparing age of peanut introduction in Great Britain with introduction in Israel showed that
delaying exposure to peanuts in childhood can dramatically increase the risk of developing peanut
allergies.[30][31]
Peanut allergy has been associated with the use of skin preparations containing peanut oil among
children, but the evidence is not regarded as conclusive.[32] Peanut allergies have also been associated
with family history and intake of soy products.[32]
Some school districts in the United States and elsewhere have banned peanuts or products containing
peanuts.[33][34][35] However, the efficacy of the bans in reducing allergic reactions is uncertain. A 2015
study in Canada found no difference in the percentage of accidental exposures occurring in schools
prohibiting peanuts compared to schools allowing them.[36]
Refined peanut oil will not cause allergic reactions in most people with peanut allergies.[37] However,
crude (unrefined) peanut oils have been shown to contain protein, which may cause allergic
reactions.[38] In a randomized, double-blind crossover study, 60 people with proven peanut allergy
were challenged with both crude peanut oil and refined peanut oil. The authors concluded, "Crude
peanut oil caused allergic reactions in 10% of allergic subjects studied and should continue to be
avoided." They also stated, "Refined peanut oil does not seem to pose a risk to most people with
peanut allergy." However, they point out that refined peanut oil can still pose a risk to peanut-allergic
individuals if the oil that has previously been used for cooking foods containing peanuts is reused.[39]
Varieties
There are many peanut cultivars grown around the world. The market classes grown in the United
States are Spanish, Runner, Virginia, and Valencia.[40] Peanut production in the United States is
divided into three major areas: the southeastern United States region which includes Alabama,
Georgia, and Florida; the southwestern United States region which includes New Mexico, Oklahoma,
and Texas; and the third region in the general eastern United States which includes Virginia, North
Carolina, and South Carolina.[40] In Georgia, Naomi Chapman Woodroof is responsible for developing
the breeding program of peanuts resulting in a harvest almost five times greater.[41]
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Certain cultivar groups are preferred for particular characteristics, such as differences in flavor, oil
content, size, shape, and disease resistance.[42] Most peanuts marketed in the shell are of the Virginia
type, along with some Valencias selected for large size and the attractive appearance of the shell.
Spanish peanuts are used mostly for peanut candy, salted nuts, and peanut butter.
Spanish group
The small Spanish types are grown in South Africa and the southwestern and southeastern United
States. Until 1940, 90% of the peanuts grown in the US state of Georgia were Spanish types, but the
trend since then has been larger-seeded, higher-yielding, more disease-resistant cultivars. Spanish
peanuts have a higher oil content than other types of peanuts. In the United States, the Spanish group
is primarily grown in New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas.[40]
Cultivars of the Spanish group include 'Dixie Spanish', 'Improved Spanish 2B', 'GFA Spanish',
'Argentine', 'Spantex', 'Spanette', 'Shaffers Spanish', 'Natal Common (Spanish)', "White Kernel
Varieties', 'Starr', 'Comet', 'Florispan', 'Spanhoma', 'Spancross', 'OLin', 'Tamspan 90', 'AT 9899–14',
'Spanco', 'Wilco I', 'GG 2', 'GG 4', 'TMV 2', and 'Tamnut 06'.
Runner group
Since 1940, the southeastern US region has seen a shift to producing Runner group peanuts. This shift
is due to good flavor, better roasting characteristics, and higher yields when compared to Spanish
types, leading to food manufacturers' preference for the use in peanut butter and salted nuts.
Georgia's production is now almost 100% Runner-type.[42]
Cultivars of Runners include 'Southeastern Runner 56-15', 'Dixie Runner', 'Early Runner', 'Virginia
Bunch 67', 'Bradford Runner', 'Egyptian Giant' (also known as 'Virginia Bunch' and 'Giant'),
'Rhodesian Spanish Bunch' (Valencia and Virginia Bunch), 'North Carolina Runner 56-15',
'Florunner', 'Virugard', 'Georgia Green', 'Tamrun 96', 'Flavor Runner 458', 'Tamrun OL01', 'Tamrun
OL02' 'AT-120', 'Andru-93', 'Southern Runner', 'AT1-1', 'Georgia Brown', 'GK-7', and 'AT-108'.
Virginia group
The large-seeded Virginia group peanuts are grown in the US states of Virginia, North Carolina,
Tennessee, Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and parts of Georgia. They are increasing in popularity
due to the demand for large peanuts for processing, particularly for salting, confections, and roasting
in shells.
Virginia group peanuts are either bunch or running in growth habit. The bunch type is upright to
spreading. It attains a height of 45 to 55 cm (18 to 22 in), and a spread of 70 to 80 cm (28 to 31 in),
with 80 to 90 cm (31 to 35 in) rows that seldom cover the ground. The pods are borne within 5 to
10 cm (2 to 4 in) of the base of the plant.
Cultivars of Virginia-type peanuts include 'NC 7', 'NC 9', 'NC 10C', 'NC-V 11', 'VA 93B', 'NC 12C', 'VA-C
92R', 'Gregory', 'VA 98R', 'Perry', 'Wilson, 'Hull', 'AT VC-2' and 'Shulamit'.
Valencia group
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Valencia group peanuts are coarse and have heavy reddish stems
and large foliage. In the United States, large commercial
production is primarily in the South Plains of West Texas and in
eastern New Mexico near and south of Portales, but they are
grown on a small scale elsewhere in the South as the best-flavored
and preferred type for boiled peanuts. They are comparatively tall,
reaching a height of 125 cm (49 in) and a spread of 75 cm (30 in).
Peanut pods are borne on pegs arising from the main stem and the
side branches. Most pods are clustered around the base of the Valencia peanuts
plant, and only a few are found several inches away. Valencia types
are three- to five-seeded and smooth, with no constriction of the
shell between the seeds. Seeds are oval and tightly crowded into the pods. Typical seed weight is 0.4 to
0.5 g. This type is used heavily for selling roasted and salted in-shell peanuts and peanut butter.
Varieties include 'Valencia A' and 'Valencia C'.
These are alike except for the color of the seed. Sometimes known also as Texas Red or White, the
plants are similar to Valencia types, except the stems are green to greenish brown, and the pods are
rough, irregular, and have a smaller proportion of kernels.
Uses
Culinary
Whole peanuts
Peanut oil
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Peanut oil is often used in cooking because it has a mild flavor and
a relatively high smoke point. Due to its high monounsaturated
content, it is considered more healthful than saturated oils and is
resistant to rancidity. The several types of peanut oil include
aromatic roasted peanut oil, refined peanut oil, extra virgin or
cold-pressed peanut oil, and peanut extract. Refined peanut oil is
exempt from allergen labeling laws in the United States.[44]
Peanut butter
Peanut oil
Peanut butter is a food paste or spread made from ground dry
roasted peanuts. It often contains additional ingredients that
modify the taste or texture, such as salt, sweeteners, or
emulsifiers. Many companies have added twists on traditionally
plain peanut butter by adding various flavor varieties, such as
chocolate, birthday cake, and cinnamon raisin.[45] Peanut butter is
served as a spread on bread, toast or crackers, and used to make
sandwiches (notably the peanut butter and jelly sandwich). It is
also used in a number of confections, such as peanut-flavored
granola bars or croissants and other pastries. The United States[46]
is a leading exporter of peanut butter, and itself consumes $800 Peanut butter
million of peanut butter annually.[47]
Peanut flour
Peanut proteins
Peanut protein concentrates and isolates are commercially produced from defatted peanut flour using
several methods. Peanut flour concentrates (about 70% protein) are produced from dehulled kernels
by removing most of the oil and the water-soluble, non-protein components. Hydraulic pressing,
screw pressing, solvent extraction, and pre-pressing followed by solvent extraction may be used for oil
removal, after which protein isolation and purification are implemented.[48]
Latin America
Peanuts are particularly common in Peruvian and Mexican cuisine, both of which marry indigenous
and European ingredients. For instance, in Peru, a popular traditional dish is picante de cuy,[49] a
roasted guinea pig served in a sauce of ground peanuts (ingredients native to South America) with
roasted onions and garlic (ingredients from European cuisine). Also, in the Peruvian city of Arequipa,
a dish called ocopa consists of a smooth sauce of roasted peanuts and hot peppers (both native to the
region) with roasted onions, garlic, and oil, poured over meat or potatoes.[50] Another example is a
fricassee combining a similar mixture with sautéed seafood or boiled and shredded chicken. These
dishes are generally known as ajíes, meaning "hot peppers", such as ají de pollo and ají de mariscos
(seafood ajíes may omit peanuts). In Mexico, it is also used to prepare different traditional dishes,
such as chicken in peanut sauce (encacahuatado), and is used as the main ingredient for the
preparation of other famous dishes such as red pipián, mole poblano and oaxacan mole negro. [51]
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Likewise, during colonial times in Peru, the Spanish used peanuts to replace nuts unavailable locally
but used extensively in Spanish cuisine, such as almonds and pine nuts, typically ground or as a paste
mixed with rice, meats, and vegetables for dishes like rice pilaf.
Throughout the region, many candies and snacks are made using peanuts. In Mexico, it is common to
find them in different presentations as a snack or candy: salty, "Japanese" peanuts, praline,
enchilados or in the form of a traditional sweet made with peanuts and honey called palanqueta, and
even as peanut marzipan. There is a similar form of peanut candy in Brazil, called pé-de-moleque,
made with peanuts and molasses, which resembles the Indian chikki in form.[52]
West Asia
Crunchy coated peanuts, called kabukim in Hebrew, are a popular snack in Israel. Kabukim are
commonly sold by weight at corner stores where fresh nuts and seeds are sold, though they are also
available packaged. The coating typically consists of flour, salt, starch, lecithin, and sometimes sesame
seeds. The origin of the name is obscure (it may be derived from kabuk, which means nutshell or husk
in Turkish). An additional variety of crunchy coated peanuts popular in Israel is "American peanuts".
The coating of this variety is thinner but harder to crack.
Bamba puffs are a popular snack in Israel. Their shape is similar to Cheez Doodles, but they are made
of peanuts and corn.
Southeast Asia
Indian subcontinent
used in sweets and savory items in South India and also as a flavor in tamarind rice. Kovilpatti is
known for its sweet peanut chikki or peanut brittle, which is also used in savory and sweet mixtures,
such as Bombay mix.
West Africa
Peanuts grow well in southern Mali and adjacent regions of the Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Ghana,
Nigeria, and Senegal; peanuts are similar in both agricultural and culinary qualities to the Bambara
groundnut native to the region, and West Africans have adopted the crop as a staple. Peanut sauce,
prepared with onions, garlic, peanut butter/paste, and vegetables such as carrots, cabbage, and
cauliflower, can be vegetarian (the peanuts supplying ample protein) or prepared with meat, usually
chicken.
Peanuts are used in the Malian meat stew maafe. In Ghana, peanut butter is used for peanut butter
soup nkate nkwan.[53] Crushed peanuts may also be used for peanut candies nkate cake and kuli-kuli,
as well as other local foods such as oto.[53] Peanut butter is an ingredient in Nigeria's "African salad".
Peanut powder is an important ingredient in the spicy coating for kebabs (Suya) in Nigeria and
Ghana.
East Africa
Peanuts are a common ingredient of several types of relishes (dishes which accompany nshima) eaten
in Malawi, and in the eastern part of Zambia, and these dishes are common throughout both
countries. Thick peanut butter sauces are also made in Uganda to serve with rice and other starchy
foods. Groundnut stew, called ebinyebwa in Luganda-speaking areas of Uganda, is made by boiling
ground peanut flour with other ingredients, such as cabbage, mushrooms, dried fish, meat or other
vegetables.[54] Across East Africa, roasted peanuts, often in cones of newspaper, are obtained from
street vendors.
North America
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portions of the US, peanuts are boiled for several hours until soft and moist.[60] Peanuts are also deep-
fried, sometimes within the shell. Per person, Americans eat 2.7 kg (6 lb) of peanut products annually,
spending a total of $2 billion in peanut retail purchases.[58]
Manufacturing
Production
Peanut production, 2020
In 2020, world production of peanuts (reported as groundnuts in (millions of tonnes)
shells) was 54 million tonnes, an 8% increase over 2019 production.[14]
Country Production
China had 34% of global production, followed by India (19%) (table).
Other significant producers were Nigeria, the United States, and China 18.0
Sudan.[14] India 10.0
Nigeria 4.5
Industrial
United States 2.8
Peanuts have a variety of industrial end uses. Paint, varnish, Sudan 2.8
lubricating oil, leather dressings, furniture polish, insecticides, and
World 53.6
nitroglycerin are made from peanut oil. Soap is made from saponified
oil, and many cosmetics contain peanut oil and its derivatives. The Source: FAOSTAT, United Nations[14]
protein portion is used in the manufacture of some textile fibers.
Peanut shells are used in the manufacture of plastic, wallboard, abrasives, fuel, cellulose (used in
rayon and paper), and mucilage (glue).
Malnutrition
Peanuts are used to help fight malnutrition. Plumpy Nut, MANA Nutrition,[61] and Medika Mamba[62]
are high-protein, high-energy, and high-nutrient peanut-based pastes developed to be used as a
therapeutic food to aid in famine relief. The World Health Organization, UNICEF, Project Peanut
Butter, and Doctors Without Borders have used these products to help save malnourished children in
developing countries.
Peanuts can be used like other legumes and grains to make a lactose-free, milk-like beverage, peanut
milk, which is promoted in Africa as a way to reduce malnutrition among children.
Animal feed
Peanut plant tops and crop residues can be used for hay.[63]
The protein cake (oilcake meal) residue from oil processing is used as animal feed and soil fertilizer.
Groundnut cake is a livestock feed, mostly used by cattle as protein supplements.[64] It is one of the
most important and valuable feeds for all types of livestock and one of the most active ingredients for
poultry rations.[65] Poor storage of the cake may sometimes result in its contamination by aflatoxin, a
naturally occurring mycotoxin that is produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus.[66]
The major constituents of the cake are essential amino acids such as lysine and glutamine. Other
components are crude fiber, crude protein, and fat.
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Some peanuts can also be fed whole to livestock, for example, those over the peanut quota in the US or
those with a higher aflatoxin content than that permitted by the food regulations.[67]
Peanut processing often requires dehulling: the hulls generated in large amounts by the peanut
industries can feed livestock, particularly ruminants.[68]
Cultivation
Peanuts grow best in light, sandy loam soil with a pH of 5.9–7.
Their capacity to fix nitrogen means that providing they nodulate
properly, peanuts benefit little or not at all from nitrogen-
containing fertilizer,[69] and they improve soil fertility. Therefore,
they are valuable in crop rotations. Also, the yield of the peanut
crop itself is increased in rotations through reduced diseases,
pests, and weeds. For example, in Texas, peanuts in a three-year
rotation with corn yield 50% more than nonrotated peanuts.[69]
Adequate levels of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
Peanut pegs growing into the soil.
and micronutrients are also necessary for good yields.[69] Peanuts
The tip of the peg, once buried,
need warm weather throughout the growing season to develop
swells and develops into a peanut
well. They can be grown with as little as 350 mm (14 in) of
fruit.
water,[70] but for best yields need at least 500 mm (20 in).[71]
Depending on growing conditions and the cultivar of peanut,
harvest is usually 90 to 130 days after planting for subspecies A. h. fastigiata types, and 120 to 150
days after planting for subspecies A. h. hypogaea types.[70][72][73] Subspecies A. h. hypogaea types
yield more and are usually preferred where the growing seasons are sufficiently long.
Cultivation of peanut crop at theThe main yield-limiting factors in semiarid regions are drought
Indian Directorate of Groundnut and high-temperature stress. The stages of reproductive
Research (Junagadh, Gujarat, development before flowering, at flowering, and at early pod
2009) development are particularly sensitive to these constraints. Apart
from nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, other nutrient
deficiencies causing significant yield losses are calcium, iron and
boron. Biotic stresses mainly include pests, diseases, and weeds. Among insects pests, pod borers,
aphids, and mites are of importance. The most important diseases are leaf spots, rusts, and the toxin-
producing fungus Aspergillus.[75]
Harvesting occurs in two stages.[42] In mechanized systems, a machine is used to cut off the main root
of the peanut plant by cutting through the soil just below the level of the peanut pods. The machine
lifts the "bush" from the ground, shakes it, then inverts it, leaving the plant upside down to keep the
peanuts out of the soil. This allows the peanuts to dry slowly to a little less than a third of their original
moisture level over three to four days. Traditionally, peanuts were pulled and inverted by hand.
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After the peanuts have dried sufficiently, they are threshed, removing the
peanut pods from the rest of the bush.[74] peanuts must be dried properly
and stored in dry conditions. If they are too high in moisture, or if storage
conditions are poor, they may become infected by the mold fungus
Aspergillus flavus. Many strains of this fungus release toxic and highly
carcinogenic substances called aflatoxins.
Gallery
Roasted Peanuts with A warning sign for the Arachis hypogaea Peanut pegs
shell presence of peanuts flower penetrating
and peanut dust the ground
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See also
Food portal
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External links
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