DIGESTIVE SYTEM

The process by which your body breaks down food into small nutrient molecules is called
digestion. Digestion of food involves both physical and chemical changes
 . Physical changes involve the physical tearing, grinding, crushing, and churning of
pieces of food. These processes increase surface area, which helps speed up the chemical
changes of digestion.
 During chemical changes, chemicals break foods into their building blocks
FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• Ingestion
–The taking in of food.
• Digestion
–Physical and chemical breakdown of food into smaller molecules.
• Absorption
–Movement of nutrients into the blood stream.
• Defecation
–Removal of indigestible waste.
MOUTH ANATOMY
• Three pairs of salivary glands empty secretions into the mouth
1.Parotid gland
2.Submandibular glands
3.Sublingual glands
•Functions of saliva:
•Dissolves chemicals in food so they can be detected by the taste buds.
•Moistens food so that it can be swallowed.
•Contains salivary amylase, a digestive enzyme.
DIGESTION IN THE MOUTH
•There are two types of digestion:
•Mechanical digestion- which is the physical process of breaking food into smaller pieces.
•Chemical digestion-when enzymes catalyze chemical reactions that lead to the breakdown of
food molecules.
•Mechanical digestion in the mouth occurs through mastication or the chewing and grinding of
food by the teeth.
•Chemical digestion occurs when salivary amylase catalyzes the breakdown of starch
(polysaccharide)into maltose (disaccharide).

TEETH
•The outermost layer of the tooth is enamel.
•Made of calcium phosphate, the hardest biologically-made substance.
•Most of the inner tooth is dentin, which is similar to bone except without any living cells.
•The living cells of the tooth are located in the Pulp cavity
• All blood vessels and nerves into this cavity come through the
root canals at the base of the tooth.

TOOTH DISORDERS
•Cavities or caries occur when naturally-occurring bacteria within the mouth overgrow due to the
presence of food particles.
•The bacteria produce acid as a waste product, which dissolves the calcium phosphate enamel.
•If cavities are allowed to become too deep, a root canal will cleanout and dissolve all the tissue
in the pulp cavity, leaving an antibiotic paste behind.
•The tooth no longer has any living cell sat this point.
TYPES OF TEETH
• Incisors are blade-shaped teeth at the front of the mouth.
• Clipping or cutting.
• Cuspids (canines) are cone-shaped with a pointed tip.
• Tearing or slashing.
• Bicuspids and molars have flattened tops.
• Crushing, mashing, or grinding.
• Wisdom teeth are an additional set of molars that often develop in locations where they cannot
erupt.
• Vestigial structures.
PHARYNX
•Food is formed into a chewed, moistened ball called a
Bolus.
• The bolus is pushed back toward the pharynx with the tongue.
•While swallowing, all passageways except to the esophagus are blocked.
•The uvula moves backwards, blocking the nasal cavity.
•The epiglottis folds down, blocking the trachea.
ESOPHAGUS
• The bolus moves through the esophagus by a series of smooth muscle contractions called
peristalsis
• The bolus eventually enters the stomach through the
Cardiac sphincter.
STOMACH
•The stomach is a muscular organ made of four sections:
•Cardiac –Region closest to the esophagus and heart.
•Fundus – Superior bulge in stomach.
•Body – Middle section
•Pyloric – Inferior region, closest to the small intestines.
• The stomach has internal folds called rugae that increase the surface area for digestion.
• The innermost lining of the stomach is simple columnar epithelium.
STOMACH
• The cardiac sphincter is a ring of smooth muscle intended to allow food into the stomach but
not out.
•Exceptions include vomiting, heartburn, acid reflux.
•Presence of food in the stomach stimulates the release of the hormone
gastrin.
• Gastrin causes the stomach glands to produce:
•Pepsinogen an inactive enzyme produced by chief cells. This converts to pepsin an active
enzyme that breaks down proteins into amino acids.
• A layer of mucus to protect the stomach from being dissolved or digested.
• Hydrochloric acid lowers the pH of the stomach contents, which activates pepsin. This is
produced by parietal cells
• No absorption occurs in the stomach, except for aspirin and alcohol.

STOMACH-INTESTINES
•The partially digested food is now referred to as chyme
•The stomach will release small amounts (30mL) of chyme into the small intestine at a time
through the pyloric sphincter
SMALL INTESTINES
•The first section of the small intestines is the duodenum. This is where most of the actual
digestion occurs.
•Digestive secretions from the pancreas and liver (gallbladder) are both sent here.

DUODENUM
•The pancreas releases bicarbonate and enzymes into the duodenum:
•Bicarbonate neutralizes the stomach acid, stopping the action of pepsin..
•Pancreatic amylase (starch → maltose)
•Lipase (Lipids → Fatty acids)
•Nuclease (DNA / RNA → Nucleotides)
•Trypsin (Protein → Amino acids)
•The liver releases bile which separates fats into smaller droplets to increase the rate of digestion
by lipase.
JEJUNUM-ILEUM
• Food is moved through the small intestine by peristalsis just like in the esophagus.
•Absorption of the end-products of digestion occurs all along the jejunum and ileum.
•Villi are present in all cells along the intestines to increase the surface area for absorption.

• Active transport moves the substances (monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, etc) across
the cells of the intestines into the blood.
•Substances are then transported to the liver by the hepatic portal vein

LARGE INTESTINE
•The beginning of the large intestine is the cecum
•The appendix is attached here.
•Three segments of the large intestine:
•Ascending colon
•Transverse colon
•Descending colon
•Ends with the rectum

. LARGE INTESTINE
• No digestive enzymes are present here.
• Bacteria that reside in the large intestine digest some of the remaining nutrients, producing
vitamins K, B, and some gases.
•Water and vitamins are absorbed, while the remaining material is eliminated as
feces
•Undigested food residue
•Mucus
•Bacteria
•Water
 • Movement through the large intestine is slow, but powerful. Peristalsis occurs 3-4 times
per day.
• A buildup of feces in the rectum causes the defecation reflex
• The internal anal sphincter (involuntary smooth muscle) is relaxed.
• The external anal sphincter (voluntary muscle) must be relaxed before defecation can
actually occur.

ACCESSORY ORGANS

• The pancreas, in addition to producing digestive enzymes, also controls blood sugar.

• Islets of Langerhans
• contain the cells that actually produce these hormones.
• Insulin – Stimulates the absorption of glucose from blood
• and production of glycogen for storage.
• Glucagon – Stimulates the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, raising blood sugar.
• The liver, in addition to making bile, detoxifies any poisons absorbed by the digestive
tract.
APPENDIX
•The appendix is a small dead-end tube connected to the beginning of the ascending colon.
•The appendix is believed to be a vestigial structure. It used to be a larger cecum
–an organ that herbivores use to ferment and digest cellulose.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
•The stomach is held in place with the other abdominal organs by the
greater and lesser omentum
•The intestines are held together by mesentery

MUMPS
• A viral infection that causes painful swelling of the salivary glands, especially the parotid
gland.
• Airborne and highly contagious.
• Can be vaccinated against.
HEARTBURN
•Influx of stomach acid into the esophagus.
•Can be the result of excessive acid production in the stomach, or a faulty cardiac sphincter.

PEPTIC ULCERS
• An erosion of the inner stomach or duodenum lining.
•Causes include:
•Inflammation from bacterial infection.
•Certain painkillers (aspirin, ibuprofen) can inhibit the production of stomach mucus.
•Stress (not fully understood why)

VOMITING
•There are multiple sources of stimulation that can lead to vomiting.
•Irritation of the gastro intestinal tract.
•Irritation of the pharynx (gag reflex)
•Multiple trigger zones in the brain.
•The actual process of vomiting has several physiologic steps.
. VOMITING
•Salivary glands increase production of saliva to protect teeth from acid erosion.
• A deep breath is taken to prevent aspiration
•Inhalation of foreign substances, such as vomit, can lead to serious respiratory infections like
pneumonia.
•Retroperistalsis (reverse peristalsis) sweeps the digestive tract contents through a relaxed
pyloric sphincter, into the stomach.
•Abdominal muscles contract, cardiac sphincter relaxes, and contents exit through the esophagus.

DIARRHEA
•Diarrhea is the presence of abnormally loose or liquid feces.
•There are multiple types diarrhea, all of which are caused by an excess of water inside the
intestines.
• Some bacteria (Cholera, E. coli O157:H7) produce a toxin that creates an ion imbalance in the
intestines. This results in an osmotic flow of water into the intestines.
•Laxatives often contain an ion (like magnesium) that will intentionally create an osmotic
imbalance.

LACTOSE INTOLERANCE
•People that are lactose intolerant do not produce the lactase enzyme.
•The gene that produces this enzyme shuts off after infancy, when breastfeeding ends.
•Undigested lactose eventually reaches the large intestine, causing an osmotic imbalance
(diarrhea).
•Bacteria are able to ferment the lactose, producing excessive amounts of gas.

DIABETES
•The pancreas stops producing or does not produce enough insulin, resulting in high blood sugar
levels.
•Type I Diabetes is the result of the immune system destroying the insulin-producing cells of the
pancreas.
•No insulin is produced. The patient is dependent on insulin
injections.
•Type II Diabetes occurs when there is an insulin deficiency in the body, or the cells do not
respond properly to insulin.
•Most common cause is obesity.