Motivational Theories

Velopi Project Management
Unit 7A, Kinsale Commercial Park, Kinsale, Co. Cork, P17 PW40, Ireland
Motivational Theories
Although these particular theories have not appeared on the PMP exam in recent times, it is worth
being aware of them.
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow argues that people are motivated by needs and that once a particular
need is satisfied another need comes along to take its place. Essentially, we are never
satisfied.
Maslow arranged needs in a hierarchy of five layers:
The basic physiological needs are those of food and shelter. If you are hungry and worried
about where your next meal is coming from, you are hardly likely to worry about the
Autumn/Winter collection from Christian Dior.
Once food and shelter are available, our thoughts turn to security. Primitive man worried
about being eaten by predators; modern man is more concerned with employment security
and perhaps environmental security (the effects of global warming).
Well-fed and secure, we now start to look at our community and seek to be part of a group –
a family or a community. We seek to fit in and become part of a social group. We want to
belong.
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But membership of the social group will not be enough after a while. We will seek out the
approval and esteem of our community. We want to be recognized as an important member
or we might strive for a leadership role.
Ultimately, we will seek self-actualization. This Maslow describes as “what a man can be, he
must be”. Thus a flair for music or sport drives a person to excel in that area. We want to be
the best we can be.
Key Reference:
Maslow, A (1954). Motivation and Personality. New

York, NY: Harper. ISBN 0-06-041987-3
Sample Questions:
1. According to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, in which stage

does the need for acceptance occur?
a) Self-actualization
b) Esteem
c) Safety and security
d) Social needs
2. Which of the following best describes Maslow's theory of

motivation?
a) People are motivated by achievement, power and

affiliation.
b) People are motivated by the expectation of positive
outcomes.
c) People are motivated by five basic, hierarchical needs.
d) People are motivated by hygiene factors.
 Herzberg’s Hygiene Factors
Herzberg’s key discovery was the asymmetry of motivation. He noticed that some factors
were intensely demotivating, but did not contribute to motivation if they were adequate. He
used the analogy of a sewer to explain this point: if your sewer works, you will not be aware
it exists. However, if it gets blocked up, it suddenly becomes the focus of your world.
The interesting thing is: once the sewer is unblocked and working as before, installing a
better sewer is not going to provide any extra motivation – “come work with is, we have the
best sewers in town” has never been used as a recruitment slogan.
Interestingly, the same argument applies to pay and conditions. If pay and the working
environment are acceptable, improving them will not increase motivation or productivity.
However, factors like recognition and the work itself do actively provide added incentives.
Thus an organization must make sure their hygiene factors are adequate, but make sure the
work is interesting and that staff are recognized for their efforts.
Key Reference:
Herzberg, Frederick; Mausner, Bernard; Snyderman,

Barbara B. (1959). The Motivation to Work (2nd ed.).
New York: John Wiley. ISBN 0471373893
Sample Questions:
1. Which of the following statements are true regarding

Herzberg's Hygiene Theory
a) Motivation factors include pay, salary and benefits.

b) Motivation factors help avoid job dissatisfaction but
will NOT lead to job satisfaction.
c) Hygiene factors help avoid job dissatisfaction but will
not lead to job satisfaction.
d) Hygiene factors include achievement, job
advancement and recognition.
2. Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene theory includes which of the

following concepts?
a) Hygiene factors do not act as motivators by

themselves.
b) People are always in a state of need.
c) There are two ways to categorize people in the
workplace.
d) Greater financial reward brings greater motivation.
3. The belief that factors such as pay, attitude of supervisor, and

working conditions, can only destroy motivation, is a key point
of:
a) McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

b) Herzberg's Theory of Motivation
c) Maslow's Hierarchy of Human Needs
d) Expectancy Theory
 McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas McGregor argues that there are two types of manager:
i. One type believes that people are naturally averse to work. Because of this,
they need to be coerced and monitored closely to ensure that they do what
is asked. McGregor termed these as “Theory X” managers.
ii. The other believes that people naturally want to succeed at anything they
do. Given half a chance, they would prefer to do a good job than an
adequate one. Such managers see their roles as rudders rather than
propellers. These are Theory Y managers.
Key Reference:
McGregor, D. (1960). The Human Side of Enterprise,

New York, McGraw-Hill.
Sample Questions:
1. You are a member of a project team for West Medical, Inc.

The project manager was called away on personal business
and the sponsor brought in a replacement PM. One of your
team members had worked with this new PM before and told
the team that she was a Theory Y type manager. She will hold
the belief that:
a) workers prefer direction and avoid taking

responsibility.
b) most people dislike their work and avoid it.
c) people have a central need to develop a sense of
competence.
d) most people are self-disciplined and can direct and
control themselves.
2. One of your team members is extremely motivated by money;

in fact, he won't do anything above and beyond unless he is
compensated for the activities. This type of individual would
work best under what type of management?
a) Herzberg's motivational theory

b) Theory Y management
c) Theory X management
d) Maslow's hierarchy
3. Theory X management is based upon an assumption that:
a) quality improvements lie in the hands of quality circles

b) absenteeism is tied to poor working conditions
c) workers are inherently unmotivated and need strong
guidance
d) profits are tied to meeting the project's baseline
milestones
4. Which of the following management behaviours is an example

of the Theory X approach?
a) Implementing an employee suggestion

system.
b) Empowering teams.
c) Strict supervision of employee breaks
d) Informal, impromptu breaks with staff.
 McClelland’s Acquired Needs
David McClelland determined that people are motivated by three different types of needs,
outlined in the following table:
Achievement (N-Ach)  These people should be given projects that are challenging
but are reachable.
 They like recognition.
Affiliation (N-Affil)  These people work best when cooperating with others.
 They seek approval rather than recognition
Power (N-Pow)  People whose need for power is socially oriented, should
be allowed to manage others.
 These people like to organize and influence others.
Everyone has these motivations to a greater or lesser extent and they are held in a certain
balance. Understanding which factor dominates in different members of your staff will allow
you to tailor rewards and recognition to suit the individual.
Key Reference:
McClelland D. (1961) The Achieving Society D van

Nostrand Co
Sample Questions:
1. McClelland's Motivational Needs Theory holds that:
a) workers prefer direction and avoid taking

responsibility.
b) people have a need to develop a sense of
competence.
c) people have three fundamental needs that exist in
different balances.
d) most people dislike and avoid their work.
 Expectancy Theories
Key references:
o Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and Motivation. New York, John Wiley and Sons Inc.
o Lewin, K. (1935). A Dynamic Theory of Personality. New York, McGraw-Hill.
Unlike the needs-based theories of Maslow and Herzberg, expectancy theories suggest that
we are motivated by the expected outcomes of our actions. These theories are based on
three concepts:
1. Valence: The value attached to a particular outcome, which is influenced by our

previous experiences of success or failure. This can be positive – pay, recognition,
achievement, or negative - lack of leisure time, stress or tiredness. We can find
ourselves torn between two positive valences – i.e. two equally attractive outcomes;
two negative valences – e.g. an unpleasant work task and a threat of punishment if
the work is not done; or a balanced situation of one positive and one negative
valence – e.g. a desire for the perquisites of promotion tempered by a fear of
responsibility
2. Instrumentality: What we feel are the likely steps needed to achieve desired (i.e.
high positive valence) outcomes. For instance, up-front investment in the design
stage of a software development project is instrumental in simplifying the coding
stage.
3. Expectancy: Our belief that we will actually be able to achieve a given outcome. Or
as Victor Vroom put it: an “expectancy is defined as a momentary belief concerning
the likelihood that a particular act will be followed by a particular outcome”
So instrumentality and expectancy determine valences; net positive valences provide

motivational force. In other words, the attraction of an outcome relates to the efforts
needed to obtain it and the likelihood that these efforts will be rewarded.
Key References:
 Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and Motivation. New

York, John Wiley and Sons Inc.
 Lewin, K. (1935). A Dynamic Theory of Personality.
New York, McGraw-Hill.
Sample Questions:
1. Winston is a new PMP added to your project team. You have

become aware that Winston performs at his best when he
feels he will be rewarded for his performance. Which
motivation theory is he exhibiting?
a) Maslow's theory
b) Expectancy theory
c) Herzberg's theory of motivation.
d) McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y.
2. Your manager states that you should learn not to be a Theory

X manager and instead become a believer in the Expectancy
Theory of motivation. This sends you back to your cubicle to
find out what the Expectancy Theory is. You find it is?
a) People are motivated by achievement and power.

b) People are motivated by the expectant positive
outcomes in the job they are doing.
c) Employees aren't motivated unless the manager
places the expectation upon them.
d) People are motivated by their five basic needs.
3. Which of the following is part of the expectancy theory of

motivation?
a) Clear, specific and challenging goals generally

motivate people.
b) Project managers should ensure that tasks assigned to
project team members match their skills and the
environment is conducive to them meeting their
needs.
c) People are highly productive and motivated if they
believe their efforts lead to successful results that will
lead to personal rewards.
d) All of the above.
Answers to sample questions:
Maslow:
1. D: The need to be accepted occurs in the social needs stage. This is the third level of
stage after psychological and safety needs.
2. C: Maslow is known for his five levels of needs, which are:
 basic physiological needs

 safety and security needs
 social needs
 self-esteem needs
 self-actualization needs
Herzberg:
1. C: Hygiene factors (salary, security, work conditions) need to be present to avoid job
dissatisfaction, but will not lead to job satisfaction. Motivation factors (achievement,
recognition, advancement) need to be present for job satisfaction, and are different to
dissatisfying hygiene factors.
2. A: Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene theory includes the concept that Hygiene factors do
not act as motivators by themselves. Hygiene factors fall into a category of factors that if
absent will make a person unsatisfied. Hygiene factors by themselves do not make a
person satisfied. Motivation factors do just that, they motivate. Some examples of
Hygiene factors include: salary, status, supervision, and personal life. Some examples of
Motivation factors include: advancement, growth, and responsibility. This is part of the
Develop Project Team process where the PM has a responsibility to improve feelings of
trust and cohesiveness among team members in order to raise productivity through
greater team work.
3. B: Herzberg theorized that factors such as company policy, supervision, interpersonal
relations, working conditions, and salary are hygiene factors rather than motivators.
According to the theory, the absence of hygiene factors can create job dissatisfaction,
but their presence does not motivate or create satisfaction.
McGregor
1. D: In this theory, management assumes that employees are ambitious, self-motivated

and exercise self-control.
2. C: McGregor introduced Theory X which states that people are slackers and pessimistic
and need to be led by very strong management.
3. C: McGregor's Theory X theory states that workers are lazy and unmotivated and need
to be excessively managed in order for them to be productive.
4. C: In this Douglas McGregor theory, which many managers practice, management
assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can. They inherently
dislike work. Because of this, workers need to be closely supervised.
McClelland:
1. C: McClelland proposes that each of us have three fundamental needs that exist in
different balances: achievement, affiliation, and power. These affect both how we are
motivated and how we attempt to motivate others.
Expectancy Theories:
1. B: "This (management) theory emphasizes the need for organizations to relate

rewards directly to performance and to ensure that the rewards provided are those
rewards deserved and wanted by the recipients." Montana, Patrick J; Charnov, Bruce
H, Management – 4th edition; (2008) – Barrons Educational Series, Inc
2. B: First proposed by Victor Vroom, the Expectancy Theory states that people are
motivated by the expectation of positive outcomes.
3. C: "This (management) theory emphasizes the need for organizations to relate
rewards directly to performance and to ensure that the rewards provided are those
rewards deserved and wanted by the recipients." Montana, Patrick J; Charnov, Bruce
H, Management – 4th edition; (2008) – Barrons Educational Series, Inc.

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Velopi Project Management

 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow arranged needs in a hierarchy of five layers:

Maslow, A (1954). Motivation and Personality. New

1. According to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, in which stage

2. Which of the following best describes Maslow's theory of

a) People are motivated by achievement, power and

 Herzberg’s Hygiene Factors

Herzberg, Frederick; Mausner, Bernard; Snyderman,

1. Which of the following statements are true regarding

a) Motivation factors include pay, salary and benefits.

2. Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene theory includes which of the

a) Hygiene factors do not act as motivators by

3. The belief that factors such as pay, attitude of supervisor, and

a) McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

 McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor argues that there are two types of manager:

McGregor, D. (1960). The Human Side of Enterprise,

1. You are a member of a project team for West Medical, Inc.

a) workers prefer direction and avoid taking

2. One of your team members is extremely motivated by money;

a) Herzberg's motivational theory

3. Theory X management is based upon an assumption that:

a) quality improvements lie in the hands of quality circles

4. Which of the following management behaviours is an example

a) Implementing an employee suggestion

 McClelland’s Acquired Needs

McClelland D. (1961) The Achieving Society D van

1. McClelland's Motivational Needs Theory holds that:

a) workers prefer direction and avoid taking

1. Valence: The value attached to a particular outcome, which is influenced by our

So instrumentality and expectancy determine valences; net positive valences provide

 Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and Motivation. New

1. Winston is a new PMP added to your project team. You have

2. Your manager states that you should learn not to be a Theory

a) People are motivated by achievement and power.

3. Which of the following is part of the expectancy theory of

a) Clear, specific and challenging goals generally

Answers to sample questions:

 basic physiological needs

1. D: In this theory, management assumes that employees are ambitious, self-motivated

1. B: "This (management) theory emphasizes the need for organizations to relate

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