AFTES - Slurry For Use in Slurry Shield TBM

ASSOCIATION FRANÇAISE DES TUNNELS
ET DE L’ESPACE SOUTERRAIN
Organization member of the AFTES

www.aftes.asso.fr
AFTES
Recommendations
Slurry for use in

SLURRY SHIELD TBM
GT4R4A1
AFTES RECOMMENDATIONS CONCERNING
SLURRY FOR USE IN SLURRY-SHIELD TBM
Text prepared by
P. LONGCHAMP (Bouygues Travaux Publics)
All reproduction, translation and adaptation of articles (partly or totally) are subject to copyrigth.
with the close collaboration of:

Antony BESQ (LEA) - Fabrice BONIN (JF Tech) - Bruno DEMAY (Vinci) - Michel GUERIN (Calypso)
Alexandre GUILLAUME (MS) - Anne PANTET (ESIP-Poitiers) - Jean-Marie ROGEZ (RATP)
André SCHWENZFEIER (CETU)
Other members of Working Group GT 4 (Mechanized Excavation) also contributed to these Recommendations:
Alain AMELOT (SPIE) - Daniel ANDRE (SNCF) - François BERTRAND (Chantiers Modernes)
Laurent CHANTRON (CETU) - Didier CUELLAR (SNCF) - Jean-Marc FREDET (Pergolese)
Jean-Louis GIAFFERI (EDF) - Christian MOLINES (Eiffage) - Philippe MONNET (ESIP Poitiers) -
Laurent NICOLAS (JF Tech) - Paul RENAULT (Razel) and Jean-François ROUBINET (Vinci).
The Working Group acknowledges the help of
J. GUILLAUME (Razel) - B. GODINOT ( GTM Construction) - G. PIQUEREAU (CAP)
of the Technical Committee for reviewing and validating the text.
Grateful to D.P. Richards (Parsons Brinckerhoff International) for his translation review
CONTENTS
Pages Pages
1 – FOREWORD – PURPOSE OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS - - 165 4.1.3 – Plastic viscosity (PV) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 168
2 – BASIC ROLES AND FUNCTIONS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 166 4.1.4 – Yield point - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 168
2.1 - General - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 166 4.1.5 – Thixotropy and gels - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 169
2.2 – Primary functions of slurry - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 166 4.2 – Physical properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 169
2.3 – Secondary functions and qualities of slurry - - - - - - - - - - - 166 4.2.1 – Density of slurry - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 169
3 – BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR USING SLURRY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 167 4.2.2 – Sand content (particles > 80 µm) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 169
3.1 – Confinement function - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 167 4.2.3 – Filterability - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 169
3.1.1 – General - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 167 4.2.4 – Quality of cake - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 169
3.1.2 – Filtration - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 167 4.3 – Chemical properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 169
3.1.3 – Stiffening of slurry - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 167 4.3.1 – Presence of electrolytes - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 169
3.1.4 – Types of cake - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 167 4.3.2 – pH variation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 170
3.1.5 – Speed of cake formation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 167 5 - MATERIELS AND PROCEDURES FOR MEASURING SLURRY
3.2 – Transport function - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 167 QUALITY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 170
3.3 – Separation function - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 167 5.1 – Test equipment - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 170
3.4 – Changes to slurry during excavation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 167 5.2 – Procedures - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 170
3.4.1 – Physical contamination of slurry by solid load - - - - - - 167 6 – CHOICE OF MAIN SLURRY CHARACTERISTICS - - - - - - - - - 170
3.4.2 – Chemical contamination of slurry - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 167 6.1 – Properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 170
4 – BASIC PROPERTIES OF SLURRY AND THEIR MEASUREMENT 167 6.2 – Guiding the choice of slurry type - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 170
4.1 – Rehological properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 168 7 – COMPONENTS OF SLURRY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 171
4.1.1 – Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 168 7.1 – Composition - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 171
4.1.2 – Apparent viscosity (AV) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 168 7.2 – Choice of components - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 171
TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

• 164 •
Slurry for use in SLURRY SHIELD TBM
CONTENTS
Pages Pages
8 – TREATMENT OF EXCESS SLURRY (see Appendix 6) - - - - - - 171 2 - Types of polymers used in tunnelling slurry - - - - - - - - - - - - - 174
9 – SLURRY SCHEDULE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 172 2.1 – Starches and amylase derivatives - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 174
9.1 – Objectives - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 172 2.5 – Polyacrylamides - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 174
9.2 – Preparation - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 172 2.6 – Polyacrylates - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 174
9.2.1 – Regulatory considerations: environment / health 3 - Bentonite - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 174
and safety - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 172 3.1 – Structure of bentonite- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 175
9.2.2 – Site conditions: project geometry, geology, 3.2 – Bentonite properties - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 175
geotechnics, and landtake - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 172 3.3 – Bentonite for underground works - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 175
9.2.3 – Plant - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 172 APPENDIX 3: PRINCIPLE FOR EVALUATION OF THE

9.2.4 – Quality of components (water, additives) - - - - - - - - - - 172 RHEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TUNNELLING SLURRIES 176
9.2.5 – Consumption estimate - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 172 APPENDIX 4: SLURRY PARAMETER TABLE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 177
9.3 – Testing implementation and follow-up - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 172 APPENDIX 5: SLURRY RHEOLOGY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 177
9.3.1 – Documentary system and checks - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 172 1 – Definition of rheology - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 177
9.3.2 – Personnel - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 172 2 – Rheology of tunnelling slurries - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 177
10 – USING SLURRY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 173 3 – Definitions and terminology - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 177
10.1 – Reception of basic products - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 173 4 – Components models- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 178
10.2 – Manufacture - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 173
APPENDIX 6: PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A SLUDGE
APPENDIX 1: GLOSSARY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 173
TREATMENT PLANT- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 179
APPENDIX 2: POLYMERS AND BENTONITES FOR
TUNNELLING SLURRIES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 174 APPENDIX 7: PERMEAMETER - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 181
1- General - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 174 APPENDIX 8: STANDARD SLURRY-MONITORING
DOCUMENTATION - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 182
1 - FOREWORD – PURPOSE OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS
S
lurry is an indispensable aspect in the use of closed face slurry-shield tunnel boring machines (TBMs), for tunnel support and for slurry remo-
val. The AFTES Recommendations on the choice of mechanized tunnelling techniques (TOS No. 157, January/February 2000, paragraphs
4.3.4, 6.3.3, 7.3.3, and 8.5) provide more information on this.
AFTES Working Group GT 4 dealing with mechanized excavation considered it important to publish recommendations on slurry.
The science of slurry for this kind of application is indeed relatively complex. It consists of a combination of experience and theory, as the slurry
itself combines rehological, physical, and chemical phenomena. It also has to take account of another range of complex sciences, the earth
sciences.
Use of slurry for tunnelling can undoubtedly trace its origins back to drilling fluid (mud) for vertical holes. Because of their immense resources and
the economic issues involved, oil companies played a leading role in the development of the technology. Civil engineering thus benefited from a
wealth of prior knowledge, first in respect of deep foundations and drill holes for ground improvement, and then, some years later, for excavation
of tunnels in loose water bearing granular soils.
While the composition of tunnelling slurry is essentially the same as that of the drilling mud used in the oil industry, it does have its own special
requirements. Some examples are given below:
➬ For vertical drilling: the hole by laminar flow to prevent erosion of ➬ For tunnelling:
the borehole walls. This calls for low flow velo-
• The volume and sectional area of the bore- • Support conditions are generally more diffi-
cities and a mud whose viscosity enables it to
hole are relatively small, and any ground insta- cult , with a high risk of instability.
carry the cuttings at that speed.
bility is localized. • Slurry pressure is produced and controlled
• The borehole generally goes through a series
• The mud pressure is governed directly by its mechanically.
of sub-horizontal geological strata, but gene-
density and the hydrostatic head. • Spoil is carried by a turbulent flow regime
rally crosses them at nearly perpendicular
• Cuttings from the cutterhead are carried up angles. which requires high flow velocity; the suspen-

• 165 •
ded solids (cuttings) carrying capacity is is to impart to the tunnel walls and excava- Excavation of the tunnel produces a change
governed by the dynamics of the turbulence . tion face the qualities that will hold up the in the state of initial stress around the ope-
• Since the geological strata encountered are excavation. To achieve this, its components ning. σv is assumed to be constant whereas
sub-horizontal and sub-parallel to the axis of and physical properties must: σh tends to 0. The initial Mohr circle (➀)
excavation, ground at the face is often strati- • create an impermeable membrane at the expands until it reaches the critical circle ➃
fied and heterogeneous. ground interface (at the face and around the beyond which stability is no longer guaranteed.
• The excavation volumes involved and the shield, in the case of overcutting). The This diagram has been simplified. It corres-
sectional face areas of the excavation are ground interface must be made imper- ponds to the stability of an infinitely large
large with meable so that the slurry can develop ade- tunnel face with a two dimensional stress
quate confinement pressure, or, more preci- state. In practice, stability calculations involve
The basic solids mixing component for sely, extra confinement pressure above the three-dimensional stress mechanisms.
mud/slurry is bentonite, a type of clay with hydrostatic ground water pressure.
very special physical and components pro- 2.3 – SECONDARY FUNC-
perties. • create and maintain confinement pressure

gradient at the ground interface sufficient to TIONS AND QUALITIES OF
Other products such as polymers or defloc- ensure stability (see Appendix 3). SLURRY
culants are being used increasingly. They
complement and improve the basic proper- It as sometimes been claimed that the use of Although referred to as “secondary” here,
ties of the slurry. They are therefore addressed slurry and the associated development of these functions and qualities are very impor-
in these Recommendations. confinement pressure improve the mechani- tant and can be decisive in some cases.
cal characteristics of the ground around the
Geological and hydro-geological conditions tunnel by adding extra cohesion and/or an Such cases include:
and dimensions can vary widely from one specific state of stress. However, with current • Mucking: the viscosity of the moving slurry
project to another and therefore entail project- knowledge of the phenomena involved, such must enable it to be pumped at high velocity
specific problems. improvement cannot be quantified because in the pipes of the slurry circuit.
The purpose of these Recommendations is it is so complex, and accordingly it is not taken
• Lubrication: the slurry must limit wear of
to provide help for preparing, managing, into account in tunnel stability calculations.
plant (cutting tools, pipes, valves, pumps,
and checking the slurries used in conjunction It is important to remember that these funda- etc.) by reducing plant/slurry friction.
with closed face slurry-shield TBMs. mental functions must be maintained in
• Encapsulation of muck: The slurry must
order to provide excavation face stability
reduce hydration of the muck in order to limit
during man access to the cutterhead cham-
its propensity to stick and to flocculate (this is
2 – BASIC ROLES AND ber for hyperbaric maintenance operations.
particularly important when excavating in
FUNCTIONS The conditions ensuring face stability by silty-clayed materials with a water content
confinement are represented on the follo- below the plastic limit).
2.1 - GENERAL wing Mohr diagram:
• Inertness at treatment plant: the slurry
must be designed to facilitate its treatment,
Tunnelling slurry fulfils several roles. These i.e. separation of slurry from the muck it
are principally groundwater control and sup- conveys.
port of the excavated surfaces. Other secon-
dary roles must also be taken into account.
τ • Environmental inertness: water, muck, and
They are dealt with in Section 2.3. residual slurry must be acceptable in terms of
environmental regulations.
In the simplest cases, only the function of
slurry removal is required (hydraulic muc-
king). Plain water (with no additives) can fulfil
this purpose effectively.
In the majority of cases, however, the condi-
tions under which slurries are used are less
favourable and are associated with a combi-
nation of:
• the presence of unstable ground ➀ Initial state
• moderate to high in-situ permeability ➁ Characteristic curve of ground (C, ϕ)
• high ground water pressure, which aggra- ③ Case of excavation without confinement (unstable)
vates the above two difficulties. ➃ Critical circle corresponding to minimum confinement pressure ensuring stability (without
A slurry consisting of water, bentonite, and safety margin and without water pressure)
possibly some special additives must then be τ Shear stress
designed to overcome these difficulties.
σ Normal stress
2.2 – PRIMARY FUNCTIONS σh Horizontal normal stress
OF SLURRY σv Vertical normal stress
σc Stress resulting from confinement pressure (without hydrostatic pressure)
The fundamental function of tunnelling slurry

• 166 •
3 - BASIC PRINCIPLES • Impregnation cake: in moderately to required for tunnel support. A trade-off must
highly permeable ground of varying porosity, therefore be found to meet the opposing
FOR USING SLURRY the slurry penetrates relatively deeply into requirements of ground support and solids
the pores in the ground before it stops and separation.
3.1 – CONFINEMENT sets. It is this impregnation that constitutes
FUNCTION The basic operation of a slurry separation
the impermeable interface. This zone can
and treatment plant is described in
vary between several tens of centimetres and
Appendix 6.
3.1.1 – General several metres thick.
3.4 – CHANGES TO SLURRY
Slurry penetrates the ground at the face and 3.1.5 – Speed of cake formation
DURING EXCAVATION
along the tunnel walls (especially in the case
of overcutting). As commented above in § 3.1.2, the filter
cake at the tunnel face is partially or totally A variety of external contaminates blend into
In accordance with the permeability of the destroyed with each sweep of a cutting tool, the slurry as excavation proceeds, and can
ground and its intrinsic properties, the but re-forms behind it immediately. modify its initial characteristics.
slurry’s penetration into the ground will gra-
dually slow down, then stop, as a result of Rheograms (cf. Section 4.1) show that the 3.4.1 – Physical contamination of
two interdependent, simultaneous pro- yield point of the slurry after agitation is slurry by solid load
lower than its initial value.
cesses: filtration (pressure filtration) and an
increase in the stiffness of the slurry. It therefore takes some time period before Slurry treatment plants cannot filter out the
the slurry returns to its initial consistency. finest soil particles. The concentration of
3.1.2 – Filtration This time should be as short as possible in external contaminates particles in the recy-
order to reinstate watertightness to its full cled slurry therefore increases with continued
The pressure in the cutterhead chamber value. It is characterized by the “0-10 min. use of the slurry and the density of the slurry
forces the slurry through the soil at the tunnel gel strength” test (cf. § 4.1.5). gradually increases, generally to the detri-
face and walls and into the ground. As it per- ment of its properties (yield point, filtrate,
meates the ground, the liquid and solid com- 3.2 – TRANSPORT etc.) (cf. § 4.2).
ponents of the slurry are separated, gra- FUNCTION It then becomes necessary to regenerate the
dually leaving the solids at or near the slurry by adding fresh slurry.
surface, The apparent viscosity of the slurry (cf. 4.1.2)
must be as low as possible for the hydraulic
The filtered solids themselves enhance the 3.4.2 – Chemical contamination of
mucking system. One of the properties of
filtering process until the barrier is imper- slurry
Bingham fluids is that above the yield point,
meable. When the face is excavated, the
the apparent viscosity decreases with increa- Minerals or pollutants in the soil and/or
filter is partially or totally destroyed by each
sed agitation. Sufficiently intense agitation is groundwater can also modify the characteris-
cutting tool, but the process resumes imme-
obtained by creating a turbulent flow regime tics of the slurry. They should therefore be
diately once the tool has passed.
in the slurry pipes. taken into account when the slurry compo-
This continuing process results in creation of
nents are chosen (cf. section 4.3).
a filter cake of varying thickness, depending 3.3 – SEPARATION
on the permeability of the ground and the FUNCTION Attention should also be paid to the possibi-
characteristics of the slurry. lity of contamination of the slurry by cement
Use of slurry to excavate and support a tunnel and other chemical products (silicates etc.)
3.1.3 – Stiffening of slurry and to remove excavation spoil necessarily used for ground improvement prior to tunnel
implies that the slurry is treated in order to: excavation.
The filtration effect of slurry penetrating into
the ground immediately reduces the velocity • separate solid spoil from the slurry so that
of slurry flow into the ground. the slurry can be recycled into the mucking
circuit 4 – BASIC PROPERTIES OF
Bentonite slurry is a non Newtonian (ref.
• separate in excess slurry as new slurry is SLURRY AND THEIR MEASU-
chapter 4). Therefore, as a consequence of
its reduction in flow velocity, it gradually stif-
added REMENT
fens and “sets”. • treat in excess slurry for disposal. The slurry used for closed face shield TBMs is
Setting is directly linked the conventional The first two of these operations are carried a water-based fluid with a variety of solids
yield point or “yield value” of the slurry. out in real time, and the separation rates are added to form a colloidal suspension. The
governed by the instantaneous penetration solid components are essentially:
3.1.4 – Types of cake rate of the TBM. Slurry in excess can be trea-
• mineral colloids (chiefly bentonite)
ted as a background task, and is governed by
There are two types of cake: the mean advance rate (limited to a certain • organic colloids (chiefly polymers).
• Membrane cake: this is obtained in ground time interval), taking account of shutdowns, There are hundreds of branded products
of low permeability by using a relatively stiff lining erection, etc. throughout the world described as bento-
slurry. The slurry does not penetrate very far The components and physical characteristics nites or polymers. This can lead to conside-
into the ground, and creates only surface of a slurry must take into account this requi- rable confusion, for although they may be
imperrmeabilization of the ground interface. rement for separation. These characteristics similar, they often have very different physico-
It will be several millimetres thick. may be inconsistent with the characteristics chemical, rehological, or filtration properties.

• 167 •
4.1 – RHEOLOGICAL Apparent viscosity is the relationship between 4.1.3 – Plastic viscosity (PV)
PROPERTIES the shear stress and the velocity gradient.
Consequently it is not a constant quantity: Plastic viscosity concerns non-Newtonian
fluids and characterizes Bingham fluids. It
4.1.1 - Introduction corresponds to the gradient of the linear part
of the rheogram, as shown
Rheology is the science devoted to the study Newtonian fluid
of deformations and flow of matter under the
effects of internal and external stresses. In
Bingham fluid
rehological terms, tunnelling slurries are defi-
ned by a number of characteristics whose
Apparent viscosity
measurement and verification are of the
greatest importance since they govern:
Shear stress
Apparent viscosity
• stabilization of the tunnel face and control
Shear stress
of ground water
• muck removal
• slurry preparation and treatment perfor- Velocity gradient
mance.
Refer to Appendix 5 (Slurry rheology) for Velocity gradient
more information.
Slurry
4.1.2 – Apparent viscosity (AV)
Slurry
The apparent viscosity of slurry is its “real vis-
cosity”. However, since these kinds of fluids
are non-Newtonian, their viscosity depends Apparent viscosity
on their flow velocity. Their viscosity is high
Shear stress
Apparent viscosity
for low velocities (during filtration into the
Shear stress
ground, in storage tanks), but conversely, is
low for high velocities (in muck pipes, in
hydrocyclones), as can be seen from the fol-
lowing graphs:
Velocity gradient
Viscosity-velocity gradient graphs are not
often used. Since viscosity is determined by Velocity gradient
the shear
Viscosity-velocity gradient graphs are not Rheogram: solid lines
In the case of tunnelling slurries, the plastic
often used. Since viscosity is determined by Apparent viscosity: dotted lines viscosity is deemed to be constant, as a first
the shear forces at play between layers of
Apparent viscosity is expressed in mPa◊s approximation. It is determined by extrapo-
liquid, it has become customary to use a gra-
these days, and formerly in centipoise (cP). lating the linear part of the rheogram (as
phic representation of the shear stress ver-
shown above). This physical quantity is
sus velocity gradient; commonly called a 1 mPa.s = 1 cP
important for calculation of pressure losses in
rheogram. Viscosity is no longer explicitly
the slurry pipes. It depends above all on the
discussed.
solids content of the slurry and the nature of
those solids.
Plastic viscosity is also expressed in mPa.s
(or cP).
Newtonian fluid Slurry
4.1.4 – Yield point
The yield point determines the ability of a
Apparent viscosity
slurry to “set” in the ground. When slurry

Apparent viscosity
penetrates into the ground around a tunnel,

since its flow velocity decreases, shear
stresses become insufficient to allow it to
flow further, and it “sets”.
Contrary to a Newtonian fluid, a Bingham
fluid requires a certain minimum shear stress
Velocity gradient Velocity gradient to be able to flow; it behaves like a visco-
elastic fluid. At stresses below this yield

• 168 •
point, and since its viscosity is infinite, it and 10-min. gel strengths (refer to the (cyclone split ratio). Any sand remaining in
behaves like a solid. The actual yield point “Thixotropy” entry in the glossary). the slurry directly affects the permeability of
depends on initial conditions and increases Bentonite has this thixotropic behaviour. the cake and its stability on the ground
with time at rest. In slurry-tunnelling practice, Other commonly used additives such as interface.
the convention is to use a value determined water-soluble polymers contribute other pro-
from the intersection on the rheogram of the perties (viscosity, filtrate reduction, electroly- 4.2.3 - Filterability
straight line obtained with the Fann rheome- tic stability, etc.).
ter and the vertical scale of co-ordinates. Filterability is the ability of a slurry to imper-
The rheogram below illustrates the concepts meabilize the ground interface by forming a
This extrapolation is called the Yield Value described above.
(cf. below). filter cake. It depends on the quality and
quantity of the components making up the
4.2 – PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
slurry.
Filterability is generally inversely related to
Yield value 4.2.1 – Density of slurry slurry density.

Measurement of the density of a desanded
Apparent viscosity
Shear stress
slurry serves chiefly to check the fines 4.2.4 – Quality of cake

content of the slurry being recycled to the Filter cake results from deposition of suspen-
TBM. Monitoring its change can also give ded solid materials on the tunnel face and
Yield point information on the face conditions since: walls as the slurry penetrates into the
• an increase in the clay or marl content of ground. The intrinsic qualities of a cake are
Velocity gradient the slurry during excavation indicates that determined by its thickness and its ability to
solids from the ground are remaining in the deform without breaking. They are represen-
slurry, increasing its density (this can be tative of its stability of the ground interface
beneficial or detrimental to the yield value, and of its resistance to mechanical and
depending on conditions). hydraulic effects induced by excavation.
The yield point of a tunnelling slurry is asso-
ciated with the physico-chemical reactions • a decrease in the clay or marl content not
subsequent to addition of water (dilution)
4.3 – CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
between the active particles of the suspen-
sion. It also depends on the content of such indicates that groundwater is entering the
active particles. However, increasing the den- slurry, or that there is a chemical imbalance 4.3.1 - Presence of electrolytes
sity and viscosity of a slurry by adding inert (action of silicates, for instance, which cause
particles does not necessarily result in an micro-foaming of the slurry). The intentional or unintentional addition of
increase in the yield point; on the contrary, it electrolytes such as Ca++, Mg+, K+, Cl-, and
can lower it appreciably. Tunnelling expe- 4.2.2 – Sand content (particles > SO4- ions (mix water, ground water, mineral
rience shows that since the soil can contain 80 µm) content of the ground, grouted areas, etc.)
both inert particles and active particles (clay), can considerably modify the physical and
The sand content of a slurry depends upon rehological properties of slurry. Exchange of
slurry viscosity can also increase with density
the performance of the separation plant ions modify the initial ionic environment of
in some cases.
Yield point (YP) is generally expressed in
Pascals (Pa) or in pounds per hundred square
feet (lb/ 100 ft 2).
The conversion is 1 Pa = 2.084 lb/100 ft 2.
4.1.5 – Thixotropy and gels

An interesting property of some fluids or col-
loidal suspensions such as bentonite slurries
is that at rest they create a structure which
increases the stiffness of the fluid, but which
can be destroyed by agitation. “Thixotropy”
refers to the reversibility of this phenome-
non. The process creating the structure is not
immediate, however. As stated in paragraph
3.1.5, the effective yield point changes with
the slurry’s time at rest, which allows for gra-
dual restructuring of the slurry.
Any increase in the stiffness of the slurry is
assessed by measuring gel formation times.
In practice, thixotropy represents the ability
of the slurry to reform a cake behind the cut-
ting tools more or less quickly. It is quantified
in the laboratory by measuring the 10-sec.

• 169 •
the clay-layers and can produce coagulation ❑ Testing chemical properties the thickness of the cake. It will sometimes
and flocculation of the suspension. These ➘ pH: indicator strips, pH meter limit hydration of geological strata contai-
ions modify ion balances, resulting in phase ning clay or evaporite.
separation due to liberation of free-water ➘ Conductivity: conductivity meter
❸ Density
molecules initially attached to clay platelets ➘ Specific surface (“activity”): methylene
or polymer chains: this results in flocculation. blue value The density of a tunnelling slurry depends on
Special attention must be paid to the chemi- its components, on physical contamination
➘ electrolyte content by fines from the ground that are recycled
cal composition of water (lime-bearing water,
sea water, etc.) throughout the excavation through the slurry circuit, and on regenera-
5.2 - PROCEDURES tion by fresh slurry and additives.
process.
Most slurry tests required already have stan- It has an effect on viscosity and therefore on
4.3.2 – pH variation dardized test procedures, principally develo- pressure losses in the slurry circuit.
ped by the oil industry (cf. American
A change to the pH of the slurry also affects The thickness and permeability of the cake
Petroleum Institute: section 13),
its ion balances and physico-chemical pro- increase with greater density, which is there-
("Recommended Practice Standard
perties. Beyond a pH range from 8 to 10, fore detrimental to the resistance of mem-
Procedure for Field Testing Water Based
there is a significant risk of poor slurry perfor- branes and the impermeability of the tunnel
Drilling Fluids"), and also the ISO 13500 stan-
mance in both acid environments (in contact walls.
dard. Other test equipment has its own spe-
with organic matter, for instance) and in basic cific test method pertaining to applications in ❹ Other characteristics:
environments (in contact with cement, for other fields.
instance). Other characteristics (pH, polymer or soluble
The methylene blue value is obtained using a salt types and contents, etc.) have to be iden-
standardized test tified for better characterization of a slurry
(French standard NF P18-592). and to meet environmental requirements:
5 - MATERIELS AND • ground/slurry interaction during excavation
PROCEDURES FOR (contaminated sites and grouted areas)
MEASURING SLURRY 6 - CHOICE OF MAIN • recycling in the slurry circuit,
QUALITY SLURRY CHARACTERISTICS • disposal of liquid waste.
5.1 – TEST EQUIPMENT 6.1 - PROPERTIES For guidance, Appendix 4 gives a table sho-
wing representative values for slurry parame-
Many types of equipment can be used for When tunnelling using a closed face slurry ters for different ground permeabilities.
measuring the different physical, chemical, shield TBM, the main characteristics of the
and rehological parameters of slurries. We slurry must be determined in accordance 6.2 – GUIDING THE CHOICE
have selected only the following equipment with:
for continuous measurement.
OF SLURRY TYPE
• the type of ground to be excavated,
❑ Testing rehological properties: measure- • the possible presence of a groundwater, The number of parameters to be taken into
ment of AV, PV, YP, gels together with its chemical properties, account when choosing a slurry type is so
➘ Marsh funnel viscometer (not very mea- great that these Recommendations cannot
• the risks identified (geological, environ- define an exhaustive, “ready-made” proce-
ningful in this field) mental hazards, etc.). dure. Further difficulty arises in the case of
➘ Fann rheometer Among the most important criteria for defi- mixed faces (relative to variation in geology
➘ Possibly, a rheometer with imposed velo- ning a slurry are the following: over short distances).
city gradient (Rhéomat or similar) ➊ Rehological parameters, essentially yield For guidance and training, an elementary
point (YP) and plastic viscosity (PV) classification of ground types on the basis of
- It should be pointed out that many automa- From the yield point and plastic viscosity can their permeability is given below, with sug-
tic viscometers found on tunnelling projects be defined: gestions for the appropriate slurry types:
are derived from the geometry of the Fann • the conditions of impregnation of the ➊ Highly permeable ground with granular or
rheometer and can thus be used to deter- ground interface (formation of cake), intensely fractured structure.
mine the characteristic rehological parame- Solution: bentonite slurry with rheology sui-
• the conditions of fluid flow and solid sepa-
ters of slurry on a “quasi-continuous” basis table for high porosity; in particular, appro-
ration in the slurry circuit and treatment
by measuring values at 600 and 300 rpm. priate yield value, 0/10-min. gel strengths,
plant,
❑ Testing physical properties filtrate.
Methods for calculating these parameters
➘ Density: Baroid mud balance, densimeter are presented in Appendix 3. ❷ Silty to sandy semi-permeable ground.
➘ Sand content kit (sieve analysis apparatus) ❷ Filtration properties Solution: bentonite slurry (pure or with addi-
➘ Filtration and cake: API fluid-loss-test filter Filtration properties govern cake formation. tive) with low filtrate and suitable rheology
press and, for a more realistic approach to The cake must be sufficiently impermeable, (as per above).
interface problems, a large permeameter (cf. strong and flexible (deformable) to guaran- ❸ Impermeable ground with no particular
Appendix 7). tee there will be a pressure gradient across reactivity or sensitivity to water.

• 170 •
Solution: water or bentonite slurry and/or - water-soluble polymers (cf. Appendix 2) throughout the world described as bento-
polymer. - special organic products (defoaming nites or polymers. This can lead to conside-
❹ Impermeable, reactive ground. agents, antifriction agents, etc.). rable confusion, for although they may be
similar, they often have very different phy-
To find the right type, it is necessary to: • Chemical additives: sico-chemical, rehological, or filtration pro-
• have perfect knowledge of the mineralogi- • Various chemical additives such as KCl, perties.
cal composition of the ground, sodium carbonate, sodium polyphosphate, The choice of the polymers or bentonites to
• analyze the physical and chemical interac- etc. for modifying the initial properties of be used will depend on economic considera-
tions of the associated minerals and organic clayey colloids by ion exchange. tions, the specific performance of each pro-
matter. ❹ Groundwater and solids from the ground. duct, the circumstances in which it will be
This makes it possible to quickly define the used, and the following requisite functions:
Active clays and additives are chosen in
best system for inhibiting hydration of clay accordance with the effect desired: • Viscosity level,
and therefore limiting the problems entailed

in swelling, dispersion, and sticking. • Viscosity improvers and filtrate reducers: • Sensitivity to salts, to pH, to bacterial or
bentonites, cellulosic polymers, acrylate enzymatic degradation,
The following cases can arise: polymers / acrylamides. • Capacity to stabilize clays,
• Ground with high dispersion potential
• Dispersing agent and plasticizers: low- • Decrease of filtrate,
(containing illite or kaolinite, for instance):
molecular-weight sodium-acrylate polymers,
Materials dispersing in the slurry rapidly and phosphates. • Length of use,
in large quantities. • Ease of use,
• Clay stabilizers: cellulosic polymers and
Solution: bentonite slurry and/or polymer acrylate polymers / acrylamides of high • etc.
(phpa, CMC, acrylic plasticizer or phos- molecular weight, salts.
phates, etc.) In addition to the specific test methodolo-
• pH corrector: sodium carbonate and bicar- gies of each contractor, there is a standardi-
• Swelling or flowing ground (smectite, bonate
fibrous clay, for instance): zed method for testing the efficacy of certain
It is important to realize that the way the additives in different types of slurry:
Materials very sensitive to hydration by slurry, “Recommended Practice Standard
slurry is prepared (order of addition of com-
or of plastic consistency.
ponents, thoroughness of mixing, etc.) Procedure for Laboratory Testing Drilling
Solution: inhibited polymer slurry, KCl, Ca++ affects the performance of the components Fluids - API RP 13I”.
type, etc. in the resulting mix. Any undesirable effects It should be remembered that adding bento-
• Overconsolidated ground (shale, argillite, of the components should also be taken into nite or polymer to a tunnelling slurry often
for instance): account. These might include, for example, has a dual effect:
Materials whose structure is often foliated, foaming or micro-bubbling of detergent-
type surface-active agents. • a principal effect: increased viscosity, redu-
making the ground mass somewhat fragile. ced filtrate, etc.
Solution: bentonite slurry with little filtrate Tunnelling slurries are complex products with
a range of common properties that are highly • one or more secondary effects: inhibition of
and appropriate rehological parameters.
sensitive to external factors. Mix-design tes- swelling or dispersion of clays, increased vis-
• Ground containing evaporites (gypsum or cosity, etc.
ting must be carried out, for their properties
anhydrite, various salts, etc.:)
are generally not very “reproducible” and
Solution: water, bentonite slurry and/or poly- depend on geological and hydrogeological
mer slurry treated with sodium carbonate; in
some cases a Ca++ salt slurry can be used.
conditions. 8 – TREATMENT OF EXCESS
In most cases it is recommended that a spe- SLURRY (SEE APPENDIX 6)
cial programme for studies into tunnelling
slurries be carried out in order to allow the To be comprehensive, the selection of a
7 – COMPONENTS OF mix-design is defined. This programme slurry system should consider the full life-
SLURRY should be validated and, as necessary, cor- cycle of the slurry. This will cover its manufac-
rected during the works, in connection with ture, its maintenance in accordance with the
7.1 – COMPOSITION ongoing technical management of the expected physical or chemical contamina-
slurry. A procedure for this is proposed in tion, and its disposal. It is sometimes possible
Tunnelling slurry is made up of components to give an economic value to in excess slurry:
Chapter 9.
of four different categories: mortars or grouts for ground improvement
➊ Mix water: 7.2 – CHOICE OF or tunnel backgrouting, agricultural fertili-
• The quality and temperature of the mix COMPONENTS zers, ground impermeabilization, etc.
water have a significant effect on the proper- In general terms, disposing of or treating in
ties of the components. Tunnelling slurries are generally colloidal sus- excess slurry involves considerable cost for a
pensions containing two types of colloids: project; Attention should therefore paid to:
❷ Active (mostly) bentonite type clays.
• Mineral colloids (chiefly bentonite), • Taking account of the difficulties when stu-
❸ Organic and chemical additives:
• Organic colloids (chiefly polymers). dying the choice of slurry,
• Organic additives are divided into two
categories: There are hundreds of branded products • Minimizing the volume to be wasted

• 171 •
• Limiting the cost of treatment to the exact be required. The geological report should 9.3 – TESTING IMPLEMENTA-
need, specify the physical, chemical, and mineralo- TION AND FOLLOW-UP
• Making provision for the site footprints gical nature of the ground and ground water
necessary for treatment plant in the project that will be encountered, including any parti- Tests should be carried out to establish a sys-
planning stage. cular or localized features. It is also useful to tem for checking the required instructions
include on a longitudinal geological profile and specifications. These tests will concern:
Slurries are stable colloidal suspensions
the prior ground improvement carried out, • Slurry types and components,
of particles that do not easily settle out
with indication of the products used. The
naturally. • Requisite characteristics. The checks are
profile should specify and demarcate the
It is generally necessary to use physico-che- succession of different formations. This data carried out by means of standardized tests
mical treatments to flocculate them and cla- will serve to identify the sequence of diffe- and/or other measuring systems (e.g. real-
rify the water extracted from them. time logging system).
rent slurries best adapted to the individual
A variety of standard tests should be perfor- circumstances. • Treatment of waste.

med beforehand to optimize the quality of The schedule should also integrate other
treatment required prior to industrial-scale 9.3.1 – Documentary system and
conditions concerning the project, particu-
testing. checks
larly the landtake likely to be required for the
slurry separation and treatment plant. The checks should be described in proce-
dures specific to each project:
9 – SLURRY SCHEDULE 9.2.3 - Plant
• Checks of incoming products delivered to
The correct choice and definition of plant the site (quantity and quality); the delivery
9.1 - OBJECTIVES checks will be associated with sampling, as
(TBM and treatment plant) are vital for the
success of a project. required.
The slurry schedule is a document serving to
guide the determination of slurry types and • The slurry schedule should address the • Ongoing checks should be carried out for
of means of testing them to ensure they compatibility of plant, ground, and spoil. It at least every lining ring, and should com-
meet the technical and economic require- pare the values at the start of the circuit and
should consider the possibility of frequent
ments of the project. Its purpose is to pro- after desanding in order to quantify the phy-
water inflow which would modify the initial
pose the system that best meets the require- sical and chemical contamination of the
slurry concentrations. It should contain consi-
ments.From natural slurry to the most slurry.
derations relating to hyperbaric work in the
complex chemical formulations, there are • Consumption of different products (water,
enormous numbers of possibilities which cutterhead chamber.
bentonite, additives, etc.) should be monito-
should, in principle, provide a solution per- By considering these factors and the expec- red daily.
fectly suited to every project. ted TBM advance rates, the slurry prepara-
tion and treatment plant capacity should be The results of these checks should be recor-
9.2 - PREPARATION correctly sized. ded on standardized project data sheets
(Appendix 8).
In addition to what is presented in the prece- 9.2.4 – Quality of components For formalization of this data, the documen-
ding chapters, the slurry schedule should
(water, additives) tary system will therefore comprise at least:
include a detailed study of what follows.
• a set of procedures,
The specifications drawn up the suppliers of
9.2.1 – Regulatory considerations: bentonite and additives should define the • a shift report (or daily report) serving to
environment / health and safety means of delivery, the necessary reserve sup- draw up a report on the follow-up of effec-
plies, and the quantities of consumables tive parameters and consumptions.
In France, the use, storage, and disposal of
spoil and slurry are governed by Law No. 92- (water, main additives). • an executive report at the end of the
3 of 3/1/92 on water and waste. The Law project.
demands that potential users carefully study 9.2.5 – Consumption estimate
their project in respect of slurry and spoil 9.3.2 – Personnel
Using the factors described above, it will be
starting at the beginning of the project.
possible to estimate the quantities required Consideration must be given to the technical
Together with equipment for treating waste,
the slurry schedule should result in a reduc- and the cost price of the different solutions qualification of the personnel, and where
tion in the volume of waste to be dumped considered (total cost, per cubic metre of necessary the needs for special training on
and in optimization of the environmental slurry, per cubic metre of excavation). the techniques involved should be defined.
quality of that waste. The quantities of different materials expec- The workforce and supervisors must have
ted to be consumed are estimated by consi- sufficient knowledge to be at ease with:
9.2.2 – Site conditions: project geo- dering the following volumes: • technical aspects of tunnelling slurries and
metry, geology, geotechnics, and their treatment,
landtake • Volume of purges of the slurry circuit,
• Volume lost to the surrounding ground, • the effect of these aspects on the environ-
The slurry schedule should consider the geo- ment and health and safety (manufacturers
metry, geology, and environment of the pro- • Volume lost with solid spoil, issue technical and safety data together with
ject, and any ground improvement that may • Volume of in excess slurry. advisory notices on use of their products).

• 172 •
10 – USING SLURRY 10.2 – MANUFACTURE must therefore have equipment specifically

for these operations.
Usually, “mother” slurries with high bento-
10.1 – RECEPTION OF BASIC nite contents (60 to 80 kg/m3) are produced
Bentonite does not hydrate easily and the
efficiency of and thoroughness hydration
PRODUCTS in order to reduce the volumes to be stored.
depends very much on the mixing energy
This mother slurry is subsequently diluted
expended. It requires a high-turbulence
Bentonite is a natural product. If necessary, with water to achieve the required density
mixer followed by a minimum period of
its rheological characteristics should be chec- just before it is injected into the slurry circuit.
maturing (12 to 24 hours).
ked when it is delivered to the site. This dilution and injection must be carried
out very carefully, particularly as regards Incorporation of additives also requires spe-
The quality of the mixing water used should compliance with the concentrations and qua- cial equipment for storage, handling, dilution
be analyzed at the basic formulation stage. lity of the mix. The slurry treatment station (where applicable), and batching.
A P P E N D I X 1 : G L O S S A RY
• Activity of clay: The activity of clay is repre- used to determine the values of different • Plastic viscosity (PV): See Article 4.1.3.
sentative of ion charge that gives it the ability rehological parameters (apparent viscosity, With the Fann rheometer, plastic viscosity is
to swell due to adsorption. plastic viscosity, yield point) calculated by testing at 600 rpm and redu-
• Adsorption: Fixing of water molecules on • Filter press: A filter press consists of a cing from the reading the reading taken at
the surface of elementary soil particles (clay series of hollow trays clamped between a 300 rpm. , The unit of measurement is the
platelet for example). mobile plate and a fixed plate by a hydraulic millipascal second (1 millipascal second =
cylinder. The edges of the chambers thus 1 centipoise (former unit)).
• Apparent viscosity (AV): Ratio of the shear
stress to the velocity gradient. The unit of created are covered with filter cloth. Slurry is • Polymers: See Appendix 2, Chapter 2.
measurement is the pascal second (or milli- pumped into the chambers, generally from • Rheogram: Graphic representation of the
pascal second). With the Fann rheometer, it the centre of the trays, and the filtrate is col- behaviour of a fluid subject to shear. Shear
is calculated by testing at 600 rpm and divi- lected in a channel at the side. stress is plotted against the velocity gradient.
ding the result by 2. The unit of measure- • Filtrate test: Laboratory test characterizing • Rheology: Branch of mechanics which stu-
ment is the millipascal second (1 millipascal the ability of a slurry to retain water. Filtrate dies the deformation of materials or their
second = 1 centipoise (former unit)). measurement is expressed as the quantity of flow under stress (see Appendix 5).
• Bentonite: Cf. Appendix 2, Chapter 3. fluid collected in a test tube after 30 minutes
at a pressure of 7 bars exerted by an appara- • Shear stress: Force exerted on a surface by
• Bingham fluid: Fluid requiring exertion of a a fluid and causing shear (refer also to
tus known as the filter press. The unit of mea-
minimum stress to set it in movement. The Appendix 5, Chapter 3).
surement is the millilitre. All things being
Yield Value determines the value of that
equal, the volume of filtrate is proportional • Slurry: Also known as drilling mud/fluid.
stress.
to the area of filtration, to the pressure, and Colloidal clay suspension, with or without
• Cake: In laboratory testing, the thickness of to the square root of the test duration. water-soluble polymers and/or salts to
a layer of solid materials deposited on filter enhance its original characteristics, that has
• Flocculants: Products with inter-particle
paper in the filtrate measurement test (filter- desirable rehological and filtration properties
action due to bridging. They include high-
cake); the unit is the millimetre. For the mea- and possibly the ability to stabilize ground to
molecular-weight polymers, bentonite, etc.
ning in the context of excavation, refer to the be excavated.
definitions in Chapters 3.1.2 and 3.1.4 . • Fluid: See Appendix 5, Chapter 3.
• Stiffness: See Article 4.1.4.
• Coagulants: Products that neutralize or • Gradient or velocity (or shear velocity):
See Appendix 5, Chapter 3. • Thixotropy: Reversible phenomenon of
invert surface charges of suspended matter:
certain colloidal suspensions whereby they
ferric chloride, lime, aluminium sulphate, etc. • Marsh viscosity (MV): Laboratory test
fluidify when agitated and gel when left to
• Density: Ratio of the mass of a given where the time in seconds for 946 ml of slurry
to flow through a 4.75 mm nozzle rest. Thixotropy can be estimated from the
volume of one body to the mass of the same evolution of gelling over time. With the Fann
volume of a reference body, under condi- (water = 26s). The reading obtained depends
on YP, PV, thixotropy, and density. rheometer, gels are measured by testing at
tions which must be specified for both no more than 3 rpm after a waiting period of
bodies (water at 4°C for liquids). It is expres- Consquently this measurement is hardly
representative of the characteristics of a 10 sec. (gel 0) and 10 min. (gel 10). The unit
sed as a dimensionless number. of measurement is lbs / 100ft
slurry.
• Fann rheometer: A.P.I standardized appa- • Yield point: See Article 4.1.4.
ratus for applying shear to a fluid by means • Newtonian fluid: Fluid for which the shear
of an immersed cylinder rotating at a control- stress is directly proportional to the shear • Yield value (YV): An extrapolated yield-
led speed and for determining the response rate. point value (see Article 4.1.4) derived from a
of the fluid by measuring the stress applied • pH: Expresses the acidity or alkalinity of an Fann rheometer test. Calculated by testing
to a concentric cylinder left free to turn. The aqueous solution. The pH value of pure at 300 rpm and deducting from the reading
preset speed of rotation are 3, 6, 100, 200, water is 7. The products used in tunnelling the reading for the plastic viscosity, PV. The
300, and 600 rpm. Stress is read off in slurry achieve their optimum yield when the unit of measurement is the lb/100 Square
lbs/100 Square feet. Simple calculation colloidal state of the slurry is in the pH range feet. To convert to Pa, divide by 2.
methods enable the data obtained to be from 8 to 10. • Yield point (YP): See Yield value

• 173 •
APPENDIX 2:
P O LY M E R S A N D B E N T O N I T E S F O R T U N N E L L I N G S L U R R I E S
This appendix presents the main types of polymers used for underground works.
1- GENERAL • They consist of amylose and amylopectin. • Their degree of purity, i.e. their active-mat-
• They are hydrolyzed by heat to increase ter content: the other products they contain
Polymer: chemical compound obtained by are salts, which are by-products of the reac-
their water solubility.
polymerizing molecules of a given com- tion (degree of purity = 50 to 99%).
pound known as a monomer. • They are sensitive to fermentation and are
Cellulose ethers are not stable under bacte-
not greatly used other than as slurry filtrate

Polymers often have high molecular weights rial or enzyme attack.
(high polymers) and are formed by chains reducers.
repeating: • Etherification gives them a better level of 2.5 - POLYACRYLAMIDES
➬ the same unit: viscosity.
Polyacrylamides are derivative of acrylamide.
-A-A-A-A-A 2.2 - GUAR GUM A whole series of derivatives has been prepa-
➬ or several units: red from the basic structure by copolymerisa-
Guar gum is an extract of the guar seed. It is tion:
(-A-B-A-B-A-B)n often referred to as a natural polymer or
➬ or linear units with branches: polysaccharide and is used as a viscosity • Either with acid compounds like acrylic
improver. Being non-ionic, it exhibits good acid, giving anionic copolymers: phpa.
B-B
tolerance to mono-valent salts such as NaCl, • Or with amine-type compounds, giving
| KCl, etc. or divalent salts like CaCl2, etc. cationic copolymers.
(-A-B-A-B-A-A-B-A-B)n However, it is sensitive to bacterial attack, to
They are anionic, non-ionic, or cationic long-
enzymes, to oxidation, and to high pH
| chain, purely synthetic high polymers. They
values. It is difficult to screen. It can be cross-
A linked to form a stiff jelly by creating bridges remain stable under bacterial or enzyme
between the different polymer chains. attack but are sensitive to high shear rates.
The degree of polymerization ( n ) refers to They are used as viscosity improvers and as
the number of repetitions of the basic unit. flocculants, possibly in association with a
The molecular weight - which depends on 2.3 - XANTHAN
coagulant to stabilize clay. The basic unit is
the degree of polymerisation, the degree of
Xanthan is obtained from bacterial fermenta- repeated a very large number of times and
substitution, and the distribution of substitu-
tion of sugar by-products. It is often referred has undergone more or less thorough hydro-
tion govern the physical and chemical pro-
to as a bipolymer, and is used as a viscosity lysis, which results in a broad variety of pro-
perties of a polymer, Organic polymers,
improver. Its pseudo-plastic nature—high vis- ducts with varied characteristics regarding:
which are the most common products on the
market, can be pure or mixed with each cosity at low shear rates and low viscosity at • Viscosity,
other or with inorganic products such as clay, high shear rates—is sought after in slurries
with low bentonite contents. Despite its anio- • Adsorption on clay,
salts, carbonates, etc.
nic nature, it exhibits good resistance to salts. • Flow resistance,
• Sensitivity to salts.
2.4 – CELLULOSE ETHERS
2 - TYPES OF POLYMERS
2.6 - POLYACRYLATES
USED IN TUNNELLING Cellulose ethers are extracted from cellulose.
SLURRY Depending on the derivation process, they
Anionic low-molecular-weight synthetic poly-
may be anionic (CMC, PAC) or non-ionic
mers used as plasticizers and dispersing
There are four types of water-soluble poly- (HEC). CMCs are widely used as viscosity
agents.
mers: improvers and filtrate reducers.
There are other varieties with higher molecu-
• Bacterial polymers: xanthan, scleroglucane CMCs are characterized by:
lar weights which are used as filtrate reducers
• Natural polymers: starches, guars • Their molecular weight: The higher their or bentonite dopes.
• Synthetic polymers: acrylamides, acrylates molecular weight, the more viscous the
aqueous solutions made with them will be.
• Semi-synthetic polymers: cellulose ethers,
modified starches and guars • Their degree of substitution (or the number 3 - BENTONITE
of carboxyl groups attached to the molecule
2.1 – STARCHES AND AMYLASE (DS= 0.7 – 1.2 ): This characteristic gives The gross percentage breakdown of
DERIVATIVES CMCs solubility and resistance to salts. If Montmorillonite is the same as that of alumi-
substitution is more regular, as in the case of nium silicate and hydrated magnesia, like
There are various natural starches: potato, PACs, clay stabilization is increased by redu- many natural silicates, but its exceptional
corn, wheat, rice starch, etc. and they have cing the clay hydration and, consequently, properties are due to a special molecular
characteristics as follows: their dispersion and swelling. structure that is characterized as follows.

• 174 •
3.1 - STRUCTURE OF the platelets. In an aqueous medium, water • behaviour under heat (up to 1000°C),
BENTONITE molecules attach between the plates, cau- • possible presence of electrolytes (stabili-
sing them to move apart, causing intra-struc- zing or flocculating action).
The elementary Montmorillonite platelet tural swelling of the bentonite. The space
between layers becomes the seat of cation The properties of a bentonite also depend
consists of two tetrahedral layers of Si4+ on
exchange. Some important properties of on the physical state it is in. It can be solid,
either side of a third octahedral layer whose
bentonites depend closely on the type and semi-solid, plastic, semi-liquid, or liquid,
centre is occupied by a cation such at Al3+.
number of cations exchanged: swelling, vis- depending on the proportions of bentonite
The three layers comprise an elementary pla-
cosity of suspensions, plasticity, Atterberg and water. The essential properties of bento-
telet about 10 Å thick. The smallest volume
nite as a slurry component in tunnelling are
with all the characteristics of crystal is a sand- limits, and some other characteristics of
as follows:
wich of two layers of these elementary plate- interest for foundry work. The type of
lets. In practical terms, bentonite always exchangeable cations provides a basis for • adsorbant properties,
takes the form of primary particles of about classifying natural bentonites into two cate-
• binding, agglomerating, and adhesive pro-

ten platelets or micro-aggregate or agglo- gories: perties,
merations of several hundred platelets. • Natural calcium bentonites: • rhelogical properties (colloidal suspen-
These are the finest particles of a bentonite
In which the exchangeable cations are gene- sions),
well dispersed in water. They are microscopic
in dimension (0.1 to 2 ùm). rally Ca++ and Mg++ cations in varying propor- • clogging properties (colloidal suspensions).
tions.
During the alteration of igneous rocks (peg- 3.3 - BENTONITE FOR
matites, diorites, rhyolites, ash), a series of • Natural sodium bentonites:
UNDERGROUND WORKS
cation migrations have resulted in substitu- In which the exchangeable cations are mostly
tion of Si by Al, for example, in the tetrahe- Na+ (70-80%) cations, with approximately 20 Depending on the intended use (deep or
dral layers and of Al by Mg-Fe-Li cations, to 30% Ca++ and Mg++ cations. shallow drilling, special foundations, bento-
etc., in the octrahedral layers. Substitution of nite/cement grout, tunnelling, or ground
cations of lower valence creates excess nega- 3.2 - BENTONITE impermeabilization), bentonite producers
tive charges in the platelet. This excess is PROPERTIES propose a variety of different products adap-
compensated by cations between platelets ted to each application. The performance of
(Na+, Ca2+ for instance). These cations are the The properties of a bentonite depend on all these products depends on their origin and
source of the capability for cation exchange, the mineralogical characteristics referred to the treatment the raw material may have
an essential characteristic of bentonites (CE above, in short: been given in the plant: activation (sodium
expressed in milliequivalents of cation per carbonate or other salts for calcium bento-
• the type and variety of Montmorillonite,
100 g of bentonite calcined at 1000° C). nites), drying, crushing, addition of mineral
Since these substitutions, the numbers of • the purity of the raw bentonite or organic dopes (CMC, acrylate/acrylamide,
which are highly variable, occur in very (% Montmorillonite), etc.). The requisite tests should be carried
haphazard fashion and allow a great many • the size of colloidal hydrated particles (1-2 µm), out in order to select the products that best
possible combinations, it is easy to imagine meet the characteristics required by the
the very large variety of bentonites that can • the specific surface of the particles (expres-
slurry schedule. In this respect, particularly
exist. sed in m2/g),
close attention should be paid to bento-
The exchangeable cations attached to the • the cation-exchange capacity, nite/polymer interaction, stability over time,
available negative charges are located in the • the type of exchangeable cations (alkaline – etc.
spaced between the layers and in breaks in alkaline earth),

• 175 •
APPENDIX 3:
P R I N C I P L E F O R E VA L U AT I O N O F T H E R H E O L O G I C A L
CHARACTERISTICS OF TUNNELLING SLURRIES
The principle of ground support using slurry required to ensure stability can be be calcula- where K is the horizontal permeability of the
pressure relies on the possibility of mobili- ted from the relationship: in situ soil, and A is an adimensional coeffi-
zing a pressure in a liquid against a soil sub- ϕ cient between 5 and 10 which in theory
ject to a state of stress, be it saturated or not. f = (1 – n ) (γg – γs ) sin (α – ) increases with the degree of scatter of soil
sinϕ
Soil is a porous medium through, which a pore diameters and decreases with gradual
clogging of the ground by slurry.
liquid whose rheological characteristics where

match the Bingham model, can flow. Comparison of the two gradients, one requi-
n = porosity of the soil red by the ground and the other provided by
Slurry penetration into soil has been studied γg = density of solid grains
experimentally in the laboratory by a number the slurry penetrating the ground, using the
γs = density of slurry safety factor inherent to uncertainties over
of TBM manufacturers, using large permea-
ters (see Appendix 7). The test set-ups used ϕ = angle of internal friction of the soil the values of the parameters (F ≥ 2), indicates
comprise a cylinder filled with the soil to be α = angle of the free surface to the hori- the yield point τf required for the slurry, in
studied, into which the slurry is made to zontal accordance with ground conditions.
penetrate by a hydrostatic pressure diffe- When the pores are too big, the value of τf
rence. The pressure gradient, the depth of required may be high. Rather than adjust the
penetration, and the flow rate can also be characteristics of the bentonite solution
measured. (higher concentration, additives, etc.), it may
In the extreme case of a ground mass with a be possible to reduce the pore diameter by
very high in-situ permeability, and with a very adding clay or sand fines, for example.
fluid slurry, flow occurs under the effect of Soil saturated with slurry The particles added form a granular mix with
the “hydrodynamic” (over)pressure, until γ - γs = (1 - n ) (γg - γs ) maximum dimension dslurry for which the fol-
such time as this pressure ceases to exist lowing characterization can be proposed:
when the slurry stops penetrating into the d15ground ≤ 5dslurry (filter condition)
ground because of head losses or the yield ∆ρtgϕ.dS > (γ - γ s ). dv or f g s
value of the slurry. According to some authors [2], experience

for α = 90° shows that relations of the type
In these experiments, it has been seen that d15ground ≤ 8dslurry or d20ground = 3dslurry
the volume of ground to be penetrated can The slurry is considered to act like a perfect
be insufficient to stop slurry penetration, and Bingham fluid, establishing a gradient known are acceptable.
that as a result there is permanent flow as the “stagnation gradient” because of its
through the ground, with a certain flow rate. thixotropic properties. This stagnation gra-
This extreme case corresponds to creation of dient, fso, depends on the permeability and REFERENCES
a hydraulic flow regime in a soil as a result of porosity (pore diameters) of the ground. It
has been studied both theoretically and [1] Les boucliers à pression de boue, by J.
a hydrodynamic pressure. The pressure can Ferrand and J. Pera – Annales de l’ITBTP n°
be maintained only if there is the required experimentally:
420 (December 1983)
flow rate (generally high), which, in the 1. Theoretically: a study of the mobilization
medium term, is not good for the support of the flow of a Bingham fluid with a yield [2] Stability of slurry trenches –
function required. point τf in a circular tube of radius R shows Müller–Kirchenbauer – 5th International Soil
that flow in the tube ceases if the hydraulic Mechanics Congress, Madrid 1972, IV-12.
On the other hand, as soon as a “mem-
brane” (polyethylene film, for instance) pre- gradient δp /L proves the relation [3] Nachweis des Sicherheit gegen den
vents “outward” flow, hydrostatic thrust is R = 2τf x[L/δp], yielding a relationship of the Schlitz gefährende Gleitflägen im Boden,
mobilized. This is the mechanism wanted in type: nach DIN 4126 Vornorm. Kilcher (M) and
slurry-pressure support system: ideally, for- 2.τf Karstedt (J).
fso = (τf in Pa)
mation of a film or membrane, or more com- R [4] La prévention des fontis dans les travaux
monly of a clogged zone called the “cake” au tunnelier : des études en temps réel.
that will mobilize all or part of the potential 2. Experimental studies [2,3] have demonstra- P. Aristaghès, F. Berbet, P. Michelon –
hydrostatic thrust. ted a relationship between R and the d10 of Tunnels et Ouvrages Souterrains No. 128,
Such a cake can be the “membrane” or the in situ soil (d10 in mm): March/April 1995.
“impregnation” type (see section 3.1.4). fso = a. τf / d10, with a varying from 0.25 to 2. [5] Imperméabilisation du front de taille par
The stability of the ground supported a = dimensionless coefficient injection de boue bentonitiques préalable-
depends on the stability of the soil particles ment à des interventions hyperbares (BPNL)
3. More recently, theoretical and experimen-
at the ground interface. When the stability of – B. Demay, L. Nicolas – Tunnels et
tal studies [4] have led to a relationship of the
an infinitesimal volume of a non-cohesive soil Ouvrages Souterrains No. 150 – Nov./Dec.
following type being established:
at the edge of the free surface is studied, it is 1998.
demonstrated [1] that the pressure gradient fso =

• 176 •
APPENDIX 4 :
S L U R RY PA R A M E T E R TA B L E
The table below gives orders of magnitude in the form of bracket values for slurry parameters against different permeabilities in homogeneous
ground. These values are merely orders of magnitude for the purposes of illustration.
SOLS TYPES
Parameters Unit Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4
K>1*10-4 m/s 10-4<K<10-7 m/s K<1*10-7 m/s K<1*10-7 m/s

permeable semi-permable impermable neutral impermeable reactive
(alluvium ETC.) (sandy soils, etc.) (chalk, etc.) (clay, etc.)
AV cp 15 - 40 10 - 20 8 - 20
PV cp 5 - 20 5 - 10 5 - 10
YP Pa 8-5 5 - 10 < 15
0/10 gel strengths lbs/100ft 10 - 30 3 - 20 Not applicable
Filtrate ml 20 - 50 15 - 30 Not applicable
Cake (API test) mm 2-6 1-5 1-5
Marsh viscosity s/946 ml 40 - 120 35 - 50 30 - 50
Density 1.02 - 1.15 1.02 - 1.20 1.02 - 1.60 1.02 - 1.30
pH 7 - 10 7 - 10 7 - 10
Sand % 1–5 1-5 1-5
(standardized test methods “Recommended Practice Standard Procedure for Field Testing Water-Based Drilling Fluids API RP 13 B-1, 1 June 90)
APPENDIX 5 :
S L U R RY R H E O L O G Y
1 - DEFINITION OF 2 – RHEOLOGY OF liquid occupies a determined volume which

varies little with external conditions (tempe-
RHEOLOGY TUNNELLING SLURRIES rature, pressure, etc.), a gas always takes up
The rheology of tunnelling slurries can be the greatest volume available to it. In what
Rheology can be defined as the science of follows, the term is used loosely, and any
the flow and deformation of matter. It studies defined by a number of quantities (viscosity,
gel strengths, etc.) whose testing and measu- fluid is taken to be a liquid.
the reactions of all solid or liquid substances Laminar flow:
rement are of great practical importance
to deforming forces and classifies them using since they govern:: Laminar flow is a special kind of hydraulic
precise terms, and in the least complex • Pump ratings flow characterized by conservation of the
cases, serves to draw up empirical equations • Cleaning of the excavation and suspension form of liquid layers during their movement.
taking account of deformation. It thus serves of spoil Reynolds defined a quantity which bears his
• Correct flow velocities. name and which determines the kind of flow
to accurately define properties that we refer
in a pipe (laminar, unstable, or turbulent).
to with vague terms such as “thick”, “thin”,
Viscosity:
“sticky”, “viscous”, etc, but it calls into ques- 3 - DEFINITIONS AND Viscosity is the expression of frictional forces
tion concepts that we feel we know about, TERMINOLOGY between the particles of a fluid; it demons-
such as solid and liquid: when subjected to trates the “imperfection” of its fluidity. It
long-term stress, most “solids” flow and Fluid: must be remembered that viscosity exists
deform. The stained-glass windows of cathe- A fluid is a deformable continuous sub- only in relation to the movement of a fluid.
stance. It has no specific shape. It can flow
drals, which are thicker at the bottom than at and undergo substantial deformation under Velocity gradient (shear gradient):
the top, are one of the most spectacular the effect of even very weak forces. Liquids A liquid flowing under a laminar regime can
examples proving the fluid behaviour of glass. and gases are both fluids, but whereas a be assimilated to a stack of layers sliding

• 177 •
over each other, each driven at its own In practical terms, these very simple theoreti- If:
speed. The velocity gradient between any cal models do not fit tunnelling slurries per- a = 0, the plot is a straight line passing
two layers of a fluid is therefore the quotient fectly. Since they can define a fluid only over through the origin; the fluid is Newtonian,
of the velocity difference between those a limited range of velocity gradients, they
layers divided by the distance between with viscosity h = 1/c (1)
cannot take account of the plastic or visco-
them. The dimensional measurement of the plastic behaviour of tunnelling slurries. a < 0, is meaningless
velocity gradient (sometimes called the shear Consequently other models have been deve- a > 0, the liquid is pseudo-plastic or plastic,
gradient or the shear rate) is the reciprocal of loped. Most of them are based on the basic depending on whether c is positive or negative
a time; it is measured in s-1. models above.
c< 0, in addition to the origin, the plot has
Shear stress: Herschel-Bulkley model: τ = YP + K x G N two further intersections with the vertical
Shear stress is the result of forces of internal This model is a synthesis of the above three scale. There is a yield point. The liquid is plas-
friction opposing the flow of liquid. It models, for, depending on the values of YP, tic and close to being a Bingham fluid (2)
depends on the velocity gradient of the fluid,
K, and N, it can represent them all: c ≥ 0, the liquid is pseudo-plastiqc (3), c = 0

and its evolution in accordance with the velo-
• YP = 0 , N = 1: Newton model (K = η) being a special case where the liquid can be
city gradient characterizes the response of
the material to deforming forces, which the- • YP = 0 , N ≠ 1: Ostwald model considered to be a plastic material whose
• YP > 0 , N = 1: Bingham model (K = PV) yield point has been moved to the origin.
refore defines its components performance.
Shear stress is sometimes referred to as This model gives a better representation of
shear tension; it is always compared to a unit the behaviour of tunnelling slurries and
surface area, making it similar to a pressure, allows for subsequent introduction of notions
and it is therefore expressed in Pa in the of gelling in time (YP = f (t)), which is charac-
System International (S.I). teristic of destructuring/restructuring pheno-
mena.
Steiger-Ory model: G = aτ 3 + cτ
4 – COMPONENTS MODELS
The Steiger-Ory model was developed from
In a laminar regime, the flow of a liquid is assumptions of symmetry and continuity
characterized by a relationship between a (curve through the origin, symmetry of repre-
shear stress and a deformation velocity. sentation). The formula used to draw the
Depending on the type of fluid, this relation- representative rheogram is
ship can take on different forms, the most a mathematical function, G
common of which are as follows: = f (t ), whose terms do not
Newton model: τ = η x G have any real physical Shear stress t
where τ: shear stress significance, but the equa-
G: velocity gradient tion has the advantage of
η: viscosity illustrating the behaviour
of many fluid types:
Bingham model: τ = YP + PV x G
Newtonian, plastic,
where YP: yield point
pseudo-plastic. We shall
PV: plastic viscosity
restrict ourselves here to
Ostwald model: τ = K x G N giving the empirical
where K: consistency index Steiger-Ory formula and to Velocity gradient
N: rehological performance index presenting different
Representative rheograms of these three variants for different values
models are as shown below: for coefficients a and c.
NEWTON BINGHAM OSTWALD

Shear stress
Shear stress
Shear stress
Velocity gradient Velocity gradient Velocity gradient

• 178 •
APPENDIX 6 :
P R I N C I P L E O F O P E R AT I O N O F A S L U D G E T R E AT M E N T P L A N T
6.1 - SEPARATION OF SOLID 6.1.3 - Dewatering: 6.2 - SEPARATION OF

SPOIL FROM SLURRY: (in EXCESS SLURRY FROM
• Vibrating dewatering units are fitted with
real time) slot-type grilles on a slight slope. They are RECYCLED SLURRY: (in real
used to dewater underflow material from time)
6.1.1. Scalping: Separation of hydrocyclones. After dewatering, sand and
silt has residual humidities of between 10 and After desanding and desilting, most of the
large particles (> 6 mm approx.): slurry is fed back into the slurry circuit, after
gravel and pebbles, but also 20%, depending on the characteristics of the
mucking slurry. compensating with fresh slurry to maintain
lumps and flakes of earth that the required rehological characteristics. The
have not been broken down. • Unlike screens, there is a “self desatura- excess is disposed of, to maintain the correct
tion” phenomenon in a dewatering unit: with weight/volume balance (density and levels).
a) Scalping with vibrating screen: For sandy a given circulating load, an underlying layer
and stoney ground that does not stick of filter material is formed. 6.3 - TREATMENT OF EXCESS
b) Scalping with drum screen: Especially • Because of the diversity of the ground SLURRY: (in real time, part-
good for sticky, clogging clayey ground. types encountered and the broad range of ly as a background task)
viscosities of mucking slurries, a desanding
6.1.2 - Desanding: Separation of unit with 2 separation stages plus dewatering The treatment of excess slurry is closely lin-
sand from slurry is generally necessary for most tunnelling ked to the required spoil consistency (liquid,
projects. The second separation stage refines paste, or solid) and the quality of the ground
Sand is separated out from the slurry in 1, 2 or the relatively coarse split of the first. water absorbed and of the water discharged
3 series stages of hydrocyclones. Centrifuges
from the plant (pH, SS, hydrocarbons, etc.).
may also be used to separate out silt.
How a hydrocyclone works: (from French
documentation: Mines et Carrières /
L’épuration physico-chimique des eaux)
Cycloning is a process for separating liquids from solids that uses centrifugal force. Slurry is injected tangentially into the cylindrical part of the
cyclone. The vortex created causes the heavy, i.e. coarse particles to be thrown against the walls of the cyclone and to be carried down the coni-
cal section with downward flow while the finest particles, which are less affected by centrifugal force, are carried by
the upward flow. The fineness of separation increases with increasing inlet velocity, and a small-diameter hydrocy-
clone also separates out finer particles.
The split size, or d50, is the particle dimension which has equal chances of being in the overflow or underflow. It is
the grain size that is split exactly into two equal amounts by the hydrocyclone. The empirical Yoshioka and Hotta
formula can be used to calculate the d50 integrating viscosity:
0,2 x 106.Dc0,1 x D00,8 x Di0,6 x √η

d50 (µm) =
√Q x √(ρs - ρp)
entrée – inlet asurverse – overflow sous-verse – underflow

d50: split size in µm Dc: cyclone diameter in metres D0: overflow diameter in metres
Di: equivalent diameter of cycline η : apparent viscosity of slurry ρp: pulp density in kg/m3
inlet in metres ≈ 1 + 2,5 x ((ρp –1) / (ρs –1) ) en mPa.s
Q: inlet flowrate in m3/s ρs: real density of solids in kg/ m3
A division curve can be drawn up, with on the horizontal scale the grain size and on the vertical scale the percentage by mass of the underflow gra-
ding. The plot is generally linear between points d25 and d75, from which the split size can be characterized by the imperfection coefficient I:
d75 – d25 the smaller I is, the better the split (≈ 0.3-0.4 for cyclones)
I= ;
2 x d50

• 179 •
Treatment Appearance Density of Details

of discharge discharge
No treatment (direct discharge) Liquid 1,15 – 1,25 Slurry is remoed at its optimum density for
separation conditions
Thickening by flocculation-settlement Paste 1,20 – 1,40 Coagulant and flocculant required
Epaississement par centrifugation Paste 1,25 – 1,45 Flocculant required
Treatment with cement, and lagooning Solid 1,30 – 1,50 Addition of 20 to 40% cement by weight of dry
solids + 12 to 24-hours holding time
Belt-filter treatment Solid 1,60 – 1,75 Flocculant added to slurry
Filter-press treatment Solid 1,70 – 2,00 0 to 10% slaked lime added to slurry (by weight of
dry solids)
6.3.1 - Thickening by flocculation- resistance (r0.5 < 1011 m.kg-1) and is compres- P: filter pressure in Pa
settlement of thick slurry paste sible (s>1), for the filter pressures that can be A: slope of straight plot for filterability test, in
applied are relatively low (0.3 to 1 bar). s.m-6
• Flocculation requires effluent concentra- S: filtration surface in m2
• In most cases a filter-press produces hard,
tions of about 20 to 30 g per litre of dry
solid cakes from slurrys with high specific η: dynamic viscosity of filtrate in Pa.s
solids, which generally implies addition of
resistances (r0.5 = 1015 m.kg-1), using the pos- (approximately 1.1 x 10-3 Pa.s at 20°C)
considerable quantities of water for dilution
sible filtration pressures of 0 to 20 bars. It is C: dry solids at 105°C divided by the volume
before treatment.
generally necessary to treat the slurry before- of slurry in kg.m-3
• Clay particles consist of a stack of elemen- hand by adding lime or some other filtration
tary platelets of variable specific surface aid to dewater a slurry with a specific resis- ➬ Different slurries are generally compared
(≈ 20 m2/g for kaolinite / ≈ 100-150 m2/g for tance of r0.5 = 1012 m.kg-1. in terms of their r0.5 values (0.5 bar pressure):
construction bentonite): this structure ➬ If r0.5 = 1014 to 1015 m.kg-1: slurry not easily
explains the high swellability of bentonite. 6.3.3 - Slurry filter index: (from pressed, requiring an admixture such as lime
There is a layer of adsorbed water on the sur- Degrémont technical report on to assist filtration
face of the particle (ionic double layer) which water)
is electrically charged with easily exchan- ➬ If r0.5 = 1x1011 to 5x1011 m.kg-1: slurry easily
geable cations (+). Its potential increases pressed, requiring no filtration admixture.
6.3.3.1 - Specific resistance to filtration
with the specific surface of the particles. The
presence of more or less bentonite usually • Use a filtration cell of the Baroid filter-press 6.3.3.2 - Compressibility factor
requires there to be a phase of coagulation type using compressed air and a paper filter. • Measure the specific resistance to filtration,
by adsorption of cations to reduce the • Pour 100 to 150 ml of slurry into the cell. r, at several pressures, P.
potential of the ionic double layer, followed
• Allow the filtrate to flow off and record the • Plot curve log r = f (log P)
by addition of a flocculant (generally a syn-
thetic polymer such as polyacrylamide) to volume V0 The value of s is determined from the slope
form inter-particle bridges (coagulant Apply the required pressure (0.5 to 16 bars) of the straight line
consumption ≈ 100 - 200 ml/T of dry solids – and record the volume of filtrate every 10, = (log r1 – log r) / (log P1 – log P)
flocculant consumption ≈ 100 - 200 g/T of 15, 20, 30, or 60 seconds, depending on the ➬ If s < 1: the filteration flow rate increases
dry solids). filtrate flow velocity. as P increases => the slurry is not very com-
• Filtrate volumes V0, V1, V2… correspond pressible and high pressures are recommen-
6.3.2 - Additional treatment by to times T0, T1, T2… ded (15-16 bars).
pressing to obtain solid bulk
waste that can be handled easilty: • Plot points against Vx horizontally and ➬ If s > 1: the filtration flow rate decreases as
Tx / ( Vx – V0) vertically, and measure slope a P increases => the slurry is compressible and
The filterability of bentonite slurries is gene- of the linear part of the curve. it is recommended that the pressure be rai-
rally poor ( r0.5 = 1014 to 1015 m.kg-1 ) Specific resistance r in sed gradually to facilitate drainage.
• If a belt filter is used, the slurry must be m.kg-1 = ( 2 A P S2 ) / ( η C )
flocculated beforehand, and belt filters can Where
only be used if the slurry has a low specific

• 180 •
APPENDIX 7
PERMEAMETER
PERMEAMETER - PRINCIPLE GUIDE

PressionValve + pressure regu-
lator with aadjustment from 0 Entonfunnelnoir
to 0.15 MPa ajustable ManomPressure
Additionnal equipment
Valve Scales for soil weight
Scales for water weight
Compressed air in
Tube
T
Levels Boue - (15 litres)
Overflow
Translucent cylinder
Service pressure up to 0.15 MPa
Soil - (20 litres)

gracylindergg
Attachment
NB
It would be useful to have the permeater
To a tilting base so that filter cake
Performance under compressed air can be
4 legs allowing permeameter handling Tested and to facilitate emptying

• 181 •
APPENDIX 8 :
S TA N D A R D S L U R RY- M O N I T O R I N G D O C U M E N TAT I O N
The following forms are given to illustrate standard documentation for monitoring tunnelling slurry:
• Daily monitoring report
• Test report

• 182 •
• 183 •
test on parent slurry
Parent slurry addition
Concentration
Additive type
Additive addition
Concentration
Slurry pH

Comentaries
www.aftes.asso.fr
All rights for reproduction or adaptation in whatever format are expressly reserved

AFTES - Slurry For Use in Slurry Shield TBM

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AFTES - Slurry For Use in Slurry Shield TBM

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

AFTES - Slurry For Use in Slurry Shield TBM

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ASSOCIATION FRANÇAISE DES TUNNELS

Organization member of the AFTES

Slurry for use in

SLURRY FOR USE IN SLURRY-SHIELD TBM

with the close collaboration of:

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

9.2.3 – Plant - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 172 APPENDIX 3: PRINCIPLE FOR EVALUATION OF THE

1 - FOREWORD – PURPOSE OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

perties. • create and maintain confinement pressure

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

slurry to “set” in the ground. When slurry

penetrates into the ground around a tunnel,

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

Yield value 4.2.1 – Density of slurry slurry density.

slurry serves chiefly to check the fines 4.2.4 – Quality of cake

4.1.5 – Thixotropy and gels

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

and therefore limiting the problems entailed

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

A variety of standard tests should be perfor- circumstances. • Treatment of waste.

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

10 – USING SLURRY 10.2 – MANUFACTURE must therefore have equipment specifically

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

not greatly used other than as slurry filtrate

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

• binding, agglomerating, and adhesive pro-

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

liquid whose rheological characteristics where

value of the slurry. According to some authors [2], experience

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

K>1*10-4 m/s 10-4<K<10-7 m/s K<1*10-7 m/s K<1*10-7 m/s

1 - DEFINITION OF 2 – RHEOLOGY OF liquid occupies a determined volume which

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

K, and N, it can represent them all: c ≥ 0, the liquid is pseudo-plastiqc (3), c = 0

NEWTON BINGHAM OSTWALD

Velocity gradient Velocity gradient Velocity gradient

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

6.1 - SEPARATION OF SOLID 6.1.3 - Dewatering: 6.2 - SEPARATION OF

0,2 x 106.Dc0,1 x D00,8 x Di0,6 x √η

entrée – inlet asurverse – overflow sous-verse – underflow

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

Treatment Appearance Density of Details

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

PERMEAMETER - PRINCIPLE GUIDE

Soil - (20 litres)

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

TUNNELS ET OUVRAGES SOUTERRAINS – HORS-SERIE N° 1 – 2005

You might also like

K>110-4 m/s 10-4<K<10-7 m/s K<110-7 m/s K<1*10-7 m/s