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1- Winding Temperature Indicator (WTI) test, Hot-spot Temperature Indicator
➢ Purpose
To monitor the transformer hottest-spot temperature and provide the most accurate temperature
reading for proper loading and
operation of the transformer.
➢ Making A Test
There are two types of hot spot indicating circuits:
• Thermometer heat-well type
• Bridge type
➢ Test Readings (Results) & Acceptance Values

For oil-filled power transformers the rated maximum hottest spot winding temperatures are
95°C and 110°C without any loss of service life of transformer.
The internal winding hot-spot temperature of the transformer winding is determined by the load it
carries, its thermal characteristics, and the temperature of its cooling liquid and the ambient
temperature around the transformer.
Typical indicators used on transformers have scales that begin at

0°C and go to 120°C maximum, some have 160°C maximum and the scales can be even higher
scales dependent on the type of transformer.
Testing (Circuit) Connections
See Figure 3.8.1
Figure 3.8.1: “Hot-Spot” Indicating Circuit

2- Oil Temperature Indicator Test
➢ Purpose
To protect the transformer from excessive temperature and also to permit it to be loaded to its
maximum safe-operating temperature.
➢ Making A Test & Test Readings (Results) & Acceptance Values

To determine the nominal expected temperatures that might be read from the indicator,
consider that liquid-filled transformers are rated to have either a 55°C or a 65°C average winding
temperature rise above ambient when measured by resistance.
Using a 65°C rise with a 30°C ambient means that the
transformer winding should not exceed 95°C when operated at nameplate rated kVA. Since all of
the heat generated by the windings is transferred to the liquid, the liquid will gradually approach the
temperature of the windings, but with a time lag. As a result, when the transformer is operated
within its rating, the liquid temperature should never exceed 95°C.
3- Insulation Power Factor test

➢ Definition
Power factor is a measure of the power loss through the insulation system to ground caused by
leakage current. It is equal to the circuit resistance (R) divided by the circuit impedance (Z).
PF = W / V I or PF = (V I cosθ ) / (V I )
The power factor of insulation is the cosine of the angle between the charging current vector and
the impressed voltage vector. In other words, it is a measure of the energy component of the
charging current. The amount of charging volt-amperes and the dielectric loss in watts, at a given
voltage, increases with the amount of insulation being tested. However, the ratio (power factor)
between the charging volt-amperes and watts-loss remains the same regardless of the amount of
insulation tested, assuming that the insulation is of a uniform quality. This basic relation eliminates
the effect of the size of electrical apparatus in establishing "normal" insulation values and thus
simplifies the problem for the test engineer.
Actually, power factor testing is more than just "a" test. It is a series of tests on each part of the
insulation system. Insulation power-factor tests can also be made on lightning arresters, air and oil
circuit breakers, current and potential transformers, capacitors, cable (500 feet or less) and
rotating machinery, such as motors and generators.
➢ Purpose
▪ To determine the relative dryness and material quality of the insulation. It is typically used in
conjunction with other dryness indicators, such as insulation resistance and oil dielectric
breakdown values, to determine insulation dryness.
• To measure the power loss due to leakage current through the transformer insulation.
• To detect any measurable change in the transformer winding insulation characteristics.
• Gives an overall indication of the condition of the insulating system.
➢ Making A Test
To measure the winding insulation power factor, first verify that the transformer is de-energized
and "locked-out." Then check to see that the tank is properly grounded. Short circuit each winding
of the transformer at its bushing terminals. Connect all windings to
ground except the winding to be measured. Connect the tester between the winding(s) to be
measured and ground, and measure the capacitance and power factor.
➢ Test Equipments/Methods
The Double power factor insulation test equipment measures the charging current and watts-loss
from which the power factor, capacitance, and AC resistance can be easily computed at agiven
test voltage.( see Figures 3.6.1 and 3.6.2).
➢ Testing (Circuit) Connections
Winding Insulation P.F Test: Standard series of power factor tests applied to windings in-
service shown in table 3.6.1.
CH refers to all insulation between the high voltage winding and grounded parts, including
bushings, winding insulation, structural insulating members, and oil.
CL refers to the same parts and materials between the low voltage windings and grounded
parts.
CHL refers to all winding insulation, barriers, and oil between high- and low-voltage windings.
Typical schematic connection diagrams for measuring the insulation power factor of single
phase and three phase transformers are shown in Figures 3.6.3 and 3.6.4. When measuring the
power factor of transformer windings, the number of measurements and their connections
should be in accordance with Table 3.6.2.
Bushing Insulation P.F Test:

1. Underground Specimen Test (UST) Method
Bushings can be tested in several different ways without removal from the transformer. The
most effective test method utilizes the potential taps, power factor taps, or split-mounting flanges
with which most modern bushings are equipped. This method as shown in Figure 3.6.5 is
referred to as the Underground Specimen Test (UST).
2. Hot-Collar Method
Bushings without capacitance taps may be tested by Hot-Collar test method. This test is
applied, using single or multiple collars on transformer bushings (Figure 3.6.6) if the UST
method cannot be performed or to supplement the UST test when compound filled bushings are
involved. A single Hot-Collar test is also often applied to oil-filled bushings not equipped with
liquid level gauges in an effort to detect low liquid levels.
➢ Test Readings (Results) & Acceptance Values

• Power factor readings vary with temperature; therefore, it is necessary to correct all readings
to 20°C to allow comparison with previous and factory readings. Table 6.3 provides a list of
temperature correction factors to be used for liquid filled transformers. To correct
measurements to their 20°C reference, divide the measured value by the corresponding
correction factor shown in the table.
• Compare the temperature-corrected power factor with past readings taken from the same
equipment. A generally accepted industry evaluation criterion is that a change of 0.3% over a
period of one year is considered a reason to call for more detailed testing or inspections.
• Table 3.6.4 provides the acceptable power factor values
• For Hot-Collar Test: Since relatively low dielectric losses and currents are normally recorded,
small changes in either value can result in misleading changes in calculated power factors.
Because of this, it is recommended that Hot-Collar tests be evaluated by comparison of
currents and losses obtained for similar tests on similar bushings and potheads. Power-factor
values need not be calculated. As a general guideline, losses up to 0.05 watt at 10 kV and 3
mill watts at 2.5 kV can be considered acceptable.
Figure 3.6.1: Typical Two-Winding Transformer Simplified Diagram
Figure 3.6.2: Dielectric Loss of Each Capacitor Divided by Capacitive Volt-

Amperes is Equal to Power Factor
Table 3.6.1: Standard series of power factor tests applied to windings in-service
Figure 3.6.3: Schematic Diagram for Measuring the Capacitance and Insulation Power
factor from the High-Voltage Winding to the Low-Voltage Winding and
Ground for a Two-Winding, Single-Phase Transformer
(Method 1,
Table 6.1)
Figure 3.6.4: Schematic Diagram for Measuring the Capacitance and Insulation Power
factor from the High-Voltage Winding to the Low-Voltage Winding
and Ground for a Three-Phase Delta-Wye Transformer
(Method 1,
Table 6.1)
Equipment Class % P.F Acceptance Values at 20°C

New Insulating Oil 0.05
Dried and/or New HV Transformer 0.2
Dried and/or New EHV Transformer 0.3
Paper-insulated power cables 0.3
Condenser & Oil filled bushings 0.5
Silicon Insulating fluid 0.5
New oil-filled transformers 0.5 to 1
In-Service oil-filled transformers 1 to 2
Compound-filled bushings 2.5
Askarel(Insulating Liquid)-filled power Transformer 3 to 5
Rubber-insulated power cables 4.0 to 5.0
Varnish-cambric insulated power cables 4.0 to 8.0
Synthetic Insulating fluids 12
Table 3.6.4: Acceptable Power Factor Values

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1- Winding Temperature Indicator (WTI) test, Hot-spot Temperature Indicator

➢ Test Readings (Results) & Acceptance Values

Typical indicators used on transformers have scales that begin at

Figure 3.8.1: “Hot-Spot” Indicating Circuit

➢ Making A Test & Test Readings (Results) & Acceptance Values

3- Insulation Power Factor test

Bushing Insulation P.F Test:

➢ Test Readings (Results) & Acceptance Values

Figure 3.6.2: Dielectric Loss of Each Capacitor Divided by Capacitive Volt-

Equipment Class % P.F Acceptance Values at 20°C

Table 3.6.4: Acceptable Power Factor Values

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