AUTONOMOUS MAINTAINENCE

IN

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
A dissertation submitted in
Partial fulfilment of the requirements
For the awards of the degree

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted by
ABHAY S NIGAM (1314340002)
LALIT KUMAR (1314310045)
VARUN MALAVIYA (1314340857)

Under the Guidance of

PROF. PANKUL GOEL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

IMS ENGINEERING COLLEGE, GHAZIABAD
MAY, 2017
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that that Project Entitled “AUTONOMOUS MAINTAINENCE IN

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS” submitted by ABHAY S NIGAM, LALIT KUMAR,
VARUN MALAVIYA in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of Degree
of Bachelor of Technology in MECHANICAL ENGINEEIRNG contains the
bonafide work of above students done under our supervision and that the same work
has not been submitted for the award of any degree to the best of our knowledge.

Prof. Pankul Goel

Associate Professor,
Mechanical Dept. IMSEC, Ghaziabad

Date- PROF. (Dr.) V. K. SAINI

Place- Ghaziabad Head, Mechanical Engineering Dept.
IMS Engineering College, Ghaziabad

I
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our deepest sense of gratitude towards Prof. Pankul Goel for his patience,
inspiration, guidance, constant encouragement, moral support, keen interest and valuable
suggestions during this training program.

Our gratitude goes to all the faculty members of IMS ENGINEERING COLLEGE and QH
TALBROS LTD., who with their encouragement and caring words and most valuable
suggestions have contributed directly or indirectly in a significant us towards completion of
this training program.

We owe a debt of gratitude to our father and mother for their consistent support, sacrifice,
candid views and meaningful suggestions given to us at different stages of this work.

Last but not the least we are thankful to the Almighty who gave us this opportunity, strength
and health for completing our work and report.

ABHAY S NIGAM
LALIT KUMAR
VARUN MALAVIYA

Mechanical Engineering, 4th Year

(IMS ENGINEERING COLLEGE,
GHAZIABAD, UTTAR PRADESH)

II
 ABSTRACT

Manufacturing is considered to be an important element in a firm’s endeavour to improve firm

Performance. TPM is a highly structured approach, which uses a number of tools and
techniques to achieve highly effective plants and machinery. A well-conceived TPM
implementation program not only improve the equipment efficiency and effectiveness but also
brings appreciable improvements in other areas of the manufacturing enterprise. Total
productive maintenance is one of the innovative approaches to maintenance that Optimizes
equipment effectiveness eliminates breakdowns and promotes autonomous maintenance by
operators through day-to-day activities involving total workforce.

Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is a process that maximizes the productivity of

equipment for its entire life. It fosters an environment where improvement efforts in safety,
quality, cost, delivery, and creativity are encouraged through the participation of all employees.
TPM is not simply a preventive maintenance program. Rather, it is a strategic management
initiative to increase capacity and end the vicious cycle of ‘breakdown’ or reactive repairs
through the use of autonomous and predictive maintenance, as well as equipment modifications
to facilitate optimum machine availability, quality, and performance. The TPM presentation
focuses on a results oriented implementation methodology designed to minimize the 6 major
equipment losses. Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE), an equipment performance
assessment or measurement, is introduced. By understanding and implementing TPM,
companies can use it as a foundation and fundamental discipline to facilitate Condition Based
Maintenance (CBM) effectively.

III
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Page No.

CERTIFICATE i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii
ABSTRACT iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv-v
LIST OF TABLES & FIGURES vi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION to QH Talbros
1.1 Mission and vision 6
1.2 Steering tie rod end 7
1.3 Steering ball joint assembly 7
1.4 Ball suspension joint assembly 6
1.5 Drag link assembly 9
1.6 Tie rod assembly 9
1.7 Suspension control arm 10
1.8 Stabilizer link 11
1.9 Connecting tie rod assembly 11
1.10 Customers 12

CHAPTER 2: LITRATURE REVIEW AND PROJECT SELECTION

2.1 Steering System 14
2.1.1 The Job of steering system 14
2.1.2 Types of steering system 14
2.1.3 Pressure development and control 18
2.1.4 Steering ratio 18
2.1.5 Terms related to steering system 19
2.2 Suspension System 22
2.2.1 Objective 22
2.2.1 Types of suspension components 23
2.2.3 Suspension system terms 24
2.2.4 Figure of types of suspension system 25
2.2.5 Double wishbone suspension system 27

IV
 2.2.6 MacPherson Strut suspension system 28
2.3 Total productive maintenance 30
2.3.1 Contribution of TPM towards manufacturing process 32
2.3.2 16 losses of TPM 33
2.3.3 Equipment losses 33
2.3.4 Manpower losses 34
2.3.5 Yield energy and tooling losses 35
2.3.6 Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) 36
2.3.7 How to calculate OEE? 38
2.3.8 Calculation example 41

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 TPM Pillar- Autonomous Maintenance (Jishu Hozen) 45
3.1.1 Policy 45
3.1.2 Jishu Hozen Targets 45
3.1.3 Steps in Jishu Hozen 45
3.1.4 Case study on Jishu Hozen 48

CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS
4.1 Calculations done during project 51
4.1.1 Project work flow 51
4.1.2 Environment conditions of company 51
4.1.3 Information gathering 51
4.1.4 Preparation of data of time consumed 52

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
5.1 White Fugai status 53
5.2 Red Fugai status 54

REFERENCES 59

V
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. No Description Page No.

1.1 Steering Tie rod end. 6

1.2 Steering Inner/outer ball joint assembly 8
1.3 Ball Suspension Joint assembly 8
1.4 Drag link assembly 9
1.5 Tie rod assembly 10
1.6 Suspension control arm 10
1.7 Stabilizer Link 11
1.8 Connecting tiered assembly 11
2.1 Rack and pinion steering system 15
2.2 Rack and pinion linkage 16
2.3 Parallelogram steering system 16
2.4 Power steering system 17
2.5 Caster angles 19
2.6 Camber angles 19
2.7 Toe in/ Toe out 20
2.8 Thrust line alignment 20
2.9 Steering axle inclination 20
2.10 Turning radius 21
2.11 Solid beam suspension 25
2.12 Drive as solid suspension member 25
2.13 Drive axle supported by leaf spring 26
2.14 Drive axle centre section 26
2.15 Dual beam suspension system 27
2.16 Double wishbone suspension 28
2.17 MacPherson strut suspension schematic 29
2.18 TPM Pillars 30
2.19 16 losses in TPM 33
5.1 White Fugai Status 53
5.2 Red fugai status 54

VI
 CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
____________________________________________________________
QH Talbros Limited is a leading Auto Ancillary unit manufacturing Steering & Suspension
Components for four wheelers, promoted by Talwar Group. The company came into operation
in the year 1986. The cliental of the company comprises of Maruti Udyog Ltd., Tata Motors,
Mahindra & Mahindra, Ashok Leyland to name a few. The Company is accredited with ISO/TS
16949-2002 & ISO 14001-2004 for Quality Management and Environmental Management
System Quality Certificates from Det Norske Veritas. The Registered office of the company is
situated at Plot No. 400, Udyog Vihar, Phase III, Gurgaon.

Apart from OE Customers, the company is also catering to replacement market through their
network of Distributors/Dealers of Spare parts. The company is also exporting components to
countries like USA, UK, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Italy etc. The Company has entered into long
term selling arrangements for supply of its products with Quinton Hazell Automotive, UK,
Affinia Product Corporation, USA & Carraro spa, Italy.

An uncompromising quest for quality and superior technology has made our products the first
choice for leading automotive manufacturers. QH Talbros meets the steering and suspension
requirements for all segments including passenger cars, utility vehicles, tractors, off-highway
vehicles, light & heavy commercial vehicles for OEMs in India and overseas.

With more than 25 years of hands on manufacturing experience, our six technologically
advanced manufacturing facilities have an annual installed capacity of 15 million plus
assemblies with a portfolio of more than 1200 products. Best- in class facilities, design &
engineering expertise together with the latest evaluation software like Unigraphics, Catia and
cutting edge engineering test centres to evaluate products as per customer’s specifications have
enabled us to meet impeccable quality, precision standard with which have carved ourselves as
leaders in the domestic market.

1.1 VISION AND MISSION

VISION-
“Talbros group’s endeavour is to be a significant global player in the auto industry by being a
brand of choice for all our customers and continuously enhancing employee satisfaction and
stakeholder value.”

MISSION-

 We aim to provide technologically advanced end to end solutions for Steering and Suspension
parts requirement to our passenger and commercial / off highway vehicle segment customers.
 We aim to provide widest range of highly reliable low cost solutions to our customers through
strategic tie up with international manufacturers.
 Our uniqueness is good brand image; wide dealer network; stable & skilled work force with
flexibility in manufacturing operations in multi-location.

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 PRODUCTS
1) Steering tie rod end -
Tie rod ends are used in the steering linkage, steering knuckle pivot supports, and various hinge
mechanisms. They connect the centre link to the steering knuckle on cars with ordinary
suspension systems and recirculating ball steering gears. Together with the ball joints, tie rod
ends make sure the car steers left and right at the same time it is hitting bumps and potholes
that might cause the wheel to travel up and down.

The sleeve joins the inner and outer tie rod ends together and allows for adjustment when the
front wheels are aligned. The outer tie rod ends are connected to the steering knuckle that
actually turns the front wheels. The steering knuckle has an upper and lower ball joint that it
pivots on and creates the geometry of the steering axis. It consists of an inner and outer end.
The inner tie rod ends are attached to either end of the centre link and are served as pivot points
for the steering gear.
In order to be effective, the steering system has to turn the wheels at the same rate and along
the same plane in any condition. The tie rod and the ball joint will see to it that the wheels are
held firmly. A worn tie rod can result to abnormal wear patterns on the tires, wandering and
erratic steering. Aside from tie rod replacement, wheel alignment is also required since tie rod
replacement disturbs the toe setting. To sum it up, steering and suspension systems should be
checked regularly or consult a qualified service technician for best results.

2) Steering inner / outer ball joint assembly-

In an automobile, ball joints are spherical bearings that connect the control arms to the steering
knuckles. They are used on virtually every automobile made and work similarly to the ball-
and-socket design of the human hip joint.
A ball joint consists of a bearing stud and socket enclosed in a casing; all these parts are made
of steel. The bearing stud is tapered and threaded, and fits into a tapered hole in the steering
knuckle. A protective encasing prevents dirt from getting into the joint assembly. Usually, this
is a rubber-like boot that allows movement and expansion of lubricant. Motion-control ball
joints tend to be retained with an internal spring, which helps to prevent vibration problems in
the linkage.

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The "offset" ball joint provides means of movement in systems where thermal expansion and
contraction, shock, seismic motion, and torsional motions, and forces are present.

Unlike a kingpin, which requires an assembly in the centre of the wheel in order to pivot, joints
connect to the upper and lower end of the spindle (steering knuckle), to the control arms. This
leaves the centre section open to allow the use of front-wheel drive. Older kingpin designs can
only be used in a rear-wheel-drive configuration.

3) Ball Suspension joint assembly-

A ball joint is used for allowing free movement in two planes at the same time, including
rotating in those planes. Combining two such joints with control arms enables motion in all
three planes, allowing the front end of an automobile to be steered and a spring and shock
(damper) suspension to make the ride comfortable.
A simple kingpin suspension requires that the upper and lower control arms (wishbones) have
pivot axes that are parallel, and in strict geometric relationship to the kingpin, or the top and
bottom trunnions, which connect the kingpin to the control arms, would be severely stressed
and the bearings would suffer severe wear.

On modern vehicles, ball joints are the pivot between the wheels and the suspension of an
automobile. They are today almost universally used in the front suspension, having replaced

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the kingpin/linkpin or kingpin/trunnion arrangement, but can also be found in the rear
suspension of a few higher-performance autos. Ball joints play a critical role in the safe
operation of an automobile's steering and suspension.
.

4) Drag link assembly-

The drag link converts the sweeping arc of the steering arm to linear motion in the plane of the
other steering links. Typically, one end of the drag link is connected via the Pitman arm and
steering gearbox to the steering wheel (providing the connection between the driver and the
steering system); the other end is attached to the steering linkage, by the steering arm.
An alternate steering mechanism is a rack and pinion, a three bar linkage that eliminates the
drag link by directly moving a centre link.

"The drag link connects the pitman arm to the steering arm, or in some applications it connects
to the tie rod assembly. Unlike a centre link, the drag link does not connect to an idler arm,
and has no inner tie rod ends attached to it. On some applications the drag link swings from t.
he front to the rear of the vehicle. On these applications the drag link connects to the steering
arm located at the wheel. In some Jeep applications, the drag link will swing from right to left
on the vehicle and will connect to the steering arm at the wheel. Drag links can be a solid one-
piece design or an adjustable design. Many drag links have replaceable or rebuild able ends.

5) Tie rod assembly-

It's common knowledge among drivers that the steering and the suspension systems cannot
work smoothly if any of their vital components are damaged. Even if only one steering or
suspension component becomes defective, the entire system could be rendered useless. Take
the tie rod assembly, for example. A tie rod is a steering component that serves as the
connection between the steering knuckles and the centre link. With assistance from ball
steering gears, the assembly helps the wheels turn, transmitting force from the steering centre
link to the steering knuckle. The tie rod assembly also comes with inner and outer ends, both
of which make the tie rod flexible and easily adjustable. Should any of the assembly's parts
become damaged, you can trust Car parts. We can help you get the perfect tie rod assemblies
for your vehicle.

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Helps the wheels turn by transferring force from the centre link to the steering knuckle.
Maintains critical vehicle alignment settings, comes with inner and outer end for easy fitting.

6) Suspension control arms-

In automotive suspension, a control arm, also known as an A-arm, is a hinged suspension
link between the chassis and the suspension upright or hub that carries the wheel.
The inboard (chassis) end of a control arm is attached by a single pivot, usually a
rubber bushing. It can thus control the position of the outboard end in only a single degree of
freedom, maintaining the radial distance from the inboard mount. Although not deliberately
free to move, the single bushing does not control the arm from moving back and forth; this
motion is constrained by a separate link or radius rod.

This is in contrast to the wishbone. Wishbones are triangular and have two widely spaced
inboard bearings. These constrain the outboard end of the wishbone from moving back and
forth, controlling two degrees of freedom, and without requiring additional links.
Most control arms form the lower link of a suspension. A few designs use them as the upper
link, usually with a lower wishbone. The additional radius rod is then attached to the upper
arm.

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7) Stabilizer Link-
An anti-roll bar (anti-sway bar, sway bar, stabilizer bar) is a part of
many automobile suspensions that helps reduce the body roll of a vehicle during fast cornering
or over road irregularities. It connects opposite (left/right) wheels together through
short lever arms linked by a torsion spring. A sway bar increases the
suspension's roll stiffness—its resistance to roll in turns, independent of its spring rate in the
vertical direction.

An anti-sway or anti-roll bar is intended to force each side of the vehicle to lower, or rise, to
similar heights, to reduce the sideways tilting (roll) of the vehicle on curves, sharp corners, or
large bumps. With the bar removed, a vehicle's wheels can tilt away by much larger distances

8) Connecting tie rod assembly-

A tie rod is a steering component that serves as the connection between the steering knuckles
and the centre link. With assistance from ball steering gears, the assembly helps the wheels
turn, transmitting force from the steering centre link to the steering knuckle. The tie rod
assembly also comes with inner and outer ends, both of which make the tie rod flexible and
easily adjustable. Should any of the assembly's parts become damaged, you can trust Car parts.
We can help you get the perfect tie rod assemblies for your vehicle.

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CUSTOMERS

Page | 12
Page | 13
 CHAPTER 2- LITERATURE REVIEW AND
PROJECT SELECTION
____________________________________________________________
2.1 STEERING SYSTEMS
The steering system components are a common source of driver complaints. Tire wear is almost
completely dependent on the condition and adjustment of the steering components. This
chapter covers the construction and operation of both conventional and rack-and-pinion
steering systems. Study this chapter carefully.

2.1.1 The Job of the Steering System

The steering system is a group of parts that transmit the movement of the steering wheel to the
front, and sometimes the rear, wheels. The primary purpose of the steering system is to allow
the driver to guide the vehicle.
When a vehicle is being driven straight ahead, the steering system must keep it from wandering
without requiring the driver to make constant corrections.
The steering system must also allow the driver to have some road feel (feedback through the
steering wheel about road surface conditions). The steering system must help maintain proper
tire-to-road contact. For maximum tire life, the steering system should maintain the proper
angle between the tires both during turns and straight-ahead driving. The driver should be able
to turn the vehicle with little effort, but not so easily that it is hard to control.

2.1.2 Types of Steering Systems

Two main types of steering systems are used on modern cars and light trucks: the rack-and-
pinion system and the conventional, or parallelogram linkage, steering system. On
automobiles, the conventional system was the only type used until the 1970s. It has been almost
completely replaced by rack-and-pinion steering. Many light trucks continue to use the
conventional system.

1) Rack-and-Pinion Steering

Rack-and-pinion steering is a simple system that directly converts the rotation of the steering
wheel to straight line movement at the wheels. The steering gear consists of the rack, pinion,
and related housings and support bearings. Turning the steering wheel causes the pinion to
rotate. Since the pinion teeth are in mesh with the rack teeth, turning the pinion causes the rack
to move to one side. The rack is attached to the steering knuckles through linkage, so moving
the rack causes the wheels to turn.

Page | 14
bearings at the top and bottom. The rack is also made of hardened steel and moves in slide
bearings. Seals keep the steering gear lubricant from leaking out of the rack-and-pinion
assembly

1a) Rack-and-Pinion Linkage

Rack-and-pinion linkage connects the gear to the steering knuckles. Rack-and-pinion linkage
is simple, consisting of inner and outer tie rods.

One end of the inner tie rod is inside the steering gear and is usually threaded into the end of
the rack. A plastic or metal shear pin keeps the tie rod from loosening. Some tie rods are held
in place by a crimp on the inner part of the tie rod assembly. The inner tie rod is protected from
the elements by a flexible rubber bellows, sometimes called a bellows boot or a boot. The outer
part of the inner tie rod is a threaded shaft. The outer tie rod is threaded onto this shaft and held
in place by a locknut.

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Toe adjustment is made by loosening the locknut and turning the inner rod to shorten or
lengthen the tie rod assembly

2) Conventional Steering

Conventional steering systems are sometimes referred to as parallelogram steering. The

conventional steering system has more components than the rack and pinion system.

Page | 16
All steering gears used on conventional steering systems appear similar when viewed from the
outside. All contain a worm shaft, or worm gear, which is turned by the steering shaft, and a
sector gear, which is turned by the worm gear. The interaction of the worm and sector gear
converts the rotation of the worm into movement at the pitman arm while turning the steering
effort 90°.
One difference between conventional and the rack and pinion steering gears is that the
conventional gear can be adjusted. There are two adjusting devices built into the conventional
gearbox. The adjuster at the top of the sector shaft is used to adjust the clearance between the
sector gear and worm gear. The worm gear adjuster is used to adjust the bearing preload of the
worm gear. The worm gear adjuster can also be removed to gain access to the worm gear and
nut during overhaul. The adjuster can be located at either end of the worm gear shaft.

 Power Steering Systems

Power steering is a steering system feature that reduces driver effort by providing extra force
to steer the vehicle. The use of power steering has increased to the point that all but the smallest
cars are equipped with power steering as standard equipment. Power steering systems are used
on both rack-and-pinion and conventional steering systems. Principles of power steering are
discussed in the following sections.

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 Pressure Development and Control
The basic operating principle of power steering is that liquids (in this case power steering fluid)
cannot be compressed. Therefore, liquids can be used to transmit pressure and movement.
Systems that make use of liquids to transfer pressure are called hydraulic systems, and the
pressure exerted by the liquid is called hydraulic pressure. Hydraulic pressure is transmitted
through the hose to one side of the piston. This pressure causes the piston to move.
In a power steering system, pressure is created by a pump and transmitted to the steering gear
or, in a few cases, a separate power piston. This pressure is used to help the driver move the
wheels. Pressures in a power steering system can rise to over 2000 psi (13,450 kPa) during
hard turns.

 Steering Ratio
Steering ratio is the relative number of turns of the steering wheel compared to the movement
of the wheels.

If the steering wheel must be turned one revolution to turn the front wheels one sixteenth of a
turn, the steering ratio is 1 to 1/16. Reversing the numbers gives a ratio of 16 to 1, or 16:1.
Although the steering ratio is not as critical on modern vehicles with power steering, it must be
carefully selected as a compromise between handling and steering effort. The average steering
ratio on modern vehicles ranges from 12:1 to 24:1. A heavy vehicle will have a higher ratio
than a lighter vehicle. If the vehicle has power steering, the ratio will be lower than that on the
same vehicle with manual steering.
Steering ratio affects the response of the front wheels to the movement of the steering wheel
(handling) and the ease of turning the wheel. A small steering ratio means that slight steering
wheel movement will turn the front wheels, but the effort required to turn the steering wheel
will be relatively high. A large steering ratio means that more turns of the steering wheel are
needed to turn the front wheels, but that the steering effort is less. A relatively high steering
ratio also helps to absorb shocks from the road. If for instance the steering ratio is 16:1, road
shocks are transmitted to the steering wheel at 1/16 of their original intensity.

Steering ratio, as well as overall handling and ease of steering, is determined by many factors.
The size of the steering wheel was already mentioned. The relative size of the gears in the
steering gear, the size and shape of the steering arms, and the angles formed by the linkage all
affect the steering action. The percentage of vehicle weight placed on the front wheels and
whether the vehicle has front- or rear-wheel drive are also factors.

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 TERMS RELATED TO STEERING SYSTEMS-

1) Caster
 Caster is the angle of the steering axis of a wheel from the vertical, as viewed from
the side of the vehicle.
 It designed to provide steering stability
 Caster is not related to tire wear.

2) Camber
 It is the angle represented by the tilt of either the front or rear wheels inward outward
from the vertical as viewed from the front of the car
 It is designed to compensate for road crown weight crown, passenger weight, and
vehicle weight

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3) Toe

 It is the distance comparison

between the leading edge and
trailing edge of the front tires
 If the leading edge distance is less,
then there is toe-in
 If greater, it is toe-out
 Toe is critical as a tire wearing angle
 Wheels that do not track straight
ahead have to drag as they travel
forward.

4) Thrust Line Alignment

 The vehicle must run straight down

the road with the rear tires tracking
directly behind the front tires when
steering wheel is in the straight-
ahead position
 The geometric centre line of the
vehicle should parallel the road
direction
 If not, the vehicle tends to travel in
the direction of the thrust line, rather
than straight ahead.

5) Steering Axle Inclination (SAI)

 It locates the inside or outside of the

vertical centre line of the tire
 It is the angle between true vertical
and a line drawn between the
steering pivots as viewed from the
front of the vehicle.
 The SAI helps the vehicle’s steering
system return to straight-ahead after
a turn
 SAI angles
• FWD 12-18 degrees
• RWD 6-8 degrees

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6) Turning Radius

 It is the amount of toe-out present in

turns
 It is also called ‘toe-out on turns’ or
‘turning angle’
 As the car goes round the corner, the
inside tire must travel in a smaller
radius circle than the outside tire
 This is accomplished by designing
the steering geometry to turn the
inside wheel sharper than the
outside wheel
 This toe-out eliminates the tire
scrubbing on the road surface by
keeping the tires pointed in the
direction they have to move.

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 SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
The suspension system of a vehicle refers to the group of mechanical components that connect
the wheels to the frame or body. A great deal of engineering effort has gone into the design of
suspension systems because of an unending effort to improve vehicle ride and handling along
with passenger safety and comfort. In the horse and buggy days, the suspension system
consisted merely of a beam (axle) that extended across the width of the vehicle. In the front,
the wheels were mounted to the axle ends and the axle was rotated at the centre to provide
steering. The early automobiles used the one‐piece axle design but instead of being rotated at
the centre, it was fix‐mounted to the vehicle through springs to provide the cushioning of shock
loads from road inaccuracies. The wheels were rotationally‐mounted at the axle ends to provide
steering. The first springs consisted of thin layers of narrow pieces of strip steel stacked
together in an elliptical shape and were called leaf springs. In later installations, leaf springs
were replaced by coil springs. In front‐engine rear‐drive vehicles, the front beam axle was
replaced by independently mounted steerable wheels. The wheels were supported by short
upper and lower hinged arms holding them perpendicular to the road as did the previous axle
beam designs. A coil spring was used to support either the upper or the lower arm to provide
dampening. Shock absorbers began to be used to dampen shock loads and also to provide
resistance to spring oscillations. Later it was learned by shortening the upper arm; wheel tilt
(camber) could be controlled to prevent edge loading tires while cornering. The power
transmitting drive axle in the rear served as the beam‐type suspension with dampening provided
by either leaf or coil springs as well as shock absorbers. When front‐engine front‐drive
passenger cars were introduced, the upper arm was rotated up and replaced by a member called
a “strut” which contained the concentrically mounted spring and shock. This arrangement
provided additional space for transverse mounted engine/transmission modules and the front
drive shaft. This same type of suspension was also used in the rear of many cars. Trucks
continue to be front‐engine, rear‐drive vehicles many of which are using beam‐type axle
suspension systems in both the front and rear. This course will study the design and application
of five currently used suspension systems.

 OBJECTIVES
 To provide good ride and handling performance
-Vertical compliance providing chassis isolation.
- Ensuring that the wheels follow the road profile.
-Very little tire load fluctuation.

 To ensure that steering control is maintained during manoeuvring –

 Wheels to be maintained in the proper position w.r.t road surface.

 To ensure that the vehicle responds favourably to control forces produced by the tires
during
 longitudinal braking
 accelerating forces,

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 lateral cornering forces and
 braking and accelerating torques
This requires the suspension geometry to be designed to resist squat, dive and roll of the vehicle
body.

 To provide isolation from high frequency vibration from tire excitation

 requires appropriate isolation in the suspension joints
 Prevent transmission of ‘road noise’ to the vehicle body.

Types of Suspension Components

There are three basic types of suspension components: linkages, springs, and shock absorbers.
The linkages are the bars and brackets that support the wheels, springs and shock absorbers.
Springs cushion the vehicle by dampening shock loads from bumps and holes in the road.
Shock absorbers use hydraulic pistons and cylinders to cushion also the vehicle from shock
loads. They also serve to dampen spring oscillations, thus bring the vehicle back to a neutral
position soon after being shock loaded by a road obstruction.

Links: There are a number of various shaped links that are used for the different types of
suspension systems. They vary from straight bars to forged, cast or stamped metal shapes that
best fit to support the springs, shocks and wheels onto vehicle frames or body structures. The
simplest linkage is a straight bar that connects one wheel to the other on the opposite side of
the vehicle. Others can be intricately shaped to connect springs, shock absorbers and wheels to
vehicles as explained later.

Springs: There are three different spring types that are used in suspension systems: coil, leaf
and torsion bar. Coil springs are merely wound torsion bars. They are commonly used because
they are compact, easily mounted and have excellent endurance life properties. Leaf springs
are long thin members that are loaded in bending. They are used as an assembly being
comprised of several layers of thin metal to obtain the correct spring rate. Leaf springs serve
as both the damping member and the linkage. Torsion bars rely on the twist of a long bar to
provide a spring rate to dampen car shock loading. Torsion bars mount across the bottom
portion of a vehicle and are more difficult to package than others.

Shock Absorbers: Shock absorbers use a piston and cylinder along with adjustable valves to
control the flow of hydraulic fluid to set the damping force in both the retract (jounce) and
extend (rebound) positions. Shock absorbers are set to retract under a lower force than to
extend. This action absorbs road bump forces and dampens spring oscillations resulting in
better vehicle ride and control.

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 SUSPENSION SYSTEM TERMS
 Camber: Looking directly at the front of the vehicle, camber refers to the tilt in (+) or out
(‐) of the bottom half of the tire.
 Caster: Looking directly at the side of the vehicle, caster refers to the tilt rearward (+) of
the bottom half of the tire.
 Toe: Looking directly at the top of the vehicle, toe refers to the slant in (+) or out (‐) of the
front half of the tire.
 Jounce: Jounce refers to the bounce or vertical movement of the vehicle suspension upward
when it contacts a bump in the road.
 Rebound: Rebound refers to the movement of the vehicle suspension in the opposite
direction of jounce.
 Shimmy: Shimmy is an uncontrollable oscillation of the steering system experienced by
two opposing wheels.
 Knuckle: The knuckle is the suspension component that incorporates the spindle or hub
that the wheel bearings and wheels mount on.
 King Pin: The king pin is the vertical component in the knuckle that the wheels turn on
when the vehicle is steered.
 Spindle: The spindle is the long tapered bar‐shaped piece that is fitted to the knuckle on
which the wheel bearings and wheels are mounted.
 Hub: The hub is the hollow part of the knuckle that replaces the spindle in mounting the
bearings that support the wheel.
 Ball Joint: A ball joint is a fastener or connector that allows movement in all directions.
 Tie Rod: A tie rod is a component that firmly connects one wheel of a vehicle to the wheel
on the opposite end to provide steering.
 Track Bar: A track bar is a rod that connects a suspension beam to the frame to give lateral
support.
 Unsprang Weight: Unsprang weight is the total weight of all components in a vehicle that
are not dampened by the springs and shocks like the wheels and other closely associated
equipment.
 Scrub: Scrub is the lateral movement of a tire against the pavement due to suspension
system camber changes during jounce and rebound.

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 FIGURES OF TYPES OF SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

1) Figure 1- Solid beam suspension/ Ford Model T Front suspension Schematic

2) Figure2- Drive as Solid beam suspension member.

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3) Figure 3- Drive axle supported by leaf springs

4) Figure 4- Drive axle centre section-

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5) Figure 5- Dual beam suspension systems-

Double Wishbone Suspension

The double wishbone suspension was first used in the 1930’s in Europe and then in 1935 in
Detroit. Many vehicles used it until front wheel drive cars came into being starting in the 1970’s
when a form of the double wishbone suspension called the MacPherson strut came to be heavily
used (as discussed later). The double wishbone is classified as an independent suspension
system that has been used to replace the beam type dependent suspension systems. The double
wishbone suspension system consists of two equal‐sized short wishbone shaped members
(arms) positioned one over the other. The closed ends of the two wishbone arms are hinge
mounted to the top and bottom of the vehicle knuckle to provide vehicle steering. The vehicle
knuckle supports the spindle or hub to which the wheel is mounted. The two open ends of each
wishbone member are hinge‐mounted to the vehicle frame. In the event that the double
wishbone suspension is used for a drive‐wheel application, a coil spring is seated on the central
portion of the upper arm and extends upward where it is supported by a body member. In this
case, the upper arm supports most of the vertical load and there is space for the vehicle drive
shaft below. When the double wishbone suspension is used on a non‐drive wheel application,
the coil spring is seated in the central portion of the lower arm and again extends upward to a
body support member, with the lower arm supporting most of the vehicle load.

The wishbone suspension is lighter than the beam type suspension system but is more costly,
as the two wishbone links are more intricately shaped and have six attachment points as
opposed to just two for solid beam type suspension systems. Both systems support the wheels
in a perpendicular pattern to the road giving them an advantage over some other suspension
systems which, as previously explained, change wheel camber throughout suspension travel

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creating tire edge wear and wheel scrubbing on the road surface although, on some vehicles,
as will be explained later, closely controlled camber change with suspension travel can be an
advantage. Other parameters can be controlled throughout suspension travel with double
wishbone suspension systems such as camber angle, caster angle, and toe angle.

6) Figure 6- Double wishbone Suspension

MacPherson Strut Suspension

The strut was invented by Earle S. Macpherson, an American automotive engineer in 1947.
The Macpherson strut suspension is a lighter weight suspension system than a beam suspension
and has about the same weight and cost as the short/long arm suspension discussed above. Like
the short/long arm suspension, it is classified as an independent suspension. It came into
popularity in the 1970’s when light weight, front drive cars became the norm because of
government regulations requiring more fuel efficient operation.

The MacPherson strut suspension is like the short/long suspension except that the upper arm is
O
rotated 90 up and outboard to a near vertical position, and replaced with a long member. This
upper member, called the strut, contains a coaxial mounted spring and shock absorber with an
anti‐friction thrust bearing at the top. In a typical application, it is positively attached at the top
to a body structure and also positively attached at the bottom to the knuckle. It is designed to
support vertically applied suspension loads and rotates on the upper bearing with the wheel
during vehicle steering. It helps to control camber during vehicle cornering like short/long arm
suspension systems but not throughout full jounce because of the change in length and

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mounting angle of the strut compared to the SLA short upper arm. Rotating the upper arm
assembly up and outboard creates space needed for the transverse mounted engine and drive
shaft in the light weight, front drive vehicles that have become so popular. The design uses a
similar lower wishbone shaped link to provide both lateral and longitudinal support for the
wheel.

On some of the same vehicles, a strut is also used in the rear suspension system. It is similar to
the front strut but does not have the anti‐friction bearing at the top because of being on a non‐
steerable wheel.

7) Figure 7- MacPherson strut suspension schematic

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 TOTAL PRODUCTIVE MAINTENANCE
(TPM)
It can be considered as the medical science of machines. Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)
is a maintenance program which involves a newly defined concept for maintaining plants and
equipment. The goal of the TPM program is to markedly increase production while, at the same
time, increasing employee morale and job satisfaction.
TPM brings maintenance into focus as a necessary and vitally important part of the business.
It is no longer regarded as a non-profit activity. Down time for maintenance is scheduled as a
part of the manufacturing day and, in some cases, as an integral part of the manufacturing
process. The goal is to hold emergency and unscheduled maintenance to a minimum.
TPM now comprises of eight different sections which have come to be known as pillars. Each
pillar has its own areas of responsibility, but they also have areas where they overlap. It
concentrates on those that are most related to maintenance and productivity, although the
information will provide enough detail to give the reader a sound understanding of the others.

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1. Health & Safety
This is crucial as it sets the goal of zero accidents. Its importance is emphasized by the need to
protect operators, who will be trained, initially, to carry out simple technical tasks. Bear in
mind that most of the operators that will be participating in AM were not employed with
maintenance in mind, no matter how simple. To this end, we must cover risk assessments,
hazard maps, and some other safety concepts in detail. To build confidence in the operators,
they should be trained in how to carry out risk assessments. They are also encourage to help
with the development of the safe working procedures.

2. Education & Training

In many companies, training is not given the importance it deserves. Procedures are often
passed on informally on the job, and the trainee is required to make his own shorthand notes in
his log book. These are the instructions he is expected to use in the future when he carries out
the tasks by himself. This is highly ineffective as a training technique, as it assumes
 The trainer—the qualified technician—actually knows the correct method;
 That the trainer can, without using a proper procedure, recall all of the steps and relevant
facts in the correct order;
 That he has the ability to explain what he is doing, That the trainee is capable of
understanding the topic;
 That the trainee is capable of accurate note-taking;
 That the trainee can draw proper, accurate diagrams;
 That the trainee can learn at the same time as taking notes and following instructions.

3. Autonomous Maintenance (AM)

Using highly skilled technicians or engineers to carry out very simple maintenance tasks is not
cost-effective. If operators could be trained to carry out these basic tasks, it gives them an
opportunity to increase their skill level, makes them more responsible for the operation of the
tool, increases their job prospects, and frees up the technicians to work on more complex tasks
including TPM teams. It also has the benefit that the cost to do the job is reduced.

4. Planned Maintenance (PM)

Planned Maintenance looks for the underlying causes of equipment problems and identifies
and implements root-cause solutions.
In many organizations maintenance is rarely managed, with the engineers choosing the jobs
they want to tackle and using their “own experience” to carry out the work. Most technicians I
know dislike routine maintenance as it is too repetitive and is not a challenge.

5. Quality Maintenance
Even what is regarded as a perfect tool will not produce perfect product.
There will always be some kind of variation in the quality or the physical attributes of the
product. The cause of the variation is the limitations in the equipment design and the choice of
the components used. This pillar utilizes cross-functional teams to analyse areas of equipment
performance where the product variation should be reduced.

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6. Focused Improvement
There will be outstanding issues with equipment or processes that have been difficult to identify
in the past. Cross-functional teams are used to investigate the issues and to find permanent
solutions. The problems under consideration have to be evaluated to justify if a fix would
provide a positive, cost-effective benefit.

7. Support Systems
Every department within an organization has an impact on production: stores, purchasing,
facilities, quality control, scheduling, goods in, office staff, and sales. This pillar uses TPM
techniques to identify and resolve problems.

8. Initial Phase Management

This is the organizational or planning pillar. Teams are set up to consider every stage of
production.
The methodology follows a kind of Value Flow Analysis. How does the company get the ideas
for new products? How does it make the selection of and design of new products? How can the
customers’ needs and wants be better served? When the customer approaches the company, is
the call handled efficiently? What about the stages between the call and the product being
shipped? Is the documentation necessary and effective? Is the billing correct? Does the
customer get the goods as promised and when promised?

Contribution of TPM towards improving manufacturing

performance
TPM is an approach, which uses a number of tools and techniques to form highly effective
plants and machinery. In competition with manufacturing industries rising rapidly, TPM has
proved to be the maintenance improvement theory preventing the failure of an organization.
The aim of TPM is to bring management, supervisors and trade union members together to take
proper actions as and when required. TPM aims to use equipment at its maximum
productiveness by eliminating the waste and loss caused by failure of the equipment, setting
up and adjustment, speed losses, process defects and reduced yield. Total Productive
Maintenance (TPM) is a productive maintenance program, which contributes on the following:

 Establishing a planned system for Preventive Maintenance (PM) of the equipment.

 Empowering the employees to initiate proper activities.
 Maximization of overall equipment effectiveness.
 Involving all employees from the top management to shop floor workers.
 Increases the efficiency of a single machine or an integrated manufacturing system.
 Tends to use the available resources as more as possible.
 Total participation of all employees includes Autonomous Maintenance (AM) by the
operators into small group activities.

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 Various success factors like top management Leadership & involvement, traditional
maintenance practices are the significant contributions of TPM.

The 16 Losses in Total Productive Maintenance

To help identify all losses in a process system (man/machine/material), and thus, eliminate
them, they have been divided into 16 categories, and can be grouped accordingly, with orange
representing the equipment related losses, blue representing the losses relating to manpower
and yellow representing the losses relating to resource consumption

Equipment Losses

1. Breakdown loss:
(Unit time e.g. hours) the equipment breaks down causing the function of the line or process to
stop. Often this is considered as a sporadic failure, typically caused by equipment component
failure.
Examples: Bearing failure due to wear, electrical fault, snapped belt.

2. Set up & adjustment loss: (unit time e.g. hours)

This loss occurs during a changeover between products. Set up time is defined as the amount
of time taken to change a process over from the last part of a production run to the first good,
repeatable part of the next production run.

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Adjustment within the set up time is often hidden, and involves tweaking settings until optimal
run conditions are achieved.
Examples: Changing products, changing packaging, adjusting the feed rate.

3. Cutting blade replacement loss: (unit time e.g. hours)

The time loss incurred swapping any consumable tooling item when it has become
worn/ineffective or damaged.
Examples: Time spent replacing saw blades, cutting/grinding tools, and lathe tools.

4. Start-up loss: (unit time e.g. hours)

The loss incurred whilst starting up equipment, to get to steady state operating conditions, after
planned or unplanned shutdown.
Examples: Time spent warming/cooling equipment to operating temperature,
compressor/hydraulic power pack run-up time.

5. Minor stoppage & idling loss: (unit time e.g. hours)

These are typically small stoppages not logged as breakdowns and issues causing the machine
to pause or idle for short periods. They are often chronic losses, regularly repeated, often not
recorded and usually less than 1 minute duration.
Examples: Waiting for a machine to index, emptying a mould during press operation, a sensor
fault or product blockage.
6. Speed reduction loss: (unit rate e.g. tonnes per hour)
This loss occurs from operating at a speed less than the design speed.
Examples: Line speed reduced due to quality issues or mechanical problems, gaps in the
product on conveyors.

7. Defect & rework loss: (unit to match rate e.g. tonnes)

This is the loss of defective product i.e. Not Right First Time which requires rework, repair or
scrap.
Examples: Out of spec product, low weight product requiring top-up, poor surface finish,
incorrect labelling.

8. Shutdown loss: (unit time e.g. hours)

The loss incurred by deliberately shutting down the equipment within the production plan.
Examples: Routine maintenance, periodic overhaul, cleaning, statutory inspections.

Manpower Losses
9. Management Loss:
These are waiting time losses generated by management problems.
Examples: Failure to provide materials, spare parts, manpower resource, utilities, work
instructions.

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10. Motion Loss:
Losses are created due to unnecessary/excessive operator movement and transportation, as a
result of poor layout and work organisation.
Examples: Walking loss, wasted motion e.g. unnecessary reaching and lifting,

11. Line Organisation Loss:

This loss results from a shortage of operators on the line and operators having to work on more
equipment than was originally planned.
Examples: No additional cover or contingency for break times, training and time spent off the
line
12. Distribution Loss:
This loss is the wasted time that is experienced in the incorrect or inefficient delivery of raw
materials, packaging or products to and from the factory or the production line.
Example: Incorrect delivery of materials from supplier to store, late deliveries, excessive
handling of deliveries (double handling).

13. Measurement and Adjustment Loss:

This loss is caused by the frequent measurement and adjustment to prevent the recurrence of
problems.
Example: Excessive inspection integrated in the process as a result of poor quality and failure
to find root cause. Adjustment loss is experienced when adjusting equipment back to the
standard after routine cleaning and periodic consumable changes (e.g. labels, film, and ink).

Yield, Energy & Tooling Loss

14. Yield Losses:

This is the total loss between the input of raw material and the output of finished goods.
Examples: over-pack, giveaway, mass balances.

15. Energy:
Energy loss is the input energy which cannot be used effectively for processing
Examples: Start-up losses, Idling losses.

16. Die, Tool and Jig Losses:

This is the cost of the physical consumption of the spare parts or the refurbishment/maintenance
of items that are used on the line.
Examples: Cost of spares, cost of replacement and maintenance to tooling, dies and jigs.

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 OVERALL EQUIPMENT EFFECTIVENESS
 What is Overall Equipment Effectiveness?
OEE (Overall Equipment Effectiveness) is the gold standard for measuring manufacturing
productivity. Simply put – it identifies the percentage of manufacturing time that is truly
productive. An OEE score of 100% means you are manufacturing only Good Parts, as fast as
possible, with no Stop Time. In the language of OEE that means 100% Quality (only Good
Parts), 100% Performance (as fast as possible), and 100% Availability (no Stop Time).

Measuring OEE is a manufacturing best practice. By measuring OEE and the underlying
losses, you will gain important insights on how to systematically improve your
manufacturing process. OEE is the single best metric for identifying losses, benchmarking
progress, and improving the productivity of manufacturing equipment (i.e., eliminating
waste).

Now we will look at the three OEE factors, each of which takes into account a different type
of loss. They are Availability, Performance and Quality.

 AVAILABILITY

Availability takes into account Availability Loss, which includes any events that stop planned
production for an appreciable length of time (usually several minutes; long enough for an
operator to log a reason).

Examples of things that create Availability Loss include Unplanned Stops (such as equipment
failures and material shortages), and Planned Stops (such as changeover time). Changeover
time is included in OEE analysis, since it is time that could otherwise be used for
manufacturing. While it may not be possible to eliminate changeover time, in most cases it
can be significantly reduced. Reducing changeover time is the goal of SMED (Single-Minute
Exchange of Dies).

The remaining time after Availability Loss is subtracted is called Run Time.

 PERFORMANCE

Performance takes into account Performance Loss, which accounts for anything that causes
the manufacturing process to run at less than the maximum possible speed when it is running
(including both Slow Cycles and Small Stops).

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Examples of things that create Performance Loss include machine wear, substandard
materials, misfeeds, and jams.

The remaining time after Performance Loss is subtracted is called Net Run Time.

 QUALITY

Quality takes into account Quality Loss, which accounts for manufactured parts that do not
meet quality standards.

Examples of things that create Quality Loss include scrap and parts that need rework. OEE
Quality is similar to First Pass Yield, in that it defines Good Parts as parts that successfully
pass through the manufacturing process the first time without needing any rework.

The remaining time after Quality Loss is subtracted is called Fully Productive Time.

Our goal is not simply to measure OEE – it is to maximize Fully Productive Time.

 QUICK REVIEW

Now that you have taken a look at how the three OEE Factors are defined we can quickly
review each type of loss and its relationship to the OEE factors.

Loss OEE Factor

 Not part of the OEE calculation (it is part of

Schedule Loss the TEEP calculation).

Availability  Availability is the ratio of Run Time to Planned Production Time.

Loss  It takes into account Equipment Failure (unplanned stops)
and Setup and Adjustments (planned stops) from the Six Big
Losses.

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Loss OEE Factor

 100% Availability means the process is running during Planned

Production Time without any Stop Time (without any Unplanned
or Planned Stops).

Performance  Performance is the ratio of Net Run Time to Run Time.

Loss  It takes into account Idling and Minor Stops (small stops)
and Reduced Speed (speed loss) from the Six Big Losses.
 100% Performance means the manufacturing process is running
at its theoretical maximum speed (when it is running).

Quality Loss  Quality is the ratio of Fully Productive Time to Net Run Time.
 It takes into account Process Defects (production rejects)
and Reduced Yield (start-up rejects) from the Six Big Losses.
 100% Quality means there are no scrap parts or parts
needing rework.

As you can see, the core concepts of OEE are quite simple and the three OEE Factors really
help to focus us on the underlying causes of productivity loss.

We can delve even deeper into productivity losses by understanding the Six Big Losses.

We can also extend OEE analysis a step further by taking into account a fourth factor
– Utilization. This takes us into the realm of TEEP.
HOW TO CALCULATE OEE?

 SIMPLE CALCULATION

The simplest way to calculate OEE is as the ratio of Fully Productive Time to Planned
Production Time. Fully Productive Time is just another way of

Saying manufacturing only Good Parts as fast as possible (Ideal Cycle Time) with no Stop
Time. Hence the calculation is:

OEE = (Good Count × Ideal Cycle Time) / Planned Production Time

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Although this is an entirely valid calculation of OEE, it does not provide information about
the three loss-related factors: Availability, Performance, and Quality. For that – we use the
preferred calculation.

 PREFERRED CALCULATIO N

The preferred OEE calculation is based on the three OEE Factors: Availability, Performance,
and Quality.

OEE is calculated by multiplying the three OEE factors: Availability, Performance, and
Quality.

 AVAILABILITY
Availability takes into account all events that stop planned production long enough where it
makes sense to track a reason for being down (typically several minutes).

Availability is calculated as the ratio of Run Time to Planned Production Time:

Availability = Run Time / Planned Production Time

Run Time is simply Planned Production Time less Stop Time, where Stop Time is defined as
all the time where the manufacturing process was intended to be running but was not due
to Unplanned Stops (e.g., Breakdowns) or Planned Stops (e.g., Changeovers).

Run Time = Planned Production Time − Stop Time

 PERFORMANCE-
Performance takes into account anything that causes the manufacturing process to run at less
than the maximum possible speed when it is running (including both Slow Cycles and Small
Stops).

Performance is the ratio of Net Run Time to Run Time. It is calculated as

Performance = (Ideal Cycle Time × Total Count) / Run Time

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Ideal Cycle Time is the fastest cycle time that your process can achieve in optimal
circumstances. Therefore, when it is multiplied by Total Count the result is Net Run Time
(the fastest possible time to manufacture the parts).

Since rate is the reciprocal of time, Performance can also be calculated as:

Performance = (Total Count / Run Time) / Ideal Run Rate

Performance should never be greater than 100%. If it is, that usually indicates that Ideal Cycle
Time is set incorrectly (it is too high)

 QUALITY
Quality takes into account manufactured parts that do not meet quality standards, including
parts that need rework. Remember, OEE Quality is similar to First Pass Yield, in that it
defines Good Parts as parts that successfully pass through the manufacturing process the first
time without needing any rework.

Quality is calculated as:

Quality = Good Count / Total Count

This is the same as taking the ratio of Fully Productive Time (only Good Parts manufactured
as fast as possible with no Stop Time) to Net Run Time (all parts manufactured as fast as
possible with no stop time).

 OEE
OEE takes into account all losses, resulting in a measure of truly productive manufacturing
time. It is calculated as:

OEE = Availability × Performance × Quality

If the equations for Availability, Performance, and Quality are substituted in the above and
reduced to their simplest terms the result is:

OEE = (Good Count × Ideal Cycle Time) / Planned Production Time

This is the “simplest” OEE calculation described earlier. And, as described earlier,
multiplying Good Count by Ideal Cycle Time results in Fully Productive
Time (manufacturing only Good Parts, as fast as possible, with no Stop Time).

 Why the Preferred OEE Calculation?

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OEE scores provide a very valuable insight – an accurate picture of how effectively your
manufacturing process is running. And, it makes it easy to track improvements in that process
over time. What your OEE score doesn’t provide is any insights as to the underlying causes
of lost productivity. This is the role of Availability, Performance, and Quality.

In the preferred calculation you get the best of both worlds. A single number that captures
how well you are doing (OEE) and three numbers that capture the fundamental nature of your
losses (Availability, Performance, and Quality).

Here is an interesting example. Look at the following OEE data for two sequential weeks.

OEE Factor Week 1 Week 2

OEE 85.1% 85.7%

Availability 90.0% 95.0%

Performance 95.0% 95.0%

Quality 99.5% 95.0%

OEE is improving. Great job! Or is it? Dig a little deeper and the picture is less clear. Most
companies would not want to increase Availability by 5.0% at the expense of decreasing
Quality by 4.5%.

CALCULATION EXAMPLE

Now let’s work through a complete example using the preferred OEE calculation. Here is
data recorded for the first shift:

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 Item Data

Shift Length 8 hours (480 minutes)

Breaks (2) 15 minute and (1) 30 minute

Down Time 47 minutes

Ideal Cycle Time 1.0 seconds

Total Count 19,271 widgets

Reject Count 423 widgets

 Planned Production Time

As described in the OEE Factors page, the OEE calculation begins with Planned Production
Time. So first, exclude any Shift Time where there is no intention of running production
(typically Breaks).

Formula: Shift Length − Breaks

Example: 480 minutes − 60 minutes = 420 minutes

 Run Time
The next step is to calculate the amount of time that production was actually running (was
not stopped). Remember that Stop Time should include both Unplanned
Stops (e.g., Breakdowns) and Planned Stops (e.g., Changeovers). Both provide opportunities
for improvement.

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 Formula: Planned Production Time − Stop Time

Example: 420 minutes − 47 minutes = 373 minutes

 Good Count
If you do not directly track Good Count, it also needs to be calculated.

Formula: Total Count − Reject Count

Example: 19,271 widgets − 423 widgets = 18,848 widgets

 Availability

Availability is the first of the three OEE factors to be calculated. It accounts for when the
process is not running (both Unplanned Stops and Planned Stops).

Formula: Run Time / Planned Production Time

Example: 373 minutes / 420 minutes = 0.8881 (88.81%)

 Performance
Performance is the second of the three OEE factors to be calculated. It accounts for when the
process is running slower than its theoretical top speed (both Small Stops and Slow Cycles).

Formula: (Ideal Cycle Time × Total Count) / Run Time

Example: (1.0 seconds × 19,271 widgets) / (373 minutes × 60
seconds) = 0.8611 (86.11%)

Performance can also be calculated based on Ideal Run Rate. The equivalent Ideal Run Rate
in our example is 60 parts per minute.

Formula: (Total Count / Run Time) / Ideal Run Rate

Example: (19,271 widgets / 373 minutes) / 60 parts per minute
= 0.8611 (86.11%)

 Quality
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Quality is the third of the three OEE factors to be calculated. It accounts for manufactured
parts that do not meet quality standards.

Formula: Good Count / Total Count

Example: 18,848 widgets / 19,271 widgets = 0.9780 (97.80%)

 OEE
Finally, OEE is calculated by multiplying the three OEE factors.

Formula: Availability × Performance × Quality

Example: 0.8881 × 0.8611 × 0.9780 = 0.7479 (74.79%)

OEE can also be calculated using the simple calculation.

Formula: (Good Count × Ideal Cycle Time) / Planned Production

Time

Example: (18,848 widgets × 1.0 seconds) / (420 minutes × 60

seconds) = 0.7479 (74.79%)

The result is the same in both cases. The OEE for this shift is 74.79%.

Expected Outcome of Project- We are trying our best to reduce the loss time so that
company can increase productivity, production quality in the market.

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 CHAPTER 3- METHODOLOGY
____________________________________________________________
3.1 TPM PILLAR- AUTONOMUS MAINTANENCE (JISHU
HOZEN)

This pillar is geared towards developing operators to be able to take care of small maintenance
tasks, thus freeing up the skilled maintenance people to spend time on more value added
activity and technical repairs. The operators are responsible for upkeep of their equipment to
prevent it from deteriorating.

3.1.1 Policy:
1. Uninterrupted operation of equipment.
2. Flexible operators to operate and maintain other equipment.
3. Eliminating the defects at source through active employee participation.
4. Stepwise implementation of JH activities.

3.1.2 JISHU HOZEN Targets:

1. Prevent the occurrence of 1A / 1B because of JH.
2. Reduce oil consumption by 50%
3. Reduce process time by 50%
4. Increase use of JH by 50%

3.1.3 Steps in JISHU HOZEN:

1. Preparation of employees.
2. Initial clean-up of machines.
3. Take counter measures
4. Fix tentative JH standards
5. General inspection
6. Autonomous inspection
7. Standardization and
8. Autonomous management.

Each of the above mentioned steps is discussed in detail below.

1. Train the Employees:

 Educate the employees about TPM, Its advantages, JH advantages and Steps in JH.
Educate the employees about abnormalities in equipment.

2. Initial clean-up of machines:

 Supervisor and technician should discuss and set a date for implementing step1
 Arrange all items needed for cleaning

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  On the arranged date, employees should clean the equipment completely with the help
of maintenance department.
 Dust, stains, oils and grease has to be removed.
 Following are the things that has to be taken care while cleaning. They are Oil leakage,
loose wires, unfastened nits and bolts and worn out parts.
 After clean up problems are categorized and suitably tagged. White tags is place where
problems can be solved by operators. Pink tag is placed where the aid of maintenance
department is needed.
 Contents of tag is transferred to a register.
 Make note of area which were inaccessible.
 Finally close the open parts of the machine and run the machine.

3. Counter Measures:
 Inaccessible regions had to be reached easily. E.g. If there are many screw to open a fly
wheel door, hinge door can be used. Instead of opening a door for inspecting the
machine, acrylic sheets can be used.
 To prevent work out of machine parts necessary action must be taken.
 Machine parts should be modified to prevent accumulation of dirt and dust.

4. Tentative Standard:
 JH schedule has to be made and followed strictly.
 Schedule should be made regarding cleaning, inspection and lubrication and it also
should include details like when, what and how.

5. General Inspection:
 The employees are trained in disciplines like Pneumatics, electrical, hydraulics,
lubricant and coolant, drives, bolts, nuts and Safety.
 This is necessary to improve the technical skills of employees and to use inspection
manuals correctly.
 After acquiring this new knowledge the employees should share this with others.
 By acquiring this new technical knowledge, the operators are now well aware of
machine parts.
6. Autonomous Inspection:
 New methods of cleaning and lubricating are used.
 Each employee prepares his own autonomous chart / schedule in consultation with
supervisor.
 Parts which have never given any problem or part which don't need any inspection are
removed from list permanently based on experience.
 Including good quality machine parts. This avoid defects due to poor JH.
 Inspection that is made in preventive maintenance is included in JH.
 The frequency of clean-up and inspection is reduced based on experience.
7. Standardization:
 Up to the previous stem only the machinery / equipment was the concentration.

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 However in this step the surroundings of machinery are organized. Necessary items
should be organized, such that there is no searching and searching time is reduced.
 Work environment is modified such that there is no difficulty in getting any item.
 Everybody should follow the work instructions strictly.
 Necessary spares for equipment is planned and procured.

8. Autonomous Management:
 OEE and OPE and other TPM targets must be achieved by continuous improve through
Kaizen.
 PDCA (Plan, Do, Check and Act) cycle must be implemented for Kaizen

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 CASE STUDY ON JISHU HOZEN
(AN AUTONOMOUS PILLER OF TPM)

Case studies reported in literature show a coherent set of improvement techniques are necessary
to bring about changes in the plant. Improvements in overall equipment effectiveness (OEE)
and TPM can reduce the equipment losses. Methods like statistical process control (SPC), and
automated process control (APC) can lead to an introduction of integrated process control (IPC)
that can improve the quality of product and reduce plant losses. A new algorithm was reported
that enables the estimation of the mean effective process time t(e) and the coefficient of
variation c(e) of a multiple machine workstation from real data in a semiconductor industry.
The results reported from the simulation further corroborate the essential points about OEE,
TPM and automation and systematic improvements required in the plant. The effectiveness and
implementation of the TPM program for an electronics manufacturing company has also been
studied and reported with similar outcomes. Recently, a case study reported show remarkable
improvement in OEE through lowering the number of fugai (breakdown) in a tool room
organization. An OEE solution can enable manufacturers to achieve world-class status. More
specifically it can provide benefits in four key areas; equipment (reduced equipment downtime
and maintenance cost, plus better management of the equipment life cycle), personnel (labour
efficiencies and increased productivity by improving visibility into operations and empowering
operators), (increased productivity by identifying bottlenecks), and quality (increase rate of
quality and reduce scrap). It is important to understand the causal factors for such effectiveness
losses. Only by eliminating the causes can a sustainable improvement in effectiveness be
achieved. The causal factors for the loss of effectiveness may be categorized as:

 A single causal factor for the effectiveness loss.

 Multiple two or more causal factors combined result in the effectiveness loss.
 Complex the interaction between two or more causal factors results in the effectiveness loss

AUTONOMOUS MAINTENANCE
Autonomous maintenance (AM) is one of the pillars of TPM. It follows a structured approach
to machine and process maintenance, which increases the skill levels of personnel to
understand, manage and improve their equipment and processes. The operators' role is changed
from being reactive during machine breakdown to a more proactive in machine maintenance.
This facilitates a smoother process flow; achieve optimal conditions for production of high
quality end-product without delays. The autonomous maintenance also eliminates minor
equipment shutdowns and faster recovery from a machine breakdown.

To understand the importance of AM, we need to look at maintenance procedure followed in

the early parts of 20th century. Huge plants were already established after the industrial
revolution, and maintenance was done by dedicated, highly skilled employees. The machine
operators were expected to wait for the maintenance personnel to rectify minor breakdowns
while they were around the equipment all of the time. This leads to unnecessary delays and
reduction in productivity. A drastic change had to be brought about by allowing the machine
operators to maintain their machines. The operators have to first identify insufficient
lubrication, air leaks, increased machine vibrations because of lose nuts and bolts. The solution
to these common problems will be available with the operator because he is in constant

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interaction with the machine. Operator equipment maintenance is about training operators to
care for equipment at the source so as to ensure that basic equipment conditions (no looseness,
no contamination, perfect lubrication) are established and maintained. This allows the
successful implementation of planned preventive and predictive maintenance to be
administered by the maintenance department. AM improves corporate business results and
creates pleasant and productive workplace by changing the way people think about and work
with equipment throughout the factory. AM is one of the most important basic building blocks
maintenance program.
The first stage of operator’s training starts when the he / she observe the activities of
maintenance personnel. Operators should work closely together with the maintenance
personnel, and they can do this in three ways:

 They can alert maintenance people.

 They can provide excellent information.
 They can perform routine maintenance.

AM is a critical first step of TPM and operators must be trained to close the information gap
between them and the maintenance staff, making it easier for both to work as one team.

Steps for AM Implementation

The steps of AM can broadly categorized into three main activities,

 Training and education,

 Teamwork,
 Housekeeping and employee involvement.

The commitment of top management to smoothen the autonomous maintenance activity should
not be underestimated. Specifically, the AM activities can be divided into seven stages as
shown below

 Conduct initial cleaning and inspection

 Eliminate sources of contamination and inaccessible areas
 Develop and test provisional cleaning,
 Inspection and lubrication up to standards,
 Conduct general inspections autonomously,
 Workplace organization and housekeeping, and
 Fully implement the autonomous maintenance program.

Implementation of AM while working on Boilers

There are two types of steam generating boiler plants, each works in shifts as per the
requirements of batch processing of malt in the kiln plant. The steam production of each boiler
(nominal) 6 to 7 tons per hour, design pressure 10 bar, feed water temperature (maximum) 180
C, combustion efficiency 80%. Boiler plant is typically operational for 17 hours for one kiln
box, and average amount of malt product 70,000 kg. Kiln temperature level requirements vary
with time. The initial 9 hours need low temperature, following 4 hours the kiln plant is at

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medium temperature, and final 3 hours kiln is maintained at high temperature. The furnace of
the boiler can be categorized into three main components namely, control and safety
mechanism, rotary cup atomizer and ignition of furnace.

The Choice of Boiler Plant

Boiler plant was selected for the autonomous maintenance study for these reasons.
 The boiler plant is a general utility and downtime of this plant directly affects the malt
production
 Constant maintenance is necessary for the continuous operation of the plant.
 The boiler plant is one of the main contributors for product quality and customer
satisfaction.

Some of the main problems associated with the boiler plant are listed below:

 Negligence of continuous follow-up and care causes consumption of additional fuel.

 Boiler malfunction reduces the quality of product and can reduce customer satisfaction.
 Leakage of furnace oil from intake causes water pollution in the plant vicinity.
Environmental studies in literature indicate that one litre of furnace oil pollutes one million
litres of water.
 Inadequate handling and operation of water softener makes the water to remain in a state
of permanent hardness. These factors create accumulation of rust and dissolved oxygen that
causes corrosion and reduces the life of boiler.
 The accumulation of rust, corrosion and scale formation inside the tube can reduce normal
heat transfer that increases fuel consumption adding to the cost of malt production.
 In extreme cases rust and salt deposition can result in explosion.
 The autonomous maintenance study also focused on the furnace rotary cup atomizer due to
its high down time.

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 CHAPTER 4 – ANALYSIS
____________________________________________________________

4.1 STUDY DONE DURING THE PROJECT

4.1.1 Project Work Flow
 Environment Observations of Company
 Information gathering from operators about the process steps
 Working schedule and planning study
 Preparation of time consumption data for different operations involved and number of items
produced in that period.
 Study about JH case study from different resources
 Improvement steps discussion with project guide and operator
 Applying these steps for observation
 Again Preparation of time consumption data for different operations involved and number
of items produced in that period
 Comparing both data noted for the same process steps.

4.1.2 Environment Conditions of the Company:

 Working temperature near the machine.

 Humidity
 Air flow
 Machine cleaning condition
 Sound produced by machine
 Lights arrangements
 Measuring instruments availability
 Safety measures

4.1.3 Information Gathering:

Q- How you start your working day in company?

A- By checking the power connection for machine and availability of raw material to start the
working procedure.
Q- How much it take to come in a flow to do the work?
A- About 15-20 min.
Q-What are problems faced on working on a machine?
A- Noise generated on machine, heat produced and frequent opening and closing of the
machining chamber covering which is used for safety purpose.
Q- How you manage the fatigue and sleepiness during working?
A- It comes after lunch period and managed by drinking water breaks and tea or normal
stretching etc.

Working Schedule and Planning Study:

Working Schedule-

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 10:00am-1:10pm >Working hours
 01:10pm-2:00pm >Lunch Hours
 02:00pm-5:00pm >Working Hours
(Tea break of 10 min at 2:30pm)

Planning –
Every operator will inform to production line head about 30 min before the finishing of raw
material to maintain the availability of raw material.

Production has following Manufacturing processes-

Drilling, Boring, Turning, Grinding, Finishing etc.

1. Preparation of data of time Consumed:

Time consumption readings-

 Shift Time- 360 min

 Available time for machines- 325min
 Machines availability = 90.27%

Turning Process-
 Average number of Pieces produces= 1080
 Time taken per piece =18.06sec

Finishing Process-
 Average number of Pieces produced= 1148
 Time taken per piece= 16.98

5. Discussion of Improvement in Steps and application:

Possible solutions founded-

 Cleaning or maintenance time should be provided before starting and finishing the work
 Oiling of the machine case should be done to reduce operator fatigue.
 Hooter should be used to give the signals for timing of arrival on machine and for its
cleaning time.
 Frequent check for the employee working conditions.

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 CHAPTER 5 – CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________

Turning Process-

 Average number of Pieces produces= 1108

 Time taken per piece =17.59sec
 Time saved= 0.81sec, Production rates increment= 2.5%

Finishing Process-

 Average number of Pieces produced= 1192

 Time taken per piece= 16.35sec
 Time saved= 0.66sec, Production rates increment= 3.8%

Impact of JISHU HOZEN:

Applying the JH study in production reduces the time consumption and it makes the operator
capable to maintain their machine in proper working conditions. Thus the operator becomes
the mentor itself. This also increases the production rates and save the cost involved to the
maintenance of machinery and increasing the operator salary and moral improvement becomes
easy.

The following Charts shows the increased production rates:

5.1 White fugai status:

White fugai can be simply explained as the defects which can be removed by appointed
operator easily, these are easily visible, these defects are not difficult to remove but removal of
these defects can participate in increase of production rates.

WHITE FUGAI STATUS

25000
No. of Pieces Produced

20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

No of Months
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 5.2 Red Fugai status:

Red fugai status can simply be explained as the defects for which we have to especially hire a
technician these defect can hold the production line for hours and these defects some time are
not easily removable.

RED FUGAI
25000
No. of Pieces Produced

20000

15000

10000

5000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

No of Months

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 TPM PILLAR – KOBESTU KAIZEN
"Kai" means change, and "Zen" means good (for the better). Basically kaizen is for small
Improvements, but carried out on a continual basis and involve all people in the organization.
Kaizen is opposite to big spectacular innovations. Kaizen requires no or little investment. The
Principle behind is that "a very large number of small improvements are more effective in an
Organizational environment than a few improvements of large value. This pillar is aimed at
Reducing losses in the workplace that affect our efficiencies. By using a detailed and thorough
Procedure we eliminate losses in a systematic method using various Kaizen tools. These
Activities are not limited to production areas and can be implemented in administrative areas
as well.

 Kaizen Policy :

1. Practice concepts of zero losses in every sphere of activity.

2. Relentless pursuit to achieve cost reduction targets in all resources
3. Relentless pursuit to improve over all plant equipment effectiveness.
4. Extensive use of PM analysis as a tool for eliminating losses.
5. Focus of easy handling of operators

 Kaizen Target :

Achieve and sustain zero loses with respect to minor stops, measurement and adjustments,
defects and unavoidable downtimes. It also aims to achieve 30% manufacturing cost reduction.

 Tools used in Kaizen :

1. PM analysis
2. Why - Why analysis
3. Summary of losses
4. Kaizen register
5. Kaizen summary sheet.
The objective of TPM is maximization of equipment effectiveness. TPM aims at maximization
of machine utilization and not merely machine availability maximization. As one of the pillars
of TPM activities, Kaizen pursues efficient equipment, operator and material and energy
utilization that is extremes of productivity and aims at achieving substantial effects. Kaizen
activities try to thoroughly eliminate 16 major losses.
.

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 Important points about Focused Improvement Pillar

Focused improvement includes all activities that maximize the overall equipment effectiveness
and processes. It achieves these by thorough elimination of losses and improvement of
performance. The objective of focused improvement is to make sure the equipment’s daily
performance is the same as the performance on its best day. The fact is machines do virtually
100 percent of the product manufacturing work. The only thing we people do, whether we’re
operators, technicians, engineers, or managers, is to tend to the needs of the machines in one
way or another. The better our machines run, more is the productivity of our shop floor and
more will be the success our business. The driving concept behind losses may be either a
functional loss (inability of equipment to execute a required function) or a function reduction
(reduced capability without complete loss of a required function).

Focused improvement is aimed at zero losses, both functional and function reduction.
Maximizing equipment effectiveness requires the complete elimination of failures, defects, and
factors causing failures; in other words, the wastes and losses incurred in equipment operation.
A critical TPM paradigm shift is the core belief of focused improvement. This can be
summarized as follows:

 Old paradigm new equipment is the best it will ever be.

 New paradigm new equipment is the worst it will ever be.

The more we operate and maintain a piece of equipment, the more we learn about it. We use
this knowledge to continuously improve our maintenance plan and the productivity of the
machine. We would only choose to replace a machine should its technology become obsolete,
not because it has deteriorated into a poorly performing machine. The proper implementation
of focused improvement methodologies yield short term and long term improvements in
equipment capacity, equipment availability, and production cycle time. Focused improvement
has been, and still is the primary methodology for productivity improvement in the manufacture
of microchip devices. Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) is the key metric of focused
improvement.

Specific Steps taken for Improvement at AMF

Four levels of planning and implementation were aimed at AMF, these are listed below:

Level 1

Create awareness; Recognize deterioration and improve equipment to prevent it:

 AM awareness was created through banners, posters, streamers and flyers throughout the
plant especially in the production lines.
 Watch for and discover abnormalities in equipment operation and components.
 Understand the importance of proper lubrication and lubrication methods.
 Understand the importance of cleaning, inspection and proper cleaning methods.
 Understand the problem of contamination and the ability to make localized improvements.

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Level 2

Understand equipment structure and functions:

 Understand what to look for when checking mechanisms for normal operations.
 Clean and inspect to maintain equipment performance.
 Understand criteria for judging abnormalities.
 Confidently judge when equipment needs to be shut off.
 Some ability to perform breakdown diagnosis.

Kaizen in case of Boilers

Daily checklist for boiler equipment was made for employees working with the boiler plant.
Along with the daily check list weekly checklist and emergency checklist were prepared. These
are shown here for completeness.

 Observe/check the switching points of the water level regulator

 Observe the switching points of the temperature or pressure regulator respectively.
 Check easy movement of the burner control (control elements for air and fuel).
 Check combustion air fan, ignition and/or ventilation fan for easy turning and power
transmission (V-belt).
 Check tightness of control device and/or intermediate venting.
 Check ignition device.
 Check pre- pump ventilation.
 Check flame detection unit.
 Examine combustion quality.
 Purge water level gauge.
 Check temperature or pressure limiter for changes of the set values (test keys).
 Operate draining and desalting device.
 Examine feed water and boiler water by means of chemical analysis.
 Check boiler water monitoring devices for infiltration of foreign substances by means
of the test key.
 Other tests and maintenance to be performed at regular intervals:
 Check boiler valves for tightness.
 Check feeding and recirculation device by alternate operation.
 Check tightness and easy movements of fuel tank, fuel lines as well as mountings.
 Check fuel pressure indicator.
 Examine combustion chamber and flue gas passes.
 Check vent safety valves.
 Check water level limiter by lowering the water level (LWL).
 Control of the temperature and pressure indicators via, precision thermometer
respectively manometer.
 Close and open the flue gas tap in order to check the limit switch.
 Interrupt the impulse line of the air pressure flow indicator and the air pressure control
device at the burner.
 Check fuel shut-off device.

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  Check easy movement and tightness of the safety shut-off device upstream of the
burner.
 Check gas ignitions control device and intermediate venting respectively.
 Operate main cut-out.
 Check ignition device.
 Check pre- purge ventilation.
 Check flame detector by blacking out the flame sensor.
 Examine combustion quality.

Weekly Check List for Work Stations

 Check the joint of the pipe lines, if it has any defects or not?
 Clean the around of the pipe lines, ensure that there are no leakages on the floor.
 Take the filters out and clean it.
 Clean the track of the furnace fuel lines and burner surroundings.
 Check the steam pipe, ensure that is not defected.

Weekly Checklist for Boiler Equipment

 In case of steam boiler which can be switched from high to low pressure, the limiters
must be checked at least during each operating period, however at least weekly in case
of low pressure operation.

In Case of Emergency

 Switch off main cut-out.

 Cut off fuel supply.
 In case of water shortage water shortage and damage to the boiler do not refill boiler.
 Release boiler pressure and report to the supervisor respectively to the local boiler
authority.

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 REFERENCES

1. www.qhtalbros.com
2. www.wikipedia.com
3. www.ijtre.com
4. www.slideshare.com
5. http://www.mantenimientopetroquimica.com/en/tpm.html
6. https://globaljournals.org/GJRE_Volume12/4-Total-Productive-Maintenance-A-Case-
Study.pdf
7. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247834817_Total_productive_maintenance_im
plementation_in_a_manufacturing_organisation
8. http://www.ijettjournal.org/archive/ijett-v4i5p85
9. www.ijrmet.com/vol2/a984.pdf
10. www.ijettjournal.org/volume-4/issue-5/IJETT-V4I5P85.pdf
11. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275974026_KAIZEN_-_A_case_study
12. www.dipp.nic.in
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