Ground Water Eng'g Notes (CHAPTERS 1-9)

GROUND WATER ENG’G
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
GROUNDWATER RESOURCES
The study of groundwater flow is equally important as studying the surface water resources
since about 22% of the world’s fresh water resources exist in the form of groundwater.
Further, the subsurface water forms a critical input for the sustenance of life and vegetation
in arid zones. Because of its importance as significant source of water supply, various
aspects of groundwater dealing with the exploration, development and utilization have been
extensively studied by workers from different disciplines, such as geology, geophysics,
geochemistry, agricultural engineering, hydraulic engineering and civil engineering etc.
Groundwater flow is one part of the complex dynamic hydrologic cycle. Saturated
formations below the surface act as mediums for the transmission of groundwater, and as reservoirs
for the storage of water. Water infiltrates to these formations from the surface and is transmitted
slowly for varying distances until it returns to the surface by the action of natural flow, vegetation,
or actions of man (Todd, 1980).
Figure 1.1: Groundwater flow in the hydrologic cycle
1 2017/18 DILLA UNIVERSITY

Table 1.1 Amount of water on earth according to the survey conducted within the
international geophysical year (Holy, 1982)
Water occurrence 103 Gm3 Amount of water Rate of exchange
% of water % of freshwater (Years)
World oceans 1300000 97 - 3000
Salt lakes/seas 100 0.008 - -
Polar ice 28500 2.14 77.6 8000
Atmospheric water 12 0.001 0.035 0.027(10 days)
Water in 1 0.000 0.003 -
organisms
Fresh lakes 123 0.009 0.335 -
Water courses 1 0.000 0.003 0.031 (11 days)
Unsaturated zone 65 0.005 0.18 1
Saturated zone 8000 0.60 21.8 500
(Groundwater)
Total fresh water 36700 2.77 100 -
Total water 1337000 100 - -
Historical Background
Old Greek and Roman philosophers have speculated about groundwater. They were
puzzled by springs and discharge of water in to rivers in dry seasons; long after rainy
season has passed. Greek Plato (427-347 BC) and other philosophers offered solution for
that groundwater originated from the cavern which was connected to the ocean. By wave
action, water of the sea and ocean was transported upward in to caverns and from there to
the springs and rivers. They assumed that groundwater purifies by filtration of salt of sea
and ocean water, in order to explain that springs and river waters are fresh.
True explanation of groundwater was put forward by the French scientist Perrault (1608-
1680) and Mariotte (1620-1684). They found that precipitation could infiltrate in to the
ground in appreciable quantities that could sustain springs and rivers. French water works
engineer Darcy (1803-1858) made a start with groundwater hydraulics. Modern trends of

hydrogeology concern the development of flow systems concepts, hydrochemistry and

groundwater contamination. In this regard Thiem (1906), Theis (1935), Jacob (1950)
developed radial flow in to wells. Scientists including Van Dam (1983) developed
equations of fresh water lenses and fresh-saline water interface. Apollo and Postman (1996)
have paid attention to the interrelationship between groundwater chemical compositions
associated with rock types. Stuyvesant (1999) researched on groundwater classification in
to different water types. Recent research has increased in the field of groundwater tracing in
fractured and karstic rock areas. Such chemical aspects are focused based on the need to
provide good quality water for drinking water supply and irrigation purposes.
History of Groundwater use
Since early days of humanity people have used groundwater for domestic water supply and
irrigation. Both springs and water wells were utilized for this purpose. Well construction
was carried out in old civilization in china, Middle East and Egypt. 2500 years ago,
Khanates were installed in Persia (Iran) and latter practiced in Afghanistan and Egypt.
Since 12th century, due to modern technology many African countries including Ethiopia
are utilizing groundwater from wells.
Hydrogeology is the study of occurrence, movement and chemistry of groundwater in its
geological environment.

CHAPTER II
2.1 Occurrence of Groundwater
Groundwater system is the zone in the earth’s crust where the open space in the rock is
completely filled with groundwater at a pressure greater than atmospheric. Groundwater
stretches out below the groundwater table. Groundwater table, which is the top most part of
groundwater, may be located near or even at land surface and not fixed meaning it fluctuate
seasonally.
Two zones can be distinguished in which water occurs in the ground:
a) The unsaturated zone/ Zone of aeration
b) The saturated zone
For the hydro-geologist both zones are important links and storage devices in the
hydrologic cycle. For the engineer the importance of each zone depends on his field of
interest.
The process of water entering into the ground is called infiltration. Downward transport of
water in the unsaturated zone is called percolation, whereas the upward transport in the
unsaturated zone is called capillary rise. The flow of water through saturated porous media
is called groundwater flow. The out flow from groundwater to surface water is called
seepage.

Figure 2.1: Schematic representation of subsurface water in the soil
The type of openings (voids or pores) in which groundwater occurs is an important

property of the subsurface formation. Three types are generally distinguished.
a) Pores: Openings between individual particles as in sand and gravel. Pores are generally
interconnected and allow capillary flow for which Darcy’s law can be applied.
b) Fractures, Crevices or joints: This meant fractures and crevices in hard rock which
have developed from breaking of the rock. The pores may vary from super capillary
size to capillary size. Only for the latter situation application of Darcy’s law is possible.
Water in these fractures is known as fissure or fault water.
c) Solution channels and caverns in limestone (karst water): This meant solution
channels and openings resulting from gas bubbles in lava. These large openings result
in a turbulent flow of groundwater which cannot be described with Darcy’s law.

Table 2.1 Variation of groundwater density based on temperature and total dissolved solids
(TDS) concentration.
Temperature (oC) Density (Kg/m3) TDS (mg/l) Density at 4oC(Kg/m3)
0 999.87 0 1000
4 1000 1000 1000.70
5 999.90 5000 1003.60
10 999.75 100000 1072
20 998.27
Density differences as a result of variation in TDS concentration are more pronounced than
variations resulting from changes in temperature. Groundwater is contained in rocks. Rocks
may be classified as consolidated and unconsolidated. Consolidated rocks include granites,
basalt, gneiss, sandstone, shale etc.
The porosity, n of the subsurface formation is that fraction of its volume which consists of
openings and pores: n=Vv/V; Where Vv is the pore volume or volume of voids and V is the
total volume of the soil.
When water is drained by gravity from saturated material, only a part of the total volumes
is released. This portion is known as Specific yield (Sy). The water not drained is called
specific retention (Sr) and the sum of Sy and Sr is equal to the porosity. In fine-grained
material the forces that retain water against the force of gravity are high due to the small
pore size. Hence, the specific retention of fine-grained material (silt or clay) is larger than
that of coarse material (sand or gravel). Specific yield (Sy) =Vw/V and specific retention
(Sr) =Vr/V and Vv=Vw+Vr as shown above n=Vv/V.
While porosity gives a measure of the water storage capability of a formation, not all the
water held in the pores is available for extraction by pumping or draining by gravity. The
pores hold back some water by molecular attraction and surface tension. The actual volume
of water that can be extracted by the force of gravity from a unit volume of aquifer
material is known as the specific yield, Sy. The fraction of water held back in the aquifer is
known as specific retention; Sr. Details of these will be discussed in part 2.3.

2.2 Unsaturated Zone/ Zone of aeration

Unsaturated Zone: This is also known as zone of aeration. In this zone the soil pores are
only partially saturated with water. The space between the land surface and the water table
marks the extent of this zone. Further, the zone of aeration has three sub zones: soil water
zone, capillary fringe and intermediate zone.
The soil water zone lies close to the ground surface in the major root band of the vegetation
from which the water is lost to the atmosphere by Evapotranspiration. Capillary fringe on
the other hand hold water by capillary action. This zone extends from the water table
upwards to the limit of the capillary rise. The intermediate zone lies between the soil water
zone and the capillary fringe.
The thickness of the zone of aeration and its constituent sub-zones depend upon the soil
texture and moisture content and vary from region to region. The soil moisture in the zone
of aeration is of importance in agricultural practice and irrigation engineering. This part is
however concerned only with the saturated zone.
Figure 2.2: Classification of subsurface water and variation in degree of saturation
Important conditions in the unsaturated zone are the wilting point and the field capacity.
Field capacity is the moisture content in the soil a few days after irrigation or heavy

rainfall, when excess water in the unsaturated zone has percolated. Often the soil water
pressure is given as a pF value, which is the 10base logarithm of the pressure in centimeters
of water column h, i.e. pF = log10 (-h).
Field capacity is often taken (by definition) as the soil moisture situation corresponding to
an under-pressure of 100cm (pF 2) but also larger pF values are used (pF 2.3 or pF 2.7).
Wilting point corresponds to a minimum soil moisture content for which the plant is no
longer capable of taking up the soil moisture and dies. The corresponding under-pressure is
approximately -16 bar (pF 4.2). At the phreatic surface, where the soil is completely
saturated, the under-pressure is zero (pF=0) and the moisture content equals the porosity
(n).
Figure 2.3: Typical pF-curves or soil moisture characteristics

2.2.1 Saturated Zone
Groundwater is the water which occurs in the saturated zone, which can be collected (flow)
into channels, galleries, pipes, fractures, etc. All earth materials, from soils to rocks have

pore spaces although these pores are completely saturated with water below the
groundwater table or phreatic surface (GWT). From the groundwater utilization aspect only
such material through which water moves easily and hence can be extracted with ease are
significant.
Natural variations in permeability and ease of transmission of groundwater in different
saturated geological formations lead to the recognition of aquifer, Aquitard, Aquiclude and
Aquifuge.
a) Aquifer: This is a water-bearing layer for which the porosity and pore size are
sufficiently large that which not only stores water but yields it in sufficient quantity due
to its high permeability. Unconsolidated deposits of sand and gravel form good aquifers
(e.g. sand, gravel layers).
b) Aquitard: It is less permeable geological formation which may be capable of
transmitting water (e.g. sandy clay layer). It may transmit quantities of water that are
significant in terms of regional groundwater flow.
c) Aquiclude: is a geological formation which is essentially impermeable to the flow of
water. It may be considered as closed to water movement even though it may contain
large amount of groundwater due to its high porosity (e.g. clay).
d) Aquifuge: is a geological formation, which is neither porous nor permeable. There are
no interconnected openings and hence it cannot transmit water. Massive compact rock
without any fractures is an aquifuge.
2.3 Aquifers and their characteristics
For a description or mathematical treatment of groundwater flow the geological formation
can be schematized into an aquifer system, consisting of various layers with distinct
different hydraulic properties. The aquifers are simplified into one of the following types
(see Fig. 1.4).
a) Unconfined aquifer (also called phreatic or water table aquifer): Such type of
aquifer consists of a pervious layer underlain by a (semi-) impervious layer. This type
of aquifer is not completely saturated with water. The upper boundary is formed by a
free water-table (phreatic surface) that is in direct contact with the atmosphere. In most
places it is the uppermost aquifer.

b) Confined aquifer: Such an aquifer consists of a completely saturated pervious layer

bounded by impervious layers. There is no direct contact with the atmosphere. The
water level in wells tapping these aquifers rises above the top of the pervious layer and
sometimes even above soil surface (artesian wells).
c) Semi-confined or Leaky aquifers: consists of a completely saturated
pervious layer, but the upper and/or lower boundaries are semi-pervious. They are overlain
by aquitard that may have inflow and outflow through them.
d) Perched aquifers: These are unconfined aquifers of isolated in nature. They are not
connected with other aquifers.
Figure2.4: Different types of aquifer formations
The pressure of the water in an aquifer is measured with a piezometer, which is an open
ended pipe with a diameter of 3-10 cm. The height to which the water rises with respect to
a certain reference level (e.g. the impervious base, mean sea level, etc.) is called the
hydraulic head. Strictly speaking the hydraulic head measured with a piezometer applies

for the location of the lower side of the pipe, but since aquifers are very pervious, this value
is approximately constant over the depth of the aquifer. For unconfined aquifers, the
hydraulic head may be taken equal to the height of the water table. Water moves from
locations where the hydraulic head is high to places where the hydraulic head is low. The
hydraulic head will be split into its gravitational and pressure components. Generally the
head can be written as h = z + p/γ w whereby the z is the gravitational elevation head and the
p/γw the pressure head.
Figure 2.5: Cross section showing hydraulic head (h)
2.4 Determination of groundwater flow parameters

The following are some of the groundwater flow parameters or aquifer properties which are
important in the storage and transmission of water in aquifers.
Porosity (n), Specific yield (Sy), Specific retention (Sr), Coefficient of permeability (K),
Transmissivity (T), Storage coefficient (S) etc.
1. Porosity (n)
The porosity, n is the ratio of volume of the open space in the rock or soil to the total
volume of soil or rock.
n = (Vv/Vt) *100 (2.1)
Where:
Vv = the pore volume or volume of voids
Vt = the total volume of the soil

Porosity is also the measure of water holding capacity of the geological formation. The
greater the porosity means the larger is the water holding capacity. Porosity depends up on
the shape, size, and packing of soil particles. Porosity greater than 20% is considered large;
5-20% medium and less than 5% is small.
Table 2.3 Variation of porosity based on the rock type
Type of rock Range of porosity Type of rock Range of porosity
Unconsolidated Consolidated
Gravel 0.2-0.4 Basalt 0.05-0.5
Sand 0.2-0.5 Lime stone 0.05-0.5
Silt 0.3-0.5 Sand stone 0.05-0.3
Clay 0.3-0.7 Shale 0.0-0.1
While porosity gives a measure of the water storage capability of a formation, not all the
water held in the pores is available for extraction by pumping or draining by gravity. The
pores hold back some water by molecular attraction and surface tension. The actual volume
of water that can be extracted by the force of gravity from a unit volume of aquifer
material is known as the specific yield, Sy. The fraction of water held back in the aquifer is
known as specific retention, Sr.
2. Specific yield (Sy)
When water is drained by gravity from saturated material, only a part of the total volumes
is released. The ratio of volume of water in the aquifer which can be extracted by the force
of gravity or by pumping wells to the total volume of saturated aquifer is called Specific
yield (Sy).
(2.2)
Where:
Sy= Specific yield,
Vw=the volume of extractible water,
VT = the total volume of the soil.

2.6. Specific yield of unconfined aquifer
All the water stored in the water bearing formations can’t be extracted by gravity drainage
or pumping; a portion of water remains held in the voids of the aquifer by molecular and
surface tension forces.
For unconfined aquifers the specific yield (Sy) is defined as the amount of water stored or
released in an aquifer column with a cross-sectional area of 1m 2 as a result of a 1m increase
or decrease in hydraulic head.
Table 2.4 Common values for S y
Type of Rock Range Mean
Medium gravel 0.17-0.44 0.24
Fine gravel 0.13-0.40 0.28
Medium sand 0.16-0.46 0.32
Fine sand 0.01-0.46 0.33
Silt 0.01-0.39 0.20
Clay 0.01-0.18 0.06
Tuff 0.02-0.47 0.21
Sandstone 0.02-0.30 0.21
sandstone (non-cemented) 0.12-0.30 0.27
Siltstone 0.01-0.28 0.12

3. Specific retention (Sr)

The water which is not drained or the ratio of volume of water that cannot be drained (Vr)
to the total volume (VT) of a saturated aquifer is called specific retention (Sr).
(2.3)
In fine-grained material the forces that retain water against the force of gravity are high due
to the small pore size. Hence, the specific retention of fine-grained material (silt or clay) is
larger than that of coarse material (sand or gravel). The total volume of voids (Vv) equals
to the sum of volume of water drained out (Vw) and volume of water retained (Vr); hat is
Vv=Vw+Vr.
From the above expression we can get:
↔n= Sy + Sr (2.4)
Meaning sum of Sy and Sr is equal to the porosity. It should be noted that; it is not
necessarily the soil with a high porosity will have a high specific yield because of its
permeability.
4. Coefficient of permeability (k)
Coefficient of permeability is also called hydraulic conductivity reflects the combined
effects of the porous medium and fluid properties. It is an ease with which water can flow
through a soil mass or rock and usually it is the capacity of geological formation to transmit
water. Coefficient of permeability is primarily dependant on the soil property and water
contained in it. Unconsolidated rocks are permeable when the pore spaces between grains
are sufficiently large.
K=ki.kw (2.5)
Where:
K = Coefficient of permeability,
k i = Intrinsic permeability; depending on rock properties (such as grain size &
packing),
k W = Permeability depending on fluid properties (such as density and viscosity of
water)

Further for unconsolidated rocks, from an analogy of laminar flow through a conduit the
coefficient of permeability K can be expressed as:
K = C dm2 ( / ) = C dm2 (g / ) (2.6)
Where:
dm = Mean pore size of the porous medium (m),
 = unit weight of the fluid (kg/m2s2),
 = density of the fluid (kg/m3),
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2),
 = dynamic viscosity of the fluid (kg/ms),
C = a shape factor which depends on the porosity, packing, shape of grains and grain-
size distribution of the porous medium. Thus for a given porous material K  1/ where  =
kinematic viscosity = / = f (temperature).
Eq (1.6) can be split into two components: intrinsic permeability (k i) and permeability due
to fluid properties (kw).  ki = C dm2 and kw = / = g/.
According to Kozeny-Carman’s formula
5. Transmissivity (T) and Vertical Resistance (C):

Transmissivity is the product of horizontal coefficient of permeability and saturated
thickness of the aquifer. For an isotropic aquifer (Kx = Ky = K):
T = KB (2.7)
Where:
T = aquifer Transmissivity (m2 / day),
B = aquifer thickness (m).
The vertical resistance of an aquitard is defined as the ratio of the thickness of the aquitard
and its permeability in the vertical direction (kz):
C = D / KZ (2.8)
Where:
C = vertical resistance (days),
D = thickness of the aquitard (m).

Values for the transmissivity of aquifers and vertical resistances of an aquitard are usually
determined from pumping tests. There are different stratifications in aquifers may be
stratification with different permeability in each stratum. Two main kinds of stratifications
(flow situations in stratified aquifers) are possible in aquifers; horizontal and vertical
stratifications.
a) Horizontal stratification
When the flow is parallel to the stratification as in (Fig.2 .7) equivalent permeability K e of
the entire aquifer of thickness b = bi is:
(2.9)
Transmissivity of an aquifer formation will therefore be given as follows:
Figure 2.7: Flow parallel to stratification

b) Vertical Stratification
When the flow is horizontal and normal to the stratification as in (Fig.1.7) the equivalent
permeability Ke of the aquifer length is:

(2.10)
Figure 2.8 Flow normal to stratification

Note that in this case L is the length of seepage and the thickness of the aquifer does not
come into picture in calculating the equivalent permeability. Transmissivity of the aquifer,
T = Ke.B
6. Storage Coefficient (S)
The amount of water stored or released in an aquifer column with a cross sectional area of
1m2 for a 1m increase or drop in head is known as storage coefficient. Storage coefficient
of unconfined aquifer is equal to the specific yield.
In confined or semi-confined aquifers water is stored or released from the whole aquifer
column mainly as a result of elastic changes in porosity and groundwater density.
Common values for the storage coefficients for confined and semi-confined aquifers range
form 10-7 to 10-3.
The volume of water drained from an aquifer, Vw may be found from the following
equation.
Vw=SAh

Where A is horizontal area and h is fall in head

7. Specific Storage (Ss)
In a saturated porous medium that is confined between two transmissive layers of rocks,
water will be stored in the pores of the medium by a combination of two phenomena; water
compression and aquifer expansion. As water is forced in to the system at a rate greater
than it is being extracted, the water will compress and the matrix will expand to
accommodate the excess. In a unit of saturated porous matrix, the volume of water that will
be taken in to storage under a unit increase in head, or the volume that will be released
under a unit decrease in head is called specific storage. It is also the storage coefficient per
unit saturated thickness of an aquifer.
For confined aquifer, the relation between the specific storage and the storage coefficient is
as follows:
S = Ss*b (2.11)
Where:
S = Storage coefficient (dimensionless),
b = aquifer thickness (m)
Specific Storage is also called elastic storage coefficient and is given by the following
expression.
Ss=g (+n) (2.12)
Where:
=fluid (water) density,
g=gravitational acceleration,
=aquifer compressibility,
n= porosity,
=water compressibility.
Elastic storage is the only storage occurring in semi-confined and confined aquifers.
2.5 Laboratory and field determination of hydraulic conductivity
Definition: If hydraulic conductivity is consistent throughout a formation, regardless of
position, the formation is homogeneous. If hydraulic conductivity within a formation is
dependent on location, the formation is heterogeneous. When hydraulic conductivity is

independent of the direction of measurement at a point within a formation, the formation

is isotropic at that point. If the hydraulic conductivity varies with the direction of
measurement at a point within a formation, the formation is anisotropic at that point.
Figure 1-8 is a graphical representation of homogeneity and isotropy.
Geologic material is very rarely homogeneous in all directions. A more probable condition
is that the properties, such as hydraulic conductivity, are approximately constant in one
direction. This condition results because of:
a) Effects of the shape of soil particles, and
b) Different materials incorporate the alluvium at different locations.
As geologic strata are formed, individual particles usually rest with their flat sides down in
a process called imbrications. Consequently, flow is generally less restricted in the
horizontal direction than the vertical and Kx is greater than Kz for most situations. Layered
heterogeneity occurs when stratum of homogeneous, isotropic materials are overlain upon
each other. Layered conditions commonly occur in alluvial, lacustrine, and marine deposits.
At a large scale, there is a relationship between anisotropy and layered heterogeneity. In the
field it is not uncommon for sites with layered heterogeneity to have large scale anisotropy
values of 100:1 or greater. Discontinuous heterogeneity results from geologic structures
such as bedrock outcrop contacts, clay lenses, and buried oxbow stream cutoffs. Trending
heterogeneity commonly occurs in sedimentary formations of deltaic, alluvial, and glacial
origin.

Figure 2.9: Homogeneity and Isotropy
2.5.1 Laboratory Tests

Permeability could be determined by direct method in either the laboratory or the field.
Direct and indirect methods are also applied for the determination of Permeability.
Determination of fine grained soils permeability takes considerable time. Hence indirect
methods are applied for instance consolidation test and utriaxial compression test.
Direct permeability tests
1. Constant head permeameters
Permeameters (see the fig. 1.9a, b) may be Constant head or Falling head.

Figure 2.10a: Constant head permeameter
The principle in this setup is that the hydraulic head causing flow is maintained constant;
the quantity of water flowing through a soil specimen of known cross sectional area and
length in a given time is measured by graduated cylinder. In highly impervious soils the
quantity of water that can be collected will be small and accurate measurements are
difficult to make. Therefore constant head permeameters are mainly applicable in relatively
pervious soils.
For k >10-3 cm/sec
Water should be collected after a steady state of flow is attained.

2. Falling head permeameters
Figure 2.10b: Falling head

permeameter
Falling head permeameter is used for

relatively less permeable soils where the
discharge is small. The water level in the standpipe falls continuously as water flows
through the soil specimen. Observations should be taken after a steady state of flow has
reached. If the head of water level in the stand pipe above that in the constant head chamber
falls from h0 to h1, corresponding to elapsed time t0 and t1, the coefficient of permeability, k
is determined as follows.
Where:
a= Cross sectional area of stand pipe,
A= Cross sectional area of soil sample,
L= Length of the soil sample,
Derivation

Integrating both sides and applying the limits t0 and t1 for t, and h0 and h1 for h
Transposing terms we get:
2.5.2 Field Methods

The average permeability of a soil in the field may be different form values obtained in the
laboratory. Some of the field methods are:
- Pumping tests (We will see it under ch-3)
- Tracer test (fluorescence) (Remember your Hydrometry course)
- Auger hole method etc
CHAPTER III
3.0 GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT
3.1. Darcy’s Law

Groundwater in its natural state is invariably moving. This movement is governed by

established hydraulic principles. The flow through aquifers, most of which are natural
porous media, can be expressed by what is known as Darcy’s law, which is one of the
established hydraulic principles.
Darcy was a French hydraulic Engineer, investigating the flow of water through horizontal
beds of sand to be used for water filtration. While he was doing such he observed some
hydraulic phenomena and established what is known as Darcy’s law in 1856.
The law is stated as “the flow through a porous media is proportional to the area of normal
to the flow direction (A) and the head loss (hL) and inversely proportional to the length (L)
of the flow path.”
Q ~ hL and Q ~1/L and from continuity Q ~ A

And thus Q ~ hL.A/L
Introducing the proportionality constant K, Q = -K.hL/L.A -----------Darcy Equation

And Expressed in general terms as Q = KAdh/dl
3.1.1 Formulation of Darcy’s Law
The experimental verification of Darcy’s law can be performed with water flowing at a rate
Q through a cylinder of cross-sectional area A packed with sand and having a piezometric
distance L apart (as shown in fig below).
Total Energy head, or fluid potentials, above the datum plane may be expressed by
Bernoulli equation as:
Where p is the pressure, v is the velocity of flow, g is the acceleration of gravity, z is the
elevation and hL is the head loss and is the specific weight of water. Subscripts refer to
the points of measurement. Since the velocity of flow in porous media is very very small,
the velocity head can be neglected ( v2/2g ≈0) and thus the head loss can be obtained as:
hL =
Therefore, the resulting head loss is defined as the potential loss with in the sand cylinder.
This head loss is due to the energy loss by frictional resistance dissipated as heat energy. It
follows that the head loss is independent of the inclination of the cylinder

Fig 3.1 Pressure distribution and head loss in flow through a sand column
3.1.2 Specific Discharge
Specific discharge is also called as the Darcy Velocity. It is the discharge Q per cross-
section area, A. The specific discharge is designated by q.
Form Darcy’s equation, q =
Taking the limit as 0 i.e.
-q=
The Darcy velocity (v) or the specific discharge (q) assumes that flow occurs through the
entire x-section of the material without regard to solids & pores. Actually, the flow is
limited to the pore space only so that is the average interstitial velocity.

Va = where n = porosity
Va > v
To define the actual flow velocity (V a), one must consider the microstructure of the rock
material. The actual velocity is non-uniform, involving endless accelerations, decelerations,
and changes in direction. Thus the actual velocity depends on specifying a precise point
location within the medium.
3.1.3 Validity of Darcy’s law
In general the Darcy’s law holds well for

i) Saturated & unsaturated flow. ii) Steady & unsteady flow condition
iii) Flow in aquifers and aquitards. iv) Flow in homogenous & heterogeneous media v)
Flow in isotropic & an isotropic media. vi) Flow in rocks and granular media.
Darcy’s law is valid for laminar flow condition as it is governed by the linter law.
In flow through pipes, it is the Reynolds number(R) to distinguish b/n laminar flow &
turbulent flow.
For the flow in porous media, v is the Darcy velocity and D is the effective grain size (d 10)
of a formation/media. D10 for D is merely an approximation since measuring pore size
distribution a complex research task.
Experiments show that Darcy’s law is valid for NR < 1 and does not go beyond seriously up
to NR =10. This is the upper limit to the validity of Darcy’s laws.
Fortunately, natural underground flow occurs with NR < 1. So Darcy’s law is applicable.
Deviations from Darcy’s law can occur where steep hydraulic gradients exist; such as near
pumped wells. Turbulent flow can contain large underground openings.
3.2 HYDRALIC CONDUCTIVITY
The famous Darcy’s law (1856), which describes the flow of fluids through (inter-granular)
porous media, was derived experimentally after hundreds of laboratory tests with the
apparatus. In its basic form, this linear law states that the rate of fluid flow (Q) through a
sand sample is directly proportional to the x-sectional area of the flow (A) and the loss of

hydraulic head b/n two points of measurements ( ), and it is inversely proportional to

the length of the sample L.
Therefore, K is the proportionality constant of the law & called hydraulic conductivity and
has the unit of velocity. It can also be called as the coefficient of permeability.
A medium has a unit hydraulic conductivity if it will transmit in unit time a unit volume of
GW at prevailing kinematic viscosity through a cross section of unit area, measured at right
angles to the direction of flow, under unit hydraulic gradient.
Generally, hydraulic conductivity is a coefficient of proportionality describing the rate at

which water can move through a permeable medium. The density and kinematic viscosity
of water must be considered in determining the hydraulic conductivity.
The general hydraulic equation of continuity of flow, which results from the principle of
conservation of mass, is (for incompressible fluids).
From which and relating it with Darcy’s equation,
Where is the hydraulic gradient & is the head loss

along the distance L.
The hydraulic gradient is given by i.
i= (dimensionless)
v = Ki (another form of Darcy’s equation)
Finally from above equation; hydraulic conductivity K can be determined as.

K=
3.2.1 Intrinsic Permeability
The permeability of a porous media is the ease with which a fluid can flow through that
medium. In other words, permeability characterizes the ability of a porous medium to
transmit a fluid. In hydrogeology, the permeability is referred to as the intrinsic
permeability. It is dependent only on the physical properties of the porous medium: grain
size, grain shape and arrangement, pore interconnections etc… On the other hand hydraulic
conductivity is dependent on the properties of both porous media and the fluid.
The relationship between intrinsic permeability (Ki) and hydraulic conductivity (K) is
expressed through the following formula.

Ki = Kµ/ ρg (L2) Where µ absolute viscosity (dynamic viscosity)

ρ density of fluid
Viscosity of a fluid is the property which describes its resistance to flow.
The dynamic viscosity (µ) and the density of fluid (ρ) are related through the kinematic
viscosity (ν):
ν = µ/ρ
Therefore, knowing the kinematic viscosity, which is a function of temperature, the

intrinsic permeability can be determined from field experiments having the value of
hydraulic conductivity.
Ki = K ν/g
Although it is much better to express the permeability in units of area (m2 or cm2), for
reasons of consistency and easier use in other formulas, in practice it is more commonly
given in Darcy’s (which a tribute to oil industry).
1 Darcy = 9.87x10-9cm2 (or approximately 1x10-8cm2).
3.2.2 Determinations of Hydraulic Conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity in saturated zones can be determined by variety of techniques.

Fig. 3.2 The relation b/n kinematic viscosity and temperature variation (After Maidement
and Chow)
These include, analytical or empirical methods, laboratory methods, tracer tests, augur hole
tests and pumping tests of wells.
Table 3.1 Representative values of Hydraulic Conductivity (after Morris &Johnson)

Material K(m/day) Type of measurement
Gravel, Course 150 R
Gravel, Medium 270 R
Gravel, fine 450 R
Sand, course 45 R
Sand, medium 12 R
Sand, fine 2.5 R
Silt 0.08 H
Clay 0.0002 H
Sandstone, fine grained 0.2 V
Sandstone, medium grained 3.1 V
Limestone 0.94 V
Dolomite 0.001 V
Dune sand 20 V
Loess 0.08 V
Peat 5.7 V
Schist 0.2 V
Slate 0.00008 V
Till, predominantly sand 0.49 R
Till, predominantly gravel 30 R
Tuff 0.2 V
Basalt 0.01 V
Gabbro, weathered 0.2 V
Granite, weathered 1.4 V
H is horizontal Hydraulic Conductivity, R is a repacked sample and V is the vertical

hydraulic Conductivity.

i) Empirical formulas
Numerous investigators have studied the relationship of hydraulic conductivity or

permeability to the properties of porous media.
Most commonly used relationship of such a formula has the following general formula.
K = Cd2 Where C is the dimensionless constant
And in some specific terms the formula is expressed as
K = fsfnd2
Where fs is the grain shape factor, f n the porosity factor and d is the characteristic grain
diameter. Few formulas give reliable estimates of results because of the difficulty of
including all possible variables in porous media.
It should be clearly understood that these empirical formulas have various limits of
application and give just approximate values of hydraulic conductivity for small point
samples. Since they are derived for different experimental materials and conditions, it is
very common that several formulas applied to the sample will yield several very different
values of hydraulic conductivity (K). For preliminary works the value of C is often taken as
100 and d is the effective grain size (d10)
ii) Laboratory methods
In the laboratory, hydraulic conductivity is determined by permeameters in which flow is

maintained through a small sample of material while measurements of flow rate and head
loss are made. A permeameter is a laboratory device used to measure the intrinsic
permeability and hydraulic conductivity of a soil or rock sample.
There are two types of permeameters:
a) Constant head permeameter
b) Variable head permeameter
a) Constant head permeameter
The constant head permeameter is the one which can measure the hydraulic
conductivities of consolidated and unconsolidated formations under low heads. Water
enters the medium cylinder from the bottom and is collected as overflow after passing
upward through the material/sample (See figure 3.3).
The hydraulic conductivity is determined from the equation of Darcy as
K = VL/ (Ath)

Where L = length of sample; t = time of measurement; A = Area of sample; h = head loss

for the flow through the sample for a given particular test and V = Volume of water
collected through time t after passing through sample.
b) Variable(falling) head permeameter
Here water is added to the fall tube; it flows upward through the cylindrical sample and
collected as an overflow. The test in falling head permeameter consists of measuring the
rate of fall of the water level in the tube and collecting volume of water overflow through
time.
Fig 3.3 Arrangement of constant (a) and Variable (b) head permeameters

The flow rate in the tube is
Qtube = atube x dh/dt
Where a is the area of the tube and dh/dt is the rate of fall of head in the tube.
And the rate of flow in the sample is governed by Darcy’s law.
Thus the flow rate through the sample is
Qsample = -KiA
Where A is the area of the sample

i = h/L
From continuity equation, Qtube = Qsample
Therefore, adh/dt = -KAh/L
aLdh/h = -KAdt
Therefore, from integration,

K = aLln(h1/h2)
At
iii) Tracer tests
Field determination of hydraulic conductivity can be made by measuring the time interval
for a water tracer to travel b/n two observation wells or test holes. The tracer can be a die
such as sodium flourescein or salt.
Consider the unconfined aquifer case below where the GW flow is from point A to point B.

Fig 3.4 Determination of hydraulic conductivity using tracer tests
The tracer is injected in hole A as a slug after which samples of water are taken from hole
B to determine the time passage of the tracer. B/c the tracer flows through the aquifer with
the average interstitial velocity, va, then;
va = Kh/(nL)
Where K is the hydraulic conductivity, n is the porosity, L is the distance b/n two points
and h is the difference in head causing flow b/n the points.
But va = L/t
Where t is the travel time interval of tracer b/n two holes. Equating the two equations
above;
K= nL2/ht
Though the method is simple, the results of this method may face serious limitations in the
field. Such as
1. The holes need to be close together; otherwise, the travel time interval can
excessively be long. For this requirement, the value of K is highly localized.
2. Unless the flow direction is accurately known, the tracer may miss the d/s
hole entirely. Multiple sampling holes may help, but costly.

3. If the aquifer stratified with layers having different hydraulic conductivities,

the first arrival of the tracer will result in conductivity considerably larger
than the average for the aquifer.
iv) Auger hole method
This method is relatively simple method and most adaptable to shallow water table
conditions. The value of K obtained is essentially that for a horizontal direction in the
immediate vicinity of the hole.
The value of K is given by
K = C/864 (dy/dt)
Where dy/dt is measured rate of rise (cm/sec)
C = Constant (dimensionless)
K = hydraulic conductivity (m/day)


Fig 3.5 Diagram an Auger hole for determining the hydraulic conductivity
v) Pumping tests of wells
The most reliable method of estimating aquifer hydraulic conductivity is the pumping test
of wells. Based on observations of water levels near pumping wells an integrated K value
over sizable aquifer section can be obtained. It is the superior method where the sample is
not disturbed.
3.3 Aquifer flow and transmissivity
3.3.1 Aquifer Flow
Aquifer flow can be one dimensional, two dimensional or more. Darcy’s equation can be
used to calculate one dimensional flow in aquifers. To obtain the volume rate of flow in
aquifer, Darcy’s velocity is multiplied by cross sectional area of an aquifer normal to the
flow.
Q = Av = -AKdh/dl = Aki i is the hydraulic gradient (slop of water table or piezometric

surface)
Q = -WbKi
3.3.2 Transmissivity(T)
The term transmissivity (T) is widely used in groundwater hydraulics. It is defined as the
rate at which water of prevailing kinematic viscosity is transmitted through a unit width of
aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient. It follows that
T = Kb (L2/T)
Where b is the saturated thickness of an aquifer. Therefore, the flow rate in Darcy’s
equation can be given as
Q = -WbKi = Q = -WTi (Refer fig from the board)
The saturated thickness for confined aquifer is fairly constant and hence the value of T is
constant; however, the saturated thickness for unconfined aquifers is variable as the water

table varies. Hence the transmissivity for unconfined aquifers vary as a function of the
water table variation.
3.4 Flow in anisotropic aquifers
Anisotropy is the rule where the directional properties of hydraulic conductivity exist. In
alluvial deposits this results from two conditions. One is that the individual particles are
seldom spherical so that when deposited under water they tend to rest with their flat sides
down. The second is that alluvium typically consists of layers of different materials, each
possessing a unique value of K.
If the layers are horizontal, any single layer with a relatively low hydraulic conductivity
causes vertical flow to be retarded, but horizontal flow can occur easily through any
stratum of relatively high hydraulic conductivity. Thus, the typical field situation in alluvial
deposits is to find a hydraulic conductivity, Kx in horizontal direction that will be greater
than a value of Kz in a vertical direction.
Consider (Refer fig. from the board) an aquifer consisting of n horizontal isotropic layers of
different thickness z and with different k values: in this case the whole aquifer system is
considered anisotropic.
3.4.1 Horizontal flow
Consider an aquifer of n horizontal layers each individually isotropic, with different

thickness a hydraulic conductivity (refer figure from the board).
For horizontal flow parallel to the layers, the flow per unit width in the upper layer, q1 is
given by q1 = K1iz1 Where i is the hydraulic gradient
K1 and z1 are indicated in the figure.
Similarly, q2 = K2iz2 and the total flow qx in the horizontal direction is given by:
qx = i(K1z1 + K2z2 +………….+ Knzn) (1)
i for the horizontal flow is the same in each layer.
If the whole aquifer system is taken as taken as homogeneous; then the total flow is:
qx = Kxi(z1 +z2+ ………+ zn) (2)
Where Kx is the horizontal hydraulic conductivity for the entire system
Equating the two equations and solving for the Kx yields:
Kx = (K1z1 + K2z2 +…………. + Knzn)/( z1 +z2+ ………+ zn)
If the thicknesses are equal, then

Kx = (K1 + K2 +…………. + Kn)/n (Arithmetic mean) Where n is the number of thicknesses.

3.4.2 Vertical flow
Consider an aquifer system consisting of n horizontal layers each individually isotropic,

with different thickness values. If there is a vertical flow through the system, the flow q per
unit horizontal area for the top layer can be expressed as: qz = K1Δh1/z1
Where Δh1 is the total head loss across the first layer
Solving for Δh1, Δh1 = qzz1/K1
Similarly for the second layer and n layer:
Δh2 = qzz2/K2 Δhn = qzzn/Kn

The total
+ head loss (Δht = ΔH) for vertical flow through all the layers of the system can be
calculated as the sum of the head losses in each layer,
Δht = ΔH = qz(z1/K1 + z2/K2+ ………+ zn/Kn) (3)

In homogenous system, the vertical flow can be expressed as
qz = Kz ΔH /(z1 +z2 +…..zn) and ΔH = qz (z1 +z2 +…..zn) (4)
Kz
Equating the two equations (3 and 4) and solving for Kz,
Kz = (z1 +z2 +…..zn) /( (z1/K1 + z2/K2+ ………+ zn/Kn)
And for equal thickness; Kz = n /( (1/K1 + 1K2+ ………+ 1/Kn) (Harmonic mean)
The statement, horizontal hydraulic conductivity ( Kx) is grater than the vertical hydraulic
conductivity ( Kz) can also shown with the help of the above derivations. Mathematically,
harmonic mean is less than arithmetic mean; thus, Kx > Kz .
For two dimensional flow in anisotropic media, the approximate value of K must be
selected for the direction of flow. For directions other than horizontal (K x) and vertical (Kz)
the K value Kβ can be obtained from:
1/ Kβ = cos2β/Kx + sin2 β /Kz Where β is the angle b/n Kβ and the horizontal
Kx
β
Kβ
Kz
Fig 3.5 Hydraulic conductivity in other directions

3.4.3 Average Hydraulic Conductivity
The hydraulic conductivity in horizontal direction (Kx) and in the vertical direction (Kz)
defined previously were the average hydraulic conductivities in their respective directions.
However, it is not customary to determine the hydraulic conductivities of each layer and
determine the average hydraulic conductivities, unless in rare circumstances as limited in
research and academic purposes.
Field methods such as pumping test, auger hole methods, tracer tests etc… allow the
computation of average hydraulic conductivity of a formation.
The overall average hydraulic conductivity is computed from the geometric mean or the
arithmetic mean of the logarithm of the average horizontal and vertical hydraulic
conductivities.
or logKav = (logKx + logKz)/2
3.5 Groundwater flow directions
3.5.1 Flow nets
Flow net is a net work flow lines and equipotential lines intersecting at right angles to each
other.
The imaginary path which a particle of water follows in its course of seepage through a
saturated soil mass is called flow line. An equipotential line is the line which joins points
with equal potential head. Equipotential lines are lines that intersect the flow lines at right
angles. At all points along the equipotential line, the water would rise in a piezometric tube
to a certain elevation known as piezometric level.
For specified boundary conditions, flow lines and equipotential lines can be mapped in to
two dimensions to form a flow net. The two sets of lines form an orthogonal pattern of
small squares. See fig. below.

Fig 3.6 Portion of an orthogonal flow net formed by flow and equipotential lines
Basically flow net is constructed to quantify the flow rate through a medium. Consider the
portion of a flow net shown in figure above. The hydraulic gradient is given by:
i = -dh/ds
and the constant flow rate , between two adjacent lines is given by
q = -K.dm.dh/ds for unit thickness. But for the squares of the flow net, the approximation
ds ~ dm can be made. Therefore, the above equation reduces to
q = Kdh
Applying this to an entire flow net, where the total head loss h is divided in to n squares b/n
two adjacent flow lines, then
dh = h/n
If the flow field is divided in to m channels by flow lines, then the total flow rate is:
Q = mq = Kmh/n
Thus the geometry of the flow net, together with the hydraulic conductivity and head loss,
enables the total flow to be computed directly.
 Properties of a flow net.
The properties of a flow net can be expressed as given below.

i) Flow and equipotential lines are smooth curves.
ii) Flow and equipotential lines meet at right angles to each other.
iii) No two flow lines cross each other
iv) No flow or equipotential lines start at the same point.

 Boundary Conditions
Flow of water in earth mass is in general three dimensional. Since the analysis of three
dimensional flow is too complicated, the flow problems are usually solved in the
assumption that the flow is two dimensional.
The three common types of boundaries of GW flow are:

i) Impermeable ( No flow boundary)
ii) Constant head boundary( head not varies)
iii) Water table ( Variable head boundary)
i) Impermeable( No flow boundary)

There is no flow through such a boundary. Flow lines run parallel to the boundary and
GW head contour lines (equipotential lines) are perpendicular to this boundary. (See
figure from the board).
ii) Constant head boundary

This could be the boundary with open water bodies such as perennial rivers, lakes or
seas. The flow lines are perpendicular to this open water bodies.( refer figure from
board).
iii) Water table ( variable head) boundary
It is the boundary which may be influenced by recharge or discharge from an aquifer.
Water table may be served as constant head boundary if there is no recharge/discharge
and not influenced by other phenomena in which water table is fairly constant.
 Flow net construction
There are many methods in use for the construction of flow nets. Some of the important
methods are:
a) Analytical methods
b) Electrical analog methods
c) Scaled model method
d) Graphical method
The usual method of obtaining flow nets is a graphical trial and error sketching method,
sometimes called a Forchiemer solution. This is the quickest method and the most practical
of all the available methods.
The following procedure helps to draw the flow net by trial and error procedure.
i) Draw carefully the boundaries of the region to scale and sketch a few stream
lines on the drawing
ii) Identify the components of flow nets which are regarded as the boundaries of
the flow region (at least two in many flow nets).
iii) Begin and end stream lines at equipotential surface and they must intersect these
equipotential surface at right angles.
iv) As a first trail, use not more than four to five channels.
v) Follow the principle of ‘Whole’ to part.
vi) All the flow and equipotential lines should be smooth and there should be no
any sharp transition b/n straight and curved lines.

3.5.2 Flow in relation to GW Contours
Contour maps of water levels (both unconfined and confined aquifers) are made in the
majority of hydro geologic investigations and, when properly drawn, represent a very
powerful tool in aquifer studies. Although commonly used for determination of GW flow
directions, contour maps, when accompanied with other data, also allow for the analysis
and calculation of the flow velocity, particle travel time, hydraulic conductivity and
transmissivity.
At least several data sets collected in different hydrologic season should be used to draw
GW contour maps for the area of interest. In addition to recordings from piezometres,
monitoring and other wells, every effort should be made to record elevations of water
surface in the nearby surface streams, lakes, seas, ponds and other bodies including cases
when these bodies seem “too far” to influence GW flow pattern. In addition, one should
gather information about hydro-meteorological conditions in the area for preceding months
paying attention to the presence of extended wet or dry periods. All of this information is
essential for making a correct contour map.
GROUNDWATER FLOW DIRECTION
The direction of GW flow in a localized area of an aquifer can be determined if at least

three recordings of water table (piezoelectric surface) elevations are available. Figure below
illustrates the principle of finding the position of water table in three dimensions using data
from three monitoring wells. In a map or two dimensional view, the water table is
represented by the contour lines which connect points with the same hydraulic head, h. The
fastest way to construct contours is by linear triangulation as shown in the figure (three well
method). The direction of GW flow is indicated by the arrow drawn perpendicular to and
‘down’ the contour lines. This is also the direction of the dip of the water table
approximated by the plate. It is very important to understand that the flow direction
determined this way is representative only of the local area covered by the three monitoring
wells. Depending on the hydrologic condition this direction may change in nearby aquifer
portion. For that reason more observation points are usually established during a hydro
geologic investigation to construct a reliable contour map/s.
Contouring Methods
 Manual contouring
 Contouring with computer programes
Manual contouring
Manual contouring is practically always used in GW studies, either as the only method or
in conjunction with computer based methods. A complete reliance on software contouring
could lead to erroneous conclusions since computer programes are unable to recognize
interpretations apparent to a GW professional such as presence of geologic boundaries,
varying porous media, influence of surface water bodies or principles of GW flow. Thus

manual contouring and/or manual reinterpretation of a computer generated maps are

essential and integral parts of hydro geologic studies.
Manual contouring is essentially based on triangular linear interpolation combined with the
hydro geologic experience of the interpreter. The first draft map is not necessarily an exact
linear interpolation b/n data points. Rather it is an interpretation of the hydro geologic and
hydrologic conditions with contours that roughly follow numeric data on water table (or
piezometric surface) elevations. Whenever possible the contours should be drawn to satisfy
principles described in flow net analysis. This means that almost inevitable local
“irregularities” in water table elevations should not blur the overall tendency of GW
flow( remember that GW contour map is also a flow net without stream lines shown and
the a graphical solution of the two dimensional flow field). Unless there is a valid hydro
geologic explanation (example: presence of pumping well) these depressions are probably
the result of erroneous contouring or data. Similarly, “mysterious” local mounds in water
table should be carefully examined.
One of the most important aspects of constructing contour maps in alluvial aquifers is to
determine the relationship between ground and surface waters. Sometimes water flows
from river to an aquifer (which in hydraulic contact with a river) and vice versa. If the flow
is from aquifer to river/stream, then it is called gaining (effluent) stream. However, if the
flow of water is from river to an aquifer, then the stream is said to be losing (influent)
stream. In some complicated situations, the two basic cases can co-exist.
Fig 3.7 Explanation of losing and gaining streams

In hydraulic terms, the contact between the aquifer and the surface stream is equipotential
boundary. This does not mean that everywhere along the contact the hydraulic head is the
same. Since both the river water and the groundwater are flowing, there is a hydraulic
gradient along the contact. If enough measurements of a river stage are available, it is
relatively easy to draw the water table contours in the vicinity of the river and to finish
them along the river aquifer contact.
Fig 3.8 Contouring using the three well method
 Contouring with computer programes
In this computer era, we can have to different programes which undertake the contouring of
groundwater levels. Some of them may be Arc View GIS, Surfer Golden software,
AutoCAD and so on….
Most of them need elevation of GW levels as an input. But the drawn contours should be
checked against the true conditions in some situations since software usually depend on the
given data and not able to catch up the natural condition in the field.

CHAPTER IV
4.0 UNIDIRECTIONAL FLOW OF GROUNDWATER AND WELL HYDRAULICS
4.1 ONE DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF GROUNDWATER
Darcy’s law and the fundamental equations governing groundwater movement can now be
applied to particular situations. Solutions of groundwater flow to wells rank highest in
importance. By pumping tests of wells, storage coefficients and transmissivites of aquifers
can be determined; furthermore, with these aquifer characteristics known, further decisions
in groundwater (GW) levels can associated with pumpage can be calculated. Well flow
equations have been developed for steady and unsteady flows, for various types of aquifers,
and for several special boundary conditions. For practical applications, most solutions have
been reduced to convenient graphic or mathematical form.
Steady unidirectional flow
Steady flow implies that no change occurs with respect to time change. A flow condition
for confined and unconfined aquifers differs and hence need to be considered separately,
beginning with flow in one direction.
or (steady state)
4.1.1 Confined Aquifer
i) Of constant thickness
( Fig – 4.1 Todd)
Fig 4.1 Steady

unidirectional flow in a
confined aquifer of Uniform
thickness

From GW flow equation for one dimensional case, it can be determined as
; (steady state)
This has for its solution;

► h = C1x + C2 where h is the head above a given datum and C 1 and C2 are
constants.
Boundary conditions h = h1 at x = 0
and h =h2 at x = L
Therefore, C1 = and h = C1x + C2 ► h =
Therefore, h = . If we let h1 = 0, the datum point, then h = (i.e. the head

is linearly decreasing in direction of flow, x.)
If a point is located at a distance a from x = 0, we find that
Example: - A confined aquifer is 33m thick and 7kms wide. Two observation wells are
located 1.2Kms apart in the direction of flow. The head in well-1 is 97.3m and in well-2 is
89m. The hydraulic conductivity is 1.2m/day.
i) What is the total daily flow water through the aquifer?
ii) What is the elevation of the piezometric surface at a point located 0.3Km from
well-1 and 0.9Km from well-2?
ii) Of variable thickness
Consider a confined aquifer with variable thickness (fig. below)

Let y = mx + a ; a = y1 and
q = Av =
h=
At x = 0, h = h1; at x = L , h = h2
Therefore, h1 = and h2 =
h2-h1 = =
Therefore,
iii) Confined aquifer with vertical leakage

(Semi- confined aquifer case)
Assuming there is no storage in the aquifer, the one dimensional flow equitation in x-
direction can be given as ( considering the figure above):-
and from the above figure
Therefore,
Solution is
From boundary conditions, at x = 0; h = h1 and at x = L; h = h2
Therefore, C2 = h1

and h2 = Therefore,
and hence ; when W = 0, the equation reduces to
4.1.2 Unconfined Aquifers
i) Simple water table condition
For a similar flow situation in unconfined aquifer, direct analytical solution of a Laplace
equation is not possible; the water table being a stream line and a problem become a free
surface flow problem with non- linear boundary. A simplified method of solution was first
developed by Dupuit (1863) in the study of steady flow to wells and ditches and further
developed by Forchiemer.
Assumptions made were:-
a. Velocity of flow is proportional to hydraulic gradient (slope of water table).
b. Flow is horizontal and uniform everywhere in the vertical section (see figure).
The gradient of water table in unconfined aquifer flow is not constant; it increases in the
direction of flow.
All the velocities in Dupuit assumption are horizontal, while the same velocities of
magnitude have a vertical component in actual condition. Thus this demands a greater

saturated thickness for the same given discharge. At the d/s boundary, a discontinuity in
flow forms because no consistent flow pattern can connect a water table directly to the d/s
free water surface.
From Darcy’s law, assuming flow to be horizontal and uniform everywhere in a vertical
section, the discharge per unit width is given by:

-----------------------------------(1)
At any x value from x = 0, the head h is given by:
------------------------------------(2)
Equating the two equations, we have the equation of phereatic line.
This indicates that for a given discharge, the water table is in parabolic form.
ii) Flow in to horizontal galleries
The flow in to horizontal galleries dug down to the impervious soil layer is shown
below.
H = depth of GWT above impervious layer
h1 = depth of WT in the gallery
The quantity of water flowing in to the trench from one side per unit length of shore line
and by integration:-
At distance x from x = 0
The equation of phereatic line is therefore:-

The quantity of water flowing in to the gallery from both sides is
Q=
Q= Where the length of the gallery and L is the water flow path.
iii) Steady Unconfined aquifer with recharge
If the aquifer is being recharged by rainfall and if steady infiltration rate, W, is maintained,
then:
qx = Wx + C1-------------(1)
From Darcy’s law with Dupuit’s Assumption, we have
----------(2)
Equating (1) and (2);
Wx + C1 =
-1/k(Wx + C1 )dx = hdh
Boundary conditions,
h = h1 ; x = 0
h = h2 ; x = L
h12 = 2C2 and thus C2 = h12/2
and C1 =
=
Substituting in to the original equation for h;
Since qx = Wx + C1 and therefore, qx = Wx +
Thus qx =
If W = 0, then q = qx = Dupuit’s Equation
qR = =
qL = =
The total flow towards the gallery is Q = qR + qL

iv) Steady unconfined flow to two parallel ditches from a uniformly discharged
aquifer
Fig two parallel ditches with vertical recharge (W)
Applying the Darcy’s law and continuity equation;
by integration
The boundary conditions, h = h0 @ x = L/2 and @ x = 0, h = hmax.

Thus
At x = 0, WT is at its maximum height and the vertical at this point is called A
Groundwater Divide.
From symmetry and continuity; Qt = 2q = 2(WL/2) = WL (the total recharge).Where Qt

is the total discharge per unit width.
Estimate of the base flow of streams or average groundwater recharge can be computed
by the same procedural analysis. Design of the spacing of parallel drains on agricultural
land for a specified soil, crop and irrigation conditions can be done by this method.
Example:-
1. Rainfall at the rate of 10mm/hr falls on a strip of land 1km wide laying between two
parallel canals with 2m difference in their water surface levels. It is underlain by a
horizontal impermeable stratum at 10m below the water surface of the lower canal.
Assuming a permeability of 12m/day with vertical boundaries and all the rainfall
infiltrates in to the soil, compute the discharge per meter length in to both the canals.
2. For a particular crop the water table ids required to be kept below 1.5m under the
ground surface. Determine the required ditch spacing. Given the following data
 Total depth of ditch = 3.5m

 Depth of Water level in the ditch = 1m
 Recharge rate from rainfall = 0.1m/day
 Aquifer permeability = 0.3m/day
Chapter -5
WELL HYDRAULICS
STEADY RADIAL FLOW TO A WELL

When a well pumped, water is removed from the aquifer surrounding the well, and
the water table or the piezometric surface, depending on the aquifer type, gets
lowered. The drawdown at a given point and time is the vertical distance the water
level is lowered/dropped from the original position (SWL).A drawdown curve
shows the variation of drawdown with distance from the well. In three dimensions,
the drawdown curve describes a conic shape known as the cone of depression. The
outer limit of the cone of depression defines the area of influence of a well.
5.1.1. Basic Assumptions
The derivation of well flow equation is generally based on the following

assumptions.
The well is pumped at constant rate ( Q = Constant)

The well is fully penetrating the aquifer and the screen is perforated or
otherwise open for the height of the aquifer
The aquifer is homogenous, isotropic, horizontal and of infinite extent
Water is released from storage in aquifer in immediate response to a drop in
water table or piezometric surface.
The well diameter is sufficiently small that the volume of water removed
from the well hole during pumping is negligible.
Prior to pumping, the initial water level is horizontal.
4.2.2 A well in Confined Aquifer
Fig Steady radial flow to well penetrating confined Aquifer
Since the flow is horizontal everywhere in confined aquifer case, the Dupuit’s assumption
applies w/o error. Using the plane polar coordinates for the well and its surrounding; the
well discharge at any distance r from the well equals:-
Q = Av = for steady radial flow to a well.

Integrating the above equation yields;
for boundary condition r=r w ,then h=hw and r=R then h=H
Q lnr = -2π bkh
Q ln(R-rw) = -

For a well penetrating an extensive confined aquifer
→ If the values of head(h) are known (h1 and h2) at the respective positions of distance r1
and r2 respectively from the well, then the flow equation can be written as :-
where r2 > r1 and h2 > h1 ( Refer Todd, fig 4.5)
The above equation is an equilibrium equation or Theim Equation enables one to determine
the values of hydraulic conductivity (K) and Transmissivity (T) of a confined aquifer a
pumping test data. Because any tow points define the logarithmic drawdown curve, the
method consists of measuring draw downs in two observation wells at different distances
from a well.
Exercise:- Prove that equation for flow of water in confined aquifer towards a well is given
by:
Example:-
A 10cm. Diameter well penetrates an 8m thick water bearing strata underlain and overlain
by impermeable beds. The well was operated with a constant discharge rate of
100litres/min for 12 hours. The steady state draw downs were found to be 3 and 0.5 m at
distance 10m and 50m respectively from the center of the well. Using Dupuit Theim
equation, calculate the Transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer.
5.1.2 A well in Unconfined Aquifer
Fig. Radial flow to well penetrating an unconfined aquifer
Using Dupuit’s equation, the well discharge Q is given by:-
Q = Av =

Qln(R-rw) = -
Therefore, Q =
Converting heads and radii at two observation wells (as shown in figure)
Therefore, Q =
This equation fails to accurately estimate the draw down curve near the well because large
vertical flow components contradict with the Dupuit’s assumption; however, estimates of
hydraulic conductivity (k) values for a given heads are good. In practice draw downs
should be small in relation to the saturated thickness of the confined aquifer. Then the
average Transmissivity can be estimated from the equation:-
T=
And the Transmissivity for the full thickness becomes:
T= =
Example:-
A well with radius of 0.5m, including gravel envelope and developed zone, completely
penetrates an unconfined aquifer with k = 30m/day and H = 50 m. The well is pumped so
that water level in the well remains 40m above the bottom. Assuming that pumping has
essentially no effect on Water table height at 500m and the well loses are negligible. What
is the steady flow?
5.3 Unsteady radial flow to a well
5.3.1 For a well in confined aquifer

The primary importance of well hydraulics is to determine the aquifer parameters

Transmissivity(T) and Storage coefficient(S). But we had them in the steady state flow
case. So, why we need them in the unsteady state case of flow to a well?
Since flow towards well consists mainly of unsteady state and it takes time for the flow to
come to steady state (equilibrium state) after a long period of pumping. It takes days or
even weeks and months for the flow to reach the equilibrium condition in the case of
unconfined aquifers. Besides this, the parameters T and S obtained from steady state
computation are more approximate than that of the unsteady state case.
In unsteady state case of analysis, it takes less time to apply for determining the aquifer
parameters.
The non-steady GW flow equation in two dimensions is given by:
or in polar coordinates
The solution of this equation, in whish the flow near a well is governed by, when referred
an aquifer of infinite extent is given by:
Where s = drawdown, Q = well discharge and u = dummy variable (dimensionless).

U is given by:
Where S = storage coefficient, T = Transmissivity, t = time of pumping and r = radius of
observation well from test well where drawdown is observed.
The above equation is called the Theis equation and it is non-linear equation. The integral
term, is the well function defined by W(u) and can be expressed by a convergent
series as :
W(u) = -0.577216-ln(u)+u-
= -0.577216-ln(u)+
The above equation is widely used in practice and preferred over equilibrium equation
because
i. a value of S can be determined
ii. only one observation well can suffice
iii. Shorter period of pumping generally is required
iv. No assumption of steady state flow condition is required.

The assumption made to steady state case holds good except the flow is taken as unsteady
state (Refer Todd P- 124).
Because of the mathematical difficulties encountered in applying the above equation,

several investigators developed simpler approximate solutions that can be readily applied
for field purposes. Let us deal with two them…
A. Theis curve matching
B. Jacob approximate method
A. Theis curve matching.
The drawdown in an observation well due pumping occurred in a test well at any time
can be given by: and
It can be seen that the relation between W(u) and u and also (r 2/t) and s are similar. Having
these trend of similarities in mind, Theis developed a curve (log- log plot) called Theis type
curve which is a plot of W (u) and u and suggested to develop a field curve ( log –log plot
of s vs r2/t) to be matched each other so that the values of S and T can be computed.
Procedure to determine T and S using Theis Curve matching
I. Prepare or obtain the logarithmic plot of W(u) vs u or W(u) vs 1/u ( graph after
Theis).
II. Prepare a field curve from the observed DD, s, vs (r2/t) or (t/r2) vs s.
III. Superimpose field curve over type curve
IV. Select match point by making the abscissa and ordinates of the two curves/graphs
quite parallel.
V. Obtain the values of W(u), u, r2/t and s on the match point.
VI. Determine the values of T and S by inserting the values (step 5) in the above
equations.
Exercise Do the example given in Todd book (page 125 to 127) and show the
procedures.
B. Cooper and Jacob Approximate method
For small values of u ( u < 0.005) or large values of t (t > (r2S/0.04T),the series in the
original Theis equation can be approximated by the first two terms
That is, W(u) = -0.577216-lnu = ln(0.56146/u) , therefore,s can be given as

Example: - A well is located in a 25m confined aquifer of permeability 30m/day and

storage coefficient 0.005. If the drawdown in the well 100m apart is 0.896m after 20 hours
of pumping, determine using Cooper and Jacob approximate model
a) The rate of flow to the well
b) The drawdown at 50m and 150m away from the well.
5.3.2 For a well in unconfined aquifer
The first and by far the simplest approach is to use the same flow situation as for the case of
confined aquifer provided the basic assumptions are satisfied. In general, if the drawdown
is small in relation to the saturated thickness (unconfined aquifer) good approximations are
possible with the methods developed for the confined aquifer.
If the drawdown in the monitoring well does not exceed 25% of the saturated thickness, the
Theis equation can be applied to unconfined aquifers with certain adjustments. For the
drawdown that is less than 10% of the aquifer’s pre-pumping thickness, it is not necessary
to adjust the recorded data since the error introduced by using the Theis equation is small.
When the drawdown is kept between 10% and 25%, it is recommended to correct the
measured values using the following equation derived by Jacob:-
s’ = s- s2/2h
Where s’ = is the corrected drawdown
s = measured drawdown in monitoring well
H = the saturated thickness before pumping started
This correction is needed since the Transmissivity of aquifer changes during the test as the
saturated thickness decreases (remember that for unconfined aquifers, T = Kh where h is
the saturated thickness liable for variation)
If the DD in the monitoring well is more than 25%, the equation (Theis and Theis based)
should not be used in the unconfined aquifer analysis.
There are different methods of analysis for unconfined aquifer, when the drawdown due to
pumping is remarkably large. Neuman, Boulton, Hantush etc… methods which are but
beyond the scope of the class.
5.4. Partially penetrating Wells
A well whose water entry is less than the aquifer is it penetrates is known as a partially
penetrating well.

Fig. Effects of partially penetrating well on drawdown
The average length of a flow line in to a partially penetrating well exceeds that of fully
penetrating well for the same given condition. So a grater resistance to flow is encountered.
Therefore, draw down in partially penetrating wells is greater than the draw down in fully
penetrating well of the same aquifer pumped with same rate of flow. The draw down , s wp, at
the well face of partially penetrating wells in confined aquifer of transient flow can be
given as: swp = sw + Δsw Where Δsw is additional DD due to partial penetration.
Evaluating the effects of partial penetration of wells in aquifers is complicated except the
simplest cases. But common field situations often reduce the practical importance of partial
penetration. It should be understood that any well with 85% or more open or screened hole
in the saturated thickness may be considered as fully penetrating.
The following equation, developed by Hantush is used for determination of draw down in a
partially penetrating well.
Where:- is the DD of the piezometric surface by Hantush

is a dimensionless term = f(D/rw , Le/D)
Where D = is the aquifer thickness and Le is the open space (effective screen length)
Fig ------------------------------------------------
5.5 Well Losses and Specific Capacity
4.5.1 Well Loss
The total DD (sw) at the well face is made up of:

i. Head loss resulting from laminar flow in the formation, sf
ii. Head loss resulting from turbulent flow in the zone close to the well face where Re
> 1.
iii. Head loss through the well casing and screen
The components under (ii) and (iii) are contributing to the so called well loss.
Therefore, well loss can be expressed as the difference between the actual measured DD
in the pumping well and the theoretical DD which is expressed by the Theis equation
and as the result of GW flow through the aquifer in the undisturbed zone only.
The additional DD , or well loss, which is always present in pumping wells, is created
by a combination of various factors such as : improper well development ( drilling fluid
left in the formation, mud cake along the bore hole is not removed, fines from
formation are not removed, poorly designed gravel pack and well screen), turbulent
flow near the well and others.
Fig relation of well loss and DD for a well penetrating a confined aquifer
Also Fig 4:30 from Todd
Therefore, taking the well loss in to account, the total DD can be given as:
Where:- is the total DD at the pumping well

is loss in the formation due to laminar flow ( expressed by Theis)
is the well loss ( can be observed near the pumping well)
is the formation loss constant.
is the well loss constant
n is the exponent due to turbulence
Jacob suggested n = 2; Rorabough given n = 2; Linnox(1966) n = 3.5. And if Q = is
small and if there is small turbulence near the pumping well, then n< 2.
Evaluation of Well Loss

To evaluate the well loss we can have two methods:-
 Analysis of time – DD data of pumping and monitoring wells.

 Step DD test
i. Analysis of time – DD data of pumping and monitoring wells

Procedure:-
a) Have or obtain the time- DD data of pumping and
monitoring well ( at least three monitoring wells)
b) Compute the ratio t/r2 for each well
c) On the semi- logarithmic paper plot DD vs t/r 2 (DD –
linear and t/r2 –Log) and draw the best fit line across the
data points.
d) Observe the line of the curves. The line due to plot of DD
vs t/r2 for the pumping well is above the best fit line of DD
vs t/r2 plot for the monitoring wells.
e) Measure the vertical distance between the two lines and
obtain the well loss.
ii. Step Draw down Test
This can be done in the pumping well itself

The equation from above can be further given as:

Therefore, plot of (sw/Q – cf) vs Q on a double logarithmic paper enables one to determine
the values of cf, n and cw. Thus this needs different values of Q and sw which could be
available from step draw down tests.
Procedure:-
a) Obtain step – DD data, i.e., different Q values versus different draw down values
(conducted at different time intervals) such as for example 30 sec, 60 sec, 120 sec
etc).
b) Assume different values of cf
c) Plot ( for different cf values)
d) If a plot gives a straight line, consider that value of cf as correct value and read the
value of cw and (n-1) from the graph from which it is possible to compute the well
loss coefficient.
Refer Table 4.4 (Groundwater hydrology by Todd Page -155) Relation of well loss
coefficient to well loss condition.
Example: - The following Discharge – DD data (step – DD) test are obtained from a
production well.
Q( m3/sec) 27 75.6 103.8 135
sw (m) 0.27 1.29 2.325 3.78
Determine the well loss and formation loss coefficients and finally determine the
overall (total) drawdown at the well face.
4.5.2 Specific Capacity
It is the ratio of discharge to drawdown in a pumping well. It is the measure of the

productivity of a well. The larger the specific capacity, the better the well is.
S. C. = Q/sw
Starting from the non – equilibrium equation and including the well losses;

But the value of cf can be determined from the theoretical Theis equation.
and since sf = cfQ; cf = ( if steady state flow
condition near the well is achieved)
( if unsteady sate case is considered)
Therefore,
As can be seen in the above equation, the S.C. and c w (coefficient of well loss) are inversely
related. When the well loss is large, this gives a consequence of reduced specific capacity; a
usual indicative of old and deteriorated wells.
 Well Efficiency
Well efficiency, usually expressed in percentage, is the ratio b/n theoretical drawdown and
the actual drawdown measured in the well.
Well efficiency = Theoretical DD/Measured DD*100%
Therefore, one can measure the efficiency of a well (old/new) using a step DD test and the
time – DD curve evaluation of monitoring and observation wells.
An efficiency of 70 or 80% is considered good. If a newly developed well has less than
65% efficiency, it should not be accepted.

5.6. Multiple Well Systems
When the cone of depressions of two nearby pumping wells overlap, one well is said to
interfere with another because of the increase in drawdown.
Fig Interference of two wells in a confined aquifer
For confined aquifer, the DD at is
for steady states of flow
if Q1 = Q2 = ….= Qn ; rw1 = rw2 = …= rwn ; R1 = R2 = …….= Rn ;
The total DD is then given by :
sT = s1 +s2 = + for two interfering wells.
Similarly, the drawdown at any of the wells is
sw = composite DD at a single well.
Discharge from one well
If there was only one well, then the discharge under the same DD would have been,
For the two wells to be interfered, R> L

The DD at any point in the confined aquifer in which more than one well is pumping is
equal to the sum of the DD that would arise from each of the wells independently.
Thus, sT = s1 + s2 + ……….+ sn
sT = + ………. (for steady state flow
case)
Where r1, r2, ……rn are the distances of monitoring wells from particular test wells 1, 2,
3….. n.
(for unsteady state flow
case)
Where sT is the total DD at any given point and s 1 , s2 , ………., sn are the draw downs
at the point caused by the discharge of wells 1,2,…..,n respectively.
In general, DD is dependent up on pumping pattern, number of wells, pumping rates of

wells and their geometric arrangement.
Example: Two wells, 30cm dia. each, completely penetrate an artesian aquifer of
thickness 15m are spaced 200m apart. When one well is pumped, the DD in the well is
5m. What will be the discharge when both wells are pumped keeping the DD at 5m. If a
third well is located at 200m to form an equilateral triangle and all the three wells are
pumped keeping the DD at 5m, what is the percentage reduction in discharge? What is
the percentage reduction in discharge if another well is added to form a square?
The flow state is steady and the radius of influence is determined as 300m for each well
and K = 60m/day.
CHAPTER VI
6. Ground water Exploration
A programme of groundwater investigations is to obtain information on the resource

through systematic collection, synthesis, interpretation and compilation of data.
It seeks information on its occurrence, movement, storage, recharge, discharge, quality &
quantity. It includes the study of its geological, environmental, as well as the hydrologic
and hydraulic aspects of its flow system.

A comprehensive programme for hydrological investigations may comprise the following

activities:
1. Surface Investigations
i. Geological field reconnaissance, including observations and collection of data
from excavations, bore holes and wells. The appraisal includes information on
geological factors, particularly tectonics, lithology, permeability, fissuring and
outcrop area.
ii. Geophysical surveys
a) Electrical resistivity method
b) Seismic refraction method
2. Subsurface Investigation of Groundwater
i ) Test drilling and preparation of lithological logs
ii) Sub-surface/bore hole geophysical logging
a) Electric logging
b) Radial logging
iii) Collection of lithological & other logs of existing bore hole & correlation of
lithological logs.
3. Hydrological Investigations
I) Preparing inventory of existing wells, giving their location, depth, depth of water,
construction features, type of pumping equipment used, pumping records and water
analysis.
ii) Study of groundwater levels - preparation of water table contour maps, water
level profiles, hydrographs and setting up of observation grids.
iii) Collection and analysis of water samples
iv) Aquifer tests - to appraise transmissibility and storage property of aquifers.
v) Hydrologic appraisal of the geological framework: Geometry of aquifers &
boundaries affecting recharge & discharge of groundwater.
vi) Correlation of stream flow factors with groundwater recharge and discharge.
vii) Estimation of seepage & recharge contribution from canals, lakes and ponds.
viii) Study and analysis of meteorological factors; precipitation and
evapotranspiration
ix) Rainfall and infiltration studies to estimate contribution of rainfall to
groundwater recharged.
x) Hydrologic analysis of groundwater systems through analytical & other
techniques.
6.1 Surface investigations of Ground water
Although groundwater cannot be seen on the earth’s surface, a variety of techniques can
provide information concerning its occurrence and under certain conditions even its quality
from surface or above-surface locations.

Surface investigations of groundwater are seldom more than partially successful in that
results usually leave the hydrogeologic picture incomplete; however, such methods are
normally less costly than subsurface investigations.
6.1.1. Geologic Methods
Geologic studies enable large areas to be rapidly and economically appraised on a

preliminary basis as to their potential for groundwater development.
A geologic investigation begins with the collection, analysis, and hydrogeologic

interpretation of existing topographic map, aerial photographs, geologic maps and logs, and
other pertinent records.
This should be supplemented, when possible, by geologic field reconnaissance and by

evaluation of available hydrologic data on: stream flow and springs; well yields;
groundwater recharge & levels; and water quality.
Such an approach should be regarded as a first step in any investigation of subsurface water
because no expensive equipment is required; furthermore, information on geologic
composition and structure defines the need for field exploration by other methods.
Knowledge of the depositional and erosional events in an area may indicate the extent and
regularity of water-bearing formations.
6.1.2 Geophysical Exploration
Geophysical exploration is the scientific measurement of physical properties of the earth’s

crust for investigation of mineral deposits or geologic structure.
Geophysical methods are used to obtain more accurate information about subsurface
conditions, such as type and depth of materials(consolidated or unconsolidated), depth of
weathered or fractured zone, depth to groundwater, depth to bed rock, and salt content of
groundwater. These methods detect differences (or anomalies), of physical properties
within the earth’s crust. Density, magnetism, elasticity, and electrical resistivity are
properties most commonly measured. Experience and research have enabled pronounced
differences in these properties to be interpreted in terms of geologic structure, rock type and
porosity; and water content & water quality.
The most common techniques for groundwater investigation are the electric resistivity and
seismic methods, which are discussed in the following sections.
1. Electric Resistivity Method

Resistivity survey is a method where by electric current is sent through the ground and the
potential difference is measured between two points. It is the most commonly adopted
method for the determination of saline and fresh water zone.
It is cheapest method and relatively easy to interpret. It is easy to employ and the
equipment is easy to transport from place to place.
The concept of this method is based on the reality that different earth materials display a
characteristic resistance to flow of a set of electrical current.
Geoelectric layers are a functions of
 Porosity (Intergrnualr, channel, vugular, etc)

 Fluid content (degree of saturation)
 Nature of fluid (saline, fresh, brackish)
Principle: (Electrical Fundamentals)

The resistivity methods are based on the measurement of the resistivity of various portions
of the ground, after passing an electric current into the earth.
Assumptions
 Isotrpic and homogeneous medium

 Point electrodes
 Earth is semi-infinite (Z=0)
C x
z r
V= (potential)
r=(x2+y2+z2)1/2
Where  is defined as resistivity of the medium(i.e, the resistance in ohms between

opposite face of a meter cube of a material)
Since the earth is semi-infinite, Z=0.

V=

+ -
G/S
C1 P1 P2 C2
A M N B
Fig Resistivity Set up
C1 and C2 – Current electrodes (metal stakes)

P1 and P2 – potential electrodes
AB is the distance between current electrodes
MN is the distance between potential electrodes
The potential of electrode P1 at M due to current electrode C1 at A is
The potential of electrode P2 at M due to current electrode C1 at A is
Similarly,
The potential difference, V can be calculated as follows
Where, V= measured potential difference

I= Measured electric current
If K = which depends on the electrodes configuration,
(i.e, electrodes geometry) and called geometrical factor,
=
As the earth material are almost never homogeneous and electrically isotropic, the
resistivity found by the above equation is an apparent resistivity, a.
Electrode Configurations
Many different arrangements of electrode can be used to measure resistivity, i.e., there are
several electrode configuration in common usage. Some of these are:
1. Wenner system
2. Schlumberger system
3. Lee system
4. Dipole-Dipole system
The basic relationships in all methods are
 Electrodes (two current & two potential electrodes)

 Linear system.
The commonly used systems of electrode arrangements are the Wenner and Schumberger.
1. Wenner system (electric profiling, mapping or trenching)
C1 P1 P2 C
-2
G/S
M
70 A 2017/18
a a N a DILLA B UNIVERSITY
+ve - ve current electrode
current
electrode
Fig Wenner configuration (Electrode arrangement)
In the Wenner system, the electrodes are spaced at equal distances, a, and the apparent
resistivity, a for a measured resistance R(=V/I) is given by
a=2Ra
The field curve is plotted on a semi-log paper, a versus a, a being in ohm-meters in
logarithmic scale and ‘a’ in meters in arithmetic scale. (In this configuration the depth to
which a measured is considered to be about equal to the voltage electrode spacing).
2. Schlumberger system (electric drilling, sounding)
b
C1 P1 P2 C
-2
G/S
A M N B
L L
AB=2L
MN=b=2ℓ
Fig Schlumberger Electrode arrangement
In Schlumberger system, the distance between the two inner potential electrodes (b) is kept
constant for some time and the distance between the current electrodes (2L) is varied. The
spacing between the potential electrodes is much smaller than the spacing between the
current electrodes.
The apparent resistivity a for a measured resistance R=V/I is given by
a =R
a =
The field curve is plotted on a log-log paper a versus L, a being ohm-meters and L in
meters

Types of Instruments
There are basically two types of instruments to conduct the electrical resistivity survey:
i) NGRI resistivity meter, a d.c. type meter manufactured by the National
Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderadad (South India).
In this instrument V and I are separately measured to obtain the resistance R (=V/I).
Generally battery packs with different voltage of 15,30,45 and 90 volts are employed
ii) Terrameter An a.c. type of instrument manufactured by Atlas Copco
ABEM AB, Sweden.
The output is 6 Watts at 100, 200 or 400 volts using low frequency(1-4 Hz)
square waves. This instrument directly gives the resistance, R, in ohms.
It is a good instrument for conducting rapid electrical resistivity surveys for location sites
for drilling bore wells.
Types of Resistivity Surveys
Regardless of the specific electrode spread employed, there are really two basic procedures
in resistivity work. The particular procedure to be used depends on whether one is
interested in resistivity variations with depth or with lateral extent.
The first is called electric drilling (or electrical depth sounding) for detecting vertical
changes.
The second is called electrical mapping, or trenching or horizontal profiling for detecting
subsurface changes in horizontal direction or the lateral spread.
1) Electric Drilling (or electrical sounding , Es)

Since the fraction of total current which flows at depth varies with the current electrode
separation, the field procedure is to use a fixed center with an expanding spread. Both
then Wenner and Schlumberger layout are particularly suited to this technique. But
Schlumberger system is superior to the Wenner array for Ex, because voltage electrodes
do not have to be moved each time.
It is produced by taking a series of measurements at a point, but moving the current
electrodes further apart for each measurement. The depth of current penetration is then
increased.
A curve of the variation of apparent resistivity with depth AB/2=L can drawn on log-
log paper form the results. It reveals the variations of a with depth.
The presence of horizontal or gently dipping beds of different resistivites is best

detected by the expanding spread. Hence the method is useful in determining depths of
aquifers, bed rock, fractured or weathered zones in rock and fresh water salt interfaces.
2) Electric Mapping

This method is useful particularly in mineral exploration, where the detection of

isolated bodies of anomalous resistivity is required. Any method can be used; the
selection depends mainly on the field situation. In all cases the apparent resistivity is
plotted at the midpoint of the potential electrodes, except where one of these is
effectively at infinite when the station is reckoned at the near potential electrode.
In traversing or profiling method the electrode separation is kept constant for two or
three values (say a= 10m, 15m, or 20m) and the center of the electrode spread is moved
from one station to another station (grid points) to have the same constant electrode
separations.
Profiling can be carried out along a series of parallel lines and a resistivity contour map
of the area showing iso-resistivity lines can be prepared. This will indicate areas of high
resistivity and will be useful in identifying aquifer formations.
With lateral surveys, a constant electrode spacing, selected to produce the desired depth
of the survey, is used and a is measured at different locations to yield a map of iso-
resistivity lines.
Such maps are useful for detecting changes in bedrock or aquifer depth (for example, in
tracing buried valleys), vertical discontinuities such as faults and fractured zone,
changes in groundwater quality(including travel of contaminated water), and changes in
the depth of fresh water-salt water interfaces(especially in costal areas).
Field procedure
Essentially there are 2 methods

i) Profiling using Wenner
ii) Depth sounding using Schlumberger
Required is the determination of the thickness and lateral (spatial) extent of the aquifer, as
well as the depth to groundwater table.
1. Have some idea of general geology (aquifer, aquiclude, GWT). That means,
before starting the survey understand the geology, structure & topography of
the area under investigation.
Also ensure that no man made structures like buried pipe lines, high tension
electric wires, exist.
2. Start with depth sounding (Schlumberger method) to determine the thickness
& estimated depth of water table.
3. From the trend of the formation (aquifer) conduct additional depth sounding
(Schlumberger) at sites following the trench of the aquifer.
If there is a control point (bore hole/well) in the area, the results could be correlated &
calibrated accordingly.

4. Finally, keep the electrode spacing constant (Wenner) to map the aquifer,
i.e. conduct electrical mapping.
Use of electrical resistivity method: Some of the geophysical investigations that
can be done by the electrical resistivity method for groundwater studies are:-
i) Correlating lithology and drawing geophysical section.
ii) Bed rock profile for subsurface studies
iii) Fresh water-salt water interface separation profiling
iv) Water quality in shallow aquifers & groundwater pollution as in oil
field brine pollution, pollution by irrigation waters and pollution by
sea water intrusion, which cause change in electrical conductivity.
Presentation of Results
Resistivity depth sounding (Schlumberger)
ℓ=MN/ L=AB/2(m) V(mv) I(ma) R(ohm) K a(ohm-m)K*R Remark

2(m)
AB/2(m)
Log-log
Depth Paper
a(ohm-m)
Resistivity depth sounding (Wenner)
Electrode spacing a Meter reading Constant K=2a Apparent resistivity

R(ohm) a=K*R(ohm-m)

Interpretation of Results:-
The field data recorded include the magnitude of current applied, electrode spacing & the
potential reading at each electrode spacing.
1. Qualitative
One inflection point ------- 2 layer case
Two inflection points -----3 layer case
Log a 2
1
1 (Two layer case)
2
Log (a) , or Log (AB/2)
The shapes of curves in this case give rise to a number of layers encountered in
the subsurface i.e., the layers can be 2,3 up to 10.
When 2>1. This means the upper layer is more conductive compared to lower
layer.
When 2>1. This means the upper layer is less conductive compared to lower
layer.
The qualitative interpretation of the three layer case has four types of curves
2. Quantitative:
 Automatic interpretation by computer programs is available nowadays.

 Curve matching on log-log graph paper on the same modulus as the
“standard curves”. Example: (Master curve by Orellanar and Mooney 1996)
Master curves for Layered Media
Comparing the field curve of a with the type-curves yields information about the thickness
and resistivity of the various layers. This is most accurately done for the two layered case.

For multilayered situations, the numerous uncertainties & variables affecting the field data
make it difficult to derive a unique interpretation of the lithology.
Resistivity data may be interpreted from master curves for a small number of earth layers
assuming them as horizontal of uniform thickness and resistivity. They are prepared for a
particular electrode configuration, like Wenner, Schlumberger, various thickness and
resistivity ratios being assumed for the individual layers.
Such ideal conditions like horizontal beds of uniform thickness and that the lowest bed
extends in depth to infinity may not exist in the earth, but they are of help for comparison
and interpretation of field curves obtained.
Two-layer case:
For a layer of thickness ‘h’ overlying an infinitely thick homogeneous substratum of

resistivity 2, a family of curves is given by Tagg (Tagg master curves, 1934) as
Where 1= a as a0 i.e., at small electrode spacing.

a = resistivities for various electrode spacing by Wenner configurations
Resistivity coefficient, k is given by
K=
For particular value of ‘a’ and 1/a, the values of h/a are read from the ‘master curves’ for
different values of k. Multiplying the h/a values by the corresponding a, h values are
obtained. These are plotted as k-vs-h.
If the curves for different electrode spacing, ‘a’ ,intersect near a point, it can be assumed as
a simple two-layer case, and the coordinate h and k of this point can be read. From this k,
the resistivity of the substratum can be obtained from
2=1 .
and h = thickness of the surface layer.

Limitations of this method are:-

i) The value of 1 obtained at small electrode spacing (a0) may

not truly represent resistivity of the top layer unless it is
homogenous and is tropic
ii) Involves numerous steps and is time consuming
 It is now customary to plot the master curves and the field curves on a log-log
paper and for the Wenner or Schlumberger configuration. The curve of best fit
is the one which is parallel to the relevant master curve.
 Master curves for three and four-layer configurations have been published by
Moony and Wetzel (1956), by Orellana and Mooney (1966), and also by
European Association of Exploration Geophysicists (1963) which allow greater
flexibility in the choice of resistivity patterns.
New methods of plotting the field resistivity data by ‘direct slope’ technique has
been developed for determination of absolute resistivity and thickness of layers.
For direct slope method, the field data are processed to obtain a for plotting the
cumulative resistivity curve (a Vsa ), tangents are drawn to the curve and the values
of ‘a’ at which the slope of the curve changes give the depths to the top of each
layer.
a()
Z1 I Change in slope
II
Z2
Z3 III
VI
Z4
Fig Cumulative Resistivity curve
Proper interpretation of field a curves is always enhanced if additional information

about depth and type of materials- for example, from well logs or seismic surveys-is
also available.
Thus, the interpreted results should be correlated with the drilling results.
Limitations:-

 The method can not be used whenever potential disturbances exist:

underground cables, pipelines or metal fences are in contact with the soil or
near power line (high tension wires) with transformers.
 Depth is up to 500m
 In rugged topography measurements are strongly affected. In areas where
rock formation is dipping greater than 15 the measurements are seriously
affected.
Exercise:
Results of resistivity depth sounding are given below:
A(m) 2 4 6 8 10 15 20 25 30
R(=V/I)() 0.800 0.049 0.036 0.031 0.029 0.023 0.018 0.0165 0.140
A(m) 35 40 45 50
R() 0.014 0.012 0.011 0.010
Interpret the data by cumulative resistivity plotting.
2. Seismic Refraction Method
Seismic refraction method involves the determination of elastic wave velocities through
geologic formations.
The method is based on the fact that elastic waves travel through different materials at
different velocities.
The waves are produced by a small dynamite explosion, sledge hammer etc. and picked up
at various points on the ground surface by set of receivers called geophones and recorded.
Z1

Z2
Fig Seismic Refraction Field set up

With refraction seismic surveys, the geophones are uniformly spaced on a straight line from
the shot point to record the arrival time of the first shock waves. That is, these waves may
have traveled straight from the shot point to the geophones, or they may have been
refracted and reflected in the deeper layers.
By knowing the arrival time of different waves at different distances from the energy
source, the velocity of propagation of the wave through each rock layer is calculated.
The method is more accurate.
The velocities are characteristic of particular rock in particular conditions, i.e., dry, joint,
saturated with water, weathered, etc.
Average velocities of seismic waves
Rock Formation Range of Velocities

(m/s)
Dry sand and loose soil 150-400
Alluvium 500-1500
Wet sand 600-1800
Clays 900-3000
Sand stone 2000-4300
Shale 2100-4000
Limestone 3000-6000
Igneous and metamorphic rocks 4500-6500
The refracted waves arrive at the surface only on the condition that the velocity of the
propagation in the underlying layer is higher than that in the overlying area.
Seismic waves follow the same laws of propagation as light & may be reflected or refracted
at any interface where a velocity change occurs.
Refracted and reflected shock waves will reach the more remote geophones sooner than the
straight-traveling waves if the velocity of sound in the deeper layers is much greater than
that in the surface materials.
(mill second)
Arrival time
t2
t
t1
0 X1 X2 Geophone Distance from shot pt(m)
Fig Time-distance graph

Plotting the arrival time of the first shock wave at each geophone against distance of
geophone from shot point yields a curve which for a layered profile consists of a succession
of straight-line sections.
The first section represents the firs layer (or top layer) of the profile, the 2nd section the
second layer etc.
Sound velocity in each layer is calculated as the reciprocal of the slope of the
corresponding straight-line section.
A time-travel curve (time versus distance from source to geophone) is drawn and by
knowing the distance X1 to the first point on the curve where a change in slope is indicated,
the depth to the rock layer can be computed from the equation
Z1=
Where V1 and V2 are the velocities of propagation through the earth and the rock layer
respectively.
Using the intercept time t1 the depth Z1 is given by the equation
Z1=
The depth Z2 of the second layer is given by
Z1=
An approximate equation for Z2 presented by Geophysical Specialties Company (1960)

Z2=
Where X2 is the horizontal distance of the second break point in the data curve
The critical angle c is given by
Sin c= V1/V2
For angle of incidence greeter than critical, there are no refractions into the deeper layers
but the waves are totally reflected.
The refraction method is faster and often finds application in
i) Locating the ground water table
ii) Determining depth to bed rock or impermeable layer and configuration (volume
of material)
iii) Locating a buried stream channel
iv) Locating faults that could act as groundwater barriers.
The velocity of propagation varies from as low as 120 m/s in dry topsoil to more than 6000
m/s in very dense rocks such as granite, limestone & basalt. The velocities in saturated
strata are somewhat greater than in unsaturated strata.
Disadvantage
Lower velocity layer can not be detected beneath the higher-velocity layers.
Example
Derive a time-distance relationship for a two layer case as used in seismic refraction
surveys.
Assumptions: - horizontal, isotropic homogeneous media

Acoustic impediment increases with depth (i.e,1V1<2V2)
The arrival time of the critically refracted wave at geophone, G is given by
=

From Snell’s principle,

Sin c=
 = tanc
t=
Sin c =
 1-Cos2c=
Cos2c =1-
Cos c=
t=
(t= )
At critical distance, Xc, the direct wave and the head wave arrived at the same time.

Example 2:
It is required to derive a time-distance for a three layer case
For the three layers case with relocities V1, V2 and V3 (V3> V2> V1), the treatment is similar
but somewhat more complicated.
X
S G
A D
B C
Fig. Ray paths of least time for three layers separated by horizontal interferes
Sin C1=
The expression for the total travel time from S to G is
t = tSA+tAB+tBC+ tCD+tDG

t=
The portion of the time-distance curve corresponding to the first arrival of this wave is a
straight line with slope and intercept time, t2
t2 = t-
Solving for Z2
Z2=
Example 3: In refraction shooting, nine geophones were placed along a straight line at
distance of 40, 60, 80,100,140,180,220,260 and 320 meters from the shoot point. The
seismic second gave the following data.
Geophones G1 G2 G3 G5 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9
Distance 40 60 80 100 140 180 220 260 320
from shot
point(m)
Time of 75 110 150 160 180 200 205 215 225
first arrival
milli

seconds
Draw the time-distance graph and determine the velocity of the shock wave and thickness
of each layer.
Solution
The time distance graph drawn as:
Fig Time-distance plot

The velocity of shock wave (direct wave) in the top soil layer, i.e, reciprocal of slope,
V1= 533m/sec
The velocity of the shock wave (refracted wave) in the second layer
V2= 2000m/sec
The velocity of the shock wave (refracted wave) in the bottom hard rock layer
V3= =5600m/sec
The thickness of the first layer using the critical distance formula,
Z1= =30.44m
The thickness of the first layer using the intercept time formula,
Z1= =30.41m
The thickness of the second layer using the intercept time formula,

= 55.08m (54.8m)
An approximate equation for Z2 presented by Geophysical Specialties Company (1960), in
modified form, is
6.2 Subsurface Investigation of Ground water
Detailed and comprehensive study of groundwater and conditions under which it occurs can
only be made by subsurface investigation.
Whether the information needed concerns an aquifer (its location, thickness, composition,
permeability, and yield) or groundwater (its location, movement, and quality), quantitative
data can be obtained from subsurface examinations.
Test drilling furnishes information on substrata in a vertical line from the surface.
Geophysical logging techniques provide information on physical properties of geologic

formations, water quality, and well construction.
6.2.1 Test drilling
The most accurate information about the geologic profile and the depth (and the quality) of
groundwater at a given site is obtained by test drilling.
It may even be possible to do some preliminary pumping tests or slug tests on the bore hole
to estimate hydraulic properties of the aquifer or aquifers and to calculate potential well
yields.
Test wells normally are of relatively small-diameter holes and can be drilled at a fraction of
the cost of full-sized wells.
When a test well indicates a favorable location, it can often be converted into a production
(or pumping well) by re-drilling or reaming to increase its diameter.
Test holes can also serve as observation wells for measuring water levels or for PS.
Two types of logs can be kept by the driller ad drilling progresses.

Geologic log
It is constructed from sampling and examination of well cuttings collected at frequent

intervals during the drilling of a well or test hole. Such logs furnish a description of the
geologic character and thickness of each stratum encountered as a function of depth, there
by enabling aquifers to be delineated.
Considering all types of logs, the geologic log is probably the most important, but
preparation of a good geologic log can be difficult.
One problem is that well cuttings are small and mixed with mud. Drill cuttings are often a
mixture of material from the bottom of the hole, drilling mud, and material from higher
layers that was still in the hole or that caved in from the wall.
Thus, the sample must be carefully analyzed. Often it is better to look for changes in
samples than at actual composition. For example, if the bailer initially yielded primarily
fine materials, and sand begins to show up, a sand layer may be reached. If gravel chips
show up, gravel layer may be reached, etc…
Similarly, a reduction in sand content of the bailer material may indicate that the bottom of
a sand bed has been reached.
Experienced drillers with good knowledge of local subsurface conditions often ‘know’
what king of material the bit is in from its rate of advance and how it bounces, churns,
sounds, or other wise reacts to the material.
Drilling-Time log
It consists of a record of distance drilled per unit time, eg. m/h or it may consists of an
accurate record of the time, in min or sec, required to drill each unit depth of the hole.
Changes in drilling time with depth indicate discontinuities in the geologic profile. The rate
of drilling depends not only on the type of material at the bottom of the hole, but also on
the equipment (wt. Or bit, wear on cutting edges, no of blows or rotations per minute, etc.
and on the skill of the operator. Thus, there is no unique relation between type of material
and drill rate.
6.2.2 Geophysical logging
Geophysical logging involves lowering sensing devices in a bore-hole and recording a

physical parameter that may be interpreted in terms of formation characteristics;
groundwater quantity, quality, and movement; or physical structure of the bore hole.
I. To get information about
1. Source and movement of water in the well

2. Chemical & physical characteristics of the water, including salinity, temperature,
density & viscosity.

II. To determine
3. length & setting of well casing

4. optimum length & setting of water well screens
5. porosity & water content of the formation
6. Resistivity of the formation
7. Lithology & formation boundaries
8. Thermal gradient
9. Relative quantity of water into or out of zones of water entry into the hole
10. Approximate permeability of lithologic sections penetrated by the hole.
11. Accurate depth referenced for use with other type of logs
12. Depth and thickness of thin beds or aquifers
13. Average bore hole diameter.
III. To locate
14. Position of cement grout behind casing
15. Point of entry of different quality water through leaks in casing or opening in rocks
16. Cemented & cased intervals
17. Depth of lost circulation
18. Active gas flow
19. Fissures and solution opening in open holes
20. Leaks or perforated sections in cased holes
IV) To measure inherent Radio Activity Information

The following logs are usually use.
1. Electric logging
a) Electric resistivity logging
b) Spontaneous (self)potential logging
2. Radio active logging
a) Natural gamma logging (or Gamma ray logs)
b) Gamma-gamma logging
c) Neutron logging
3. Induction logging
4. Sonic logging
5. Fluid logging
a) Temperature logging
b) Flow meter & Tracer logging6) Caliper logging and cement bond logging
7) Photographic logging (or down hole photography)


CHAPTER VII
TUBE WELLS
Water well is a hole or shaft, in most cases vertical, excavated in the earth, or sunk in to the
ground intercepting one or more water bearing strata, for bringing groundwater to the
surface.
The objectives of water well is:-

To provide water with a good quality
To provide a sufficient quantity of water
To provide water for a long time
To provide water at low cost
7.1 Classification of water wells
Wells can be classified as to their methods of construction (dug wells and tube wells), their
depth (shallow wells and deep wells); and whether they are vertical or horizontal (vertical
wells and horizontal wells).
7.1.1 Advantages of Tube wells

1. Do not require much space.
2. Can be constructed quickly.
3. Fairly sustained yield of water can be obtained even in years of scanty rainfall.
4. Economical when deep-seated aquifers are encountered
5. Flowing artesian wells can sometimes be struck.
6. Generally good quality of water is tapped.
7.1.2 Disadvantages of Tube wells

1. Requires costly and complicated drilling equipment and machinery.

2. Requires skilled workers and great care to drill and complete the tube wells.
3. Installation of costly submersible pumps is required.
4. Possibility of missing fractures, fissures and joints in hard rock areas resulting in
many dry holes
7.2 Methods of well construction
Construction methods are many and varied ranging from simple digging with hand tools to
high speed drilling with sophisticated equipment. Well construction, in terms of operations,
basically includes:
 The drilling operation
 Installing the casing
 Installing the well screen and artificial gravel packing
 Grounding when needed to provide sanitary protection and well head construction
 Developing the well to insure sand free operation at maximum yield
 Installing the pump
There are different drilling methods and equipment available for drilling bore holes. The
diversity of equipment means there is no simple way to determine what drilling method is
best suited for groundwater supply bore holes. Selection of drilling equipment depends
upon the hydrogeology of the formation, diameter and depth of the production well,
availability of fund, maintenance and spaces, production capacity, volume of work,
operating crew and easy movement of the rig.
 Hand operated drilling equipment may be most appropriate for bore holes up to
15m deep & 200mm diameter which are drilled into unconsolidated
(soft)formations:
 Cable –tool drilling rigs may be most appropriate for bore holes up to 50m deep &
200mm diameter which are drilled into unconsolidated & semi-consolidated
formations;
 Small air flush rotary rigs may be most appropriate for bore holes up to 50m deep &
200mm diameter which are drilled into consolidated (hard) formations;
 A large multipurpose rotary rig could be justified for all holes, if cost, manpower,
and back-up support are not constraints and speed is all important.
Bore holes become an option for groundwater supply when water levels are deeper than,
say 6-10m. They have the advantage of being able to penetrate deep into the aquifer (unlike
a dug well where dewatering becomes a problem), which means better resistance to falling
water levels, and better protection against pollution. However, they are more costly, have
no storage capacity, and often represents and ‘outside intrusion’ to the community, who
cannot be involved to any great extent in the construction processes.
7.3 Most commonly used methods for shallow tube wells construction

Shallow tube wells are constructed by boring, driving and jetting methods, and the wells
constructed by these methods are designated as bored wells, driven wells, and jetted wells,
respectively.
7.3.1 Boring Method
In this method the hole is constructed by the use of a selected diameter hand or power
driven anger which is turned to bore the hole to the designed depth. Cuttings are removed
by pulling and emptying the auger. It can drill to 30m or more in soft sands & claps that are
free of rocks.
7.3.2 Driving Method
In this method the hole is constructed by forcing a casing (well pipe) equipped with a drive
(well) point into the ground by a series of blows either manually or machine delivered on
the top of the casing. Driven wells should be installed only in soft formations that are
relatively free of cobbles or boulders. A special device called a cap or drive head protects
the top of the pipe during driving operation. After each length of pipe is hammered into the
ground the top is removed and additional sections are attached and drive as required.
7.3.3 Jetting method
A jetted well is a well which is constructed by means of boring equipment using water
jetted under high pressure to facilitate rapid boring. Jetting is pumping water down the pipe
and out through the well point where the force of the water losing the surround soil
materials.
7.4 Tube Wells Drilling Methods
Deep tube wells are constructed by drilling methods. The commonly used drilling methods
are Cable tool, hydraulic rotary, reverse rotary and down the hole hammer methods, and
they are discussed as follows.
7.4.1 Cable – Tool Drilling Method
The cable- tool method, also known as the percussion or standard method, is used to
construct wells by alternately lifting and dropping a set of drilling tools suspended on a
wire rope or cable so that with each stroke the drill bit strikes the bottom of the hole. The
repeated action of the percussion drill permits bit penetration of the under ground
formations.
The loosened material and drill cuttings are raised with drilling water by the action of the
bit and the resulting slurry must be removed from the drill hole by a bailer or sand pump. In
drilling a dry hole, water must be added periodically to replace that removed with the drill

cuttings. Tools for drilling and bailing may be carried on separate lines or cables. Each
cable is spooled on a separated hoisting drum.
In cable tool or percussion drilling there are basically there major operations:
1st : the drilling of the hole by chiseling or crushing the rock, clay, or other material by the
impact of the drill bit,
2 : removing the cuttings with a bailer as cuttings accumulate in the hole; and
nd
3rd : driving or forcing the well casing down into the hole as the drilling proceeds.
Well casing is used in most percussion- type drilling operations. This casing is used to help
the well bore from collapsing and to prevent surface or subsurface leakage of water or
contaminants in to the well bore the well bore.
The cable tool bit (drill bit) is a shaped steel bar, generally 4 to 8 ft long. The drill bit is
suspended from a cable called the drill line, which is struck over a pulley at the top of a
near vertical mast erected over the hole. Sharper bits are used in hard rock drilling.
The major advantages of the cable-tool system as opposed to other drilling systems are
listed below.
1. Economics (relatively cheap to purchase, operate & maintain)
- lower initial equipment cost, hence lower depreciation cost
- Lower daily operating cost, including maintenance, personnel and water
requirement. (Needs trained operators with several semi-skilled assistants, but a
rotary rig need highly skilled operators & expert supervision.
- Lower transportation costs (cable tool rig is lighter & easy to transport)
- Lower rig-up time & expense
- Drilling rates comparable to rotary in hard rocks at shallow depth (for shallow
wells, in hard rocks, it comes out to be cheaper)
2. Better cuttings of sample, easily make well drillers log, (a more accurate sample for
formation can be obtained)
3. Easy identification of water bearing strata.
4. No circulation system (lesser amount of water is required during drilling
operations)
5. Minimum contamination of production zones
6. Water can be tested immediately, for quality & yield from each water bearing
stratum
7. Rate of groundwater can be measured
8. Minimum water is required for drilling than in the hydraulic rotary & jetting
methods, a point for consideration I arid region.
9. Better ability to seal off undesirable zone.
10. Capability of drilling any formation
11. The well driller need not be as skilled as his counterpart in rotary drilling.
The major disadvantages of the cable tool method

1. Limitation on penetration rat (slower drilling rate in hard formations).
2. Limitation on depth

3. Lack of control over fluid flow from penetrated formations

4. The need to case the hole as drilling progress, i.e., lack of control over bore hole
stability, the need to use temporary drill casing in overburden drilling to line a hole
in soft formations.
5. Frequent drill-line failure
6. Difficulty in pulling casing from deep wells
Cable-tool drilling rigs may be most appropriate for boreholes up to 50m deep and 200mm
diameter which are drilled into unconsolidated and semi-consolidated formations. Usually
drilling is started with a large diameter & the diameter is reduced telescopically after
drilling certain depths.
7.4.2 Conventional fluid Rotary (or Rotary Direct Circulation) Drilling Method
This method uses a rotary bit to cut the rock and a circulating drilling fluid to flash rock
cuttings to the surface. The drilling fluid is usually heavy mud which is able to support the
walls of the well and prevent them from collapsing. Generally, the drilling of bore holes by
the hydraulic rotary method requires a drill bit, a system for rotating the bit, the means for
controlling bit pressure on the formation, and a medium for removing the material
displaced by the bit.
In the conventional fluid-rotary method of drilling, drilling is accomplished by rotating a
drill pipe and bit by means of a power drive. The drill bit cuts and breaks up the rock
material as it penetrates the formation. Drilling fluid is pumped down through the rotating
drill pipe and holes in the bit. This fluid swirls in the bottom of the hole, picking up
material broken by the bit, and then flows upwards in the well bore, carrying the cuttings to
the surface. The drill pipe and bit move progressively downward, deepening the hole as the
operation proceeds.
At the land surface, the drilling fluid flows into a settling pit where the cuttings settle to the
bottom. From the settling (or mud) pit the fluid overflows into a second pit from which it is
picked up though the suction hose of the mud pump and re-circulated through the drill pipe.
In the rotary drilling method the well casing is not introduced into the hole until drilling
operations are completed, the walls of the hole being supported by the pressure (weight) of
the drilling fluid and/ or mud cake formed on the wall of the bore hole. Such drilling is
widely practiced in Ethiopia.
Advantages of direct hydraulic rotary drilling technology
1. Rapid drilling rate (relatively high penetration rates)

2. The avoidance of placement of a casing during drilling
3. The convenience of electric logging
4. Ability to drill and maintain borehole in a wide variety of formations to depths in
excess of those required for water wells
5. Ability to drill small diameter, low cost borehole for formation sampling &
geophysical logging. This information leads to the final well design. In most cases
the pilot borehole is used for this purpose.

6. Low cost or well construction in soft, unconsolidated alluvium, particularly with

deep greater than 300m.
7. Large diameter holes can be drilled more economically by the rotary method.
Disadvantages includes:-
1. A more complex drilling system than with the cable-tool
2. Relatively high equipment capital cost.
3. Higher bit cost, particularly in hard formations
4. Engineering & control drilling-fluid properties (Reynolds number, density, gel
strength, velocities) critical to well logging, completion, & development.
5. High noise levels that create operating problems in urban areas.
6. Greater daily operating cost
7. Relatively high makeup water requirements
8. Relatively High equipment transportation cost
9. High cost for drilling karstic formations
10. The need to remove mud cake during well development
11. Not suitable for boulder formation and requires more water, repair & maintenance.
Reverse Circulation Rotary Drilling method
A modification of direct circulation rotary method is known as reverse circulation rotary

method. In this system, the drilling fluid with cutting return inside the drill string & is
discharged into a settling tank or pit. Downward flow is in the annulus between the drill
string & borehole. The system components are similar to those of the direct rotary except
for rotation.
The reverse circulation rotary differ from direct rotary rigs in the following respects:
a. the rotary table has lower speed range & fewer number of speed
b. The drill pipes used are larger in size & are flanged and jointed
c. The pump used is centrifugal
d. Air lift method is used in heavier rigs for drilling deeper depths.
As the diameter of the drill pipe is relatively small, the velocity of the drilling fluid in the
pipe is high. This results in two advantages:
1. There is no need for the rotary bits to crash the formation at the bottom of the hole
into pieces.
2. There is no need to use heavy drilling fluid for bringing the cuttings to the surface
& clear water can be used. Thus the problem of clogging of the aquifer around the
well by mud intrusion is greatly reduced.
It is probably the most rapid method of drilling and hence it has become increasingly
popular:
Reverse circulation rotary drilling has a number of advantages under some drilling
conditions. These include:
1. Lower capital cost than equivalent-capacity direct rotary equipment. It is gaining
popularity because it is economical & adapted to alluvium.

2. Most economical system for drilling large-diameter boreholes in soft,

unconsolidated alluvial formations.
3. Formation sampling is more accurate than with direct rotary.
4. High return velocity lowers drilling fluid viscosity requirement.
5. Lower noise levels with insulated compressors
6. Lower transportation costs than equivalent-capacity direct rotary.
7. Simpler and less costly circulating system.
8. Lower bit costs than with direct rotary.
9. Lower development pumping time where water without additives is used as drilling
fluid.
10. The boring is done without a casing and hydrostatic pressure is used to support the
walls of the bore-hole during construction
Disadvantages include:
1. Drilling efficiency declines rapidly below 800 to 1000 ft.
2. Large water supply requirements. It requires five times the amount of water
required for direct rotary drilling.
3. The system is not suitable for drilling large boulders, consolidated rock formations,
and karstic formations. When drilling long sections of clay and shale, drill fluid
additives must be used.
4. Difficult to use where the static water level is less than 15ft.
5. Boreholes smaller than 18in can not be drilled due to the eroding effect of the
higher velocity fluid down the annulus.
6. Maintaining borehole alignment is more difficult than with direct rotary because of
the relationship of the drill collar diameter & weight to the large diameter borehole.
7. SP & resistivity logs are not reliable where water without additives is used as the
drilling fluid. It is unsuitable for exploratory test drilling.
4. Down the hole Hammer Drilling method
In this method pneumatic hammer operated at the lower end of the drill pipe is used. It
combines the percussion effect of cable tool drilling & the rotary action of rotary
drilling.
In hard rock, compressed air can be used to blow out cuttings. This method is often
used in conjunction with a special bit that has a hammer action as it is rotated. This
method is called down-the –hole-hammer drilling and is commonly used to bore
through crystalline rocks.
The action is rotary percussive and does not rely on heavy down pressure. In hard
formation the DTH hammer is most effective but becomes less so as the rock strength
reduces.

The action is rotary percussive and does not rely on heavy down pressure. In hard
formation the DTH hammer is most effective but becomes less so as the rock strength
reduces.
Factors affecting the drilling rate
1. Formation characteristics-Strength, abrasiveness, drill ability, etc.

2. Mechanical factors- Wt. On bit, rotary speed, condition of bit, bit type &
diameter.
3. Hydraulic factors- circulation rates, friction losses
4. Drilling fluid properties- density, viscosity, etc
5. Intangible factor- personnel efficiency and rig efficiency.
Down the hole hammer (DTH) drilling is the technique of drilling where by hammering
action at the bottom of the well is incorporated to the conventional rotary action. With such
drilling method penetration of about five meters per hours in hard formation is possible.
Percussion and rotary methods of well drilling are usually uneconomical in water well
drilling in hard rock formations due to the slow penetration rate, high bit rate, and high
maintenance cost of the machinery. Air-operated DTH drilling method has proved to be the
best for the construction of water wells in hard rock areas.






7.5 DRILING FLUID
Drilling fluid can simply be defined as the combination of fluids and solids required in
certain drilling processes to facilitate the production and removal of cuttings from a
borehole.
The conveying of the drilled cuttings to the surface is still an essential requirement but
in addition, the drilling fluid must perform other functions such as:-
1. Cooling the drill bit
2. The maintenance of hole stability in preventing caving and sloughing of
unconsolidated formation.
3. Lubrication of the mud pump, bit bearings, and the drilling string & thus
reducing the torque required to turn it.
Basic drilling fluids are:-

1. Air
2. Foam
3. Water
4. Polymer
5. Water based clay mud (e.g. bentonite)
The five-drilling fluid systems are:-

1. Water base mud
2. Oil base mud
3. Low solids mud
4. Air, gas or moist flush system
5. Low velocity foam system
7.5.1 Water base mud
Drilling mud is a mixture of clays, water & chemicals pumped down the drill string & up
the annulus during drilling in order to lubricate the system, carry away rock cuttings,
maintain the required pressure at the bit end, and provide an aid to formation evaluation,
etc.
It consists of
1. a liquid phase
2. a suspended-particle(colloidal) phase, and
3. cuttings entrained during drilling
The oldest and probably the most widely used drilling fluid for water well drilling is a
water-based mud. In this fluid the continuous liquid phase is fresh water. Bentonite or other
clay-like materials, in suspension in the water, are adjusted to give the required mud
viscosity, gel-strength (the ability to form a semi-solid, jelly-like –colloidal solution when
the mud is at rest) and filtration property (the formation of a wall or filter cake to prevent
water from the fluid invading the formation adjacent to the bore which may otherwise cause
instability). Other chemicals may be added to control and overcome specific problems. Salt

water may be used occasionally as the continuous phase to overborne formation clay
swelling problems but salt is undesirable in water well & thus is rarely used.
7.5.2 Oil Base mud
These are drilling fluids in which oil is the continuous phase and water is the dispersed
phase. As with salt water-base muds, the oil base muds are used to prevent the hydration of
the native clays which may reduce permeability, it also has other advantages in oil well
drilling and completion. Because of the obvious contamination problem oil-based muds
have no application in water well drilling.
7.5.3 Low solid Mud
This is a drilling fluid in which the solids content is less than 10% by weight or a mud
weight of less than 2.6 parts per liter. For water well drilling the continuous liquid phase is
water & the solids are CMC (sodium carboxyl methyl cellulose) GEC (Hydroxyethyl
cellulose) & other polymers.
7.5.4. Air, Gas or Mist Flush system
Of these, air has the greatest application in water well drilling. This may be used for air
flush lifting of cuttings from rotary drilled holes or may be used to operate and flush
cuttings from down the hole hammers.
Air flush drilling is generally very much faster than water or mud drilling and bit life is
extended considerably as a result of the very rapid removal of drilled cuttings from the face
of the bit. However, problems arise when water is encountered in the hole. It is impossible
to restart drilling below a pressure head of water in the hole which exceeds the air pressure
available at the bit. Finally, the very high up- hole velocity required to lift the cuttings (a
minimum of 900 m/min) means that large drill pipe, to reduce the annular area, and / or
very large compressors are needed to achieve the velocity.
Obviously the large pipe, with its extra weight, limits the drilling depth capacity of the drill
rig whilst the large compressors have high capital and running costs.
7.5.5 Low velocity Foam system
This is an extreme low solids system in which a slow moving column of foam transports
the cutting up the hole with the particles suspended and separated in bubble clusters. Very
low water & air volumes are required. Generally the system improves in efficiency as the
annular area increases. It can often be used, to considerable advantage, instead of the
reverse circulation system.
The material used for foam flush drilling is a concentrated foaming agent with good
emulsion and foam stability, which gives small, tight, thin –walled bubbles. The foam
column has a cuttings carrying capacity far in excess of conventional water-based muds

and, with a very low hydrostatic head, provides bottom-hole conditions which allow
extremely good bit penetration. The low up-hole velocity (about 15 m/min) of the foam
flush drilling system reduces hole erosion and of course, significantly lowers compressed
air costs.
The addition of HEC based polymers & other additives to the foam, to give a “Modified
Stable Foam” (MSF), increases the foam bubble strength and thus the lifting capacity of the
foam column. The MSF can handle water which may be flowing into the hole, can stabilize
swelling & sloughing shale formations, limit the loss of fluid into porous formations by the
formation of a thin wall cake, reduce the tendency for “balling-up” (when clay particles
adhere to one another) and the formation of mud collars when drilling in sticky clay and be
highly successful in bridging fissures in “lost circulation” zone.
The principal limitation to foam flush drilling is in conditions where a high hydrostatic
head is necessary, foam densities are very low, ranging from 0.05 to 0.1kg/liter. Therefore,
high hydrostatic head is not possible; however, this is rarely a water well drilling
requirement.
The quantity of low solids or foam additives to prepare a drilling fluid is roughly one fifth
(by weight) of the quantity of bentonite which would have to be used to achieve similar
results. Thus the use of the low solids mud or the foam flush system can affect a significant
economy in the transport of the drilling fluid additives in the field.
7.5.6 Drilling Fluid requirements
1. The drilling mud must be thick enough to hold the hole from caving
2. The drilling mud should be able to keep the cuttings in suspension where circulation
is stopped for extending the drill rod or any other reasons.
3. The mud should be thin enough for efficiency.
7.5.7 Drilling Fluid Control program
Material used by the driller to prepare the drilling fluid should be composed of fresh, non-
polluted water and suitable fluid or mud additives to meet the viscosity specification
required. All fluid additives used will have to comply with recognized industry standards
and practices, and they should be applied and used as prescribed by the manufacturer. It is
expressly understood that toxic and /or dangerous substances will not be added to the
drilling fluid.
Additionally, the driller is normally responsible for maintaining the quality of the drilling
fluid to assure
a) Protection of water bearing and potential water bearing formations exposed in the
bore hole, and
b) Good representative samples of the formation materials.

The drilling fluid properties required will depend on:-

i) the type and size of drilling equipment to be used, and
ii) Down hole conditions anticipated or encountered.
Sample for the measurement or testing of drilling fluid properties are those caught at the rig
pump suction with care taken to assure a true and representative sample.
Tests are to be conducted:

1) every 15m of depth or
2) every four circulating hours or
3) Whenever conditions appear to have change or problem arises.
The driller must maintain current records on the site at all times to show
i) time, depth and results of all mud tests, and
ii) all materials added to the system-kind, amount, time and depth.
7.6 Well completion
The drilling of the borehole alone does not complete the construction of an efficient well.
Well completion involves:-
1. placement of casing
2. cementing of casing
3. placement of well screens
4. gravel packing
7.6.1. Well Casing
Reasons for using casing in a water well or borehole.

1. to prevent the collapse of the walls of the borehole (i.e. structural support against
caving in) serving as a lining.
2. to exclude, along with grouting, pollutants either from surface or subsurface from
entering the water sources
3. to provide a channel for conveying the water to the surface.
4. to provide a channel for conveying the water into the well for injection purpose
5. to provide a housing for the pump mechanism
6. to provide a channel for conveying a cement grout in the well for cementation
purpose
7. serving as a reservoir for a gravel pack
Materials commonly employed for well casings are wrought iron, alloyed or unalloyed
steel, PVC, concrete, etc. Steel is by far the most common casing material in water wells. In
cable- tool drilling, the casing is driven into place; in rotary methods, the casing is smaller
than the drilled hole and hence can be lowered into place. Joints normally consist of
threaded couplings or are welded, the objective being to secure water tightness.

The conditions which a casing (material and type) must satisfy before it can be approved
for use as a water well casing are as follows. The casing must be:
1) strong enough to resist the pressure exerted by the surrounding material

2) able to resist the internal pressures due to water drilling and cementation fluids.
3) Able to withstand compressive loads during installation into well
4) Able to withstand tensile forces during its installation into a well or pulling out of
borehole.
5) Able to resist corrosive forces by soil or water environment (should last 20-40
years)
Types of casings
There are four types of water well casings. They are classified according to function:
surface casing conductor casing intermediate casing, and pump housing casing. Each
category has some common requirements.
1.) A smooth interior to permit the installation and operation of drilling tools,
development tools, and pumps
2.) Physical properties adequate to withstand the stresses of installation and other
forces that may be applied during well completion, development, and operation.
3.) Casing material selected to ensure satisfactory life in the well environment.
I. Surface casing
Surface casing is installed from ground surface through upper strata of unstable or fractured
materials into a stable and, if possible, relatively impermeable material. Such surface casing
serves several purposes, including.
1) supporting unstable materials during drilling,
2) reducing loss of drilling fluids
3) facilitating installation or removal of other casing
4) helping in placing a sanitary seal, and to seal off the well against the inflow of
polluted surface water
5) serving as a reservoir for a gravel pack
This casing may be temporary during drilling or it may be permanent.
Recommended minimum diameters of surface casing are given in table below (after USBR)
Surface casing diameter, cm
Well yield, Nominal pump Natural /Gravel-packed Nominal screen
m /day
3
chamber casing developed wells wells diameter, cm
diameter, cm
<270 15 25 45 5
270-680 20 30 50 10
680-1900 25 35 55 15

1900-4400 30 40 60 20
4400-7600 35 45 65 25
7600-1400 40 50 70 30
1400-19000 40 60 80 35
19000-27000 60 70 90 40
II conductor casing
A high-capacity well design usually specifies that conductor casing be installed and
cemented to a minimum of 15m, or to the first impervious formation, in order to prevent
well contamination from the surface. Conductor casing also stabilizes the upper borehole
while drilling. It also serves as reservoir for gravel packing. It serves as a foundation on
which to suspend the well casing and screen to avoid buckling and to prevent its movement
if the gravel and formation should settle.
III Intermediate casing
Intermediate strings of casing may be required to facilitate completion in deep boreholes

where difficult drilling conditions are encountered (hydraulic shales, loss of circulation
zones, etc.). A multiple-diameter casing program may be required for deep cable-tool wells
where the casing cannot be advanced to total depth in a single string by driving or jacking.
IV Pump Housing casing
Pump bowl diameter, depth of setting, and diameter of column pipe are established by
maximum anticipated production, lift, and total head. Pump housing casing diameter and
length are based on the pump design needed to meet these requirements.
Normally, the pump chamber casing should have a nominal diameter at least 5 cm larger
than the nominal diameter of the pump bowls.
7.6.1.2 Methods of casing Installation
1) Driven (well point)
A hole is bored with a hand or power operated auger slightly large in diameter than the well
point.
The hole should be vertical and extend as far as possible into the water-bearing formation.
The driven point and the appropriate number of sections of riser pipe (in lengths of 1.5m or
more) are assembled and inserted in the bored hole. If used, couplings shall have recessed
ends & tapered threads so that when assembled no pipe threads are exposed. Pipe thread
compound have to be applied to the threads to make the joints water tight. A malleable iron
drive cap has to be fastened to the top of the assembly. Driving has to be done with a
driving tool or suspended on a tripod or derrick. The riser pipe is to be guided to insure that

the well is vertical and if threaded turned with a wrench from time to time in a clock wise
direction to insure that the threaded sections remain tight.
2) Jacking
Jacking is used to install casing when drilling wells with cable-tools. A pull down spread
footing has to be installed around the well and the jacking force on the casing achieved by
pulling down on the casing with the ram end of hydraulic jacks while the cylinder end is
secured to the spread footing.
3) Driven (Drive shoe)
Casing may be driven either by percussion from the cable tool string, or by a pneumatic
tool designed to drive casing through unconsolidated formations. When permanent well
casing is driven, a standard drive shoe has to be welded or threaded on the lower end of the
string of casing. The shoe will have a beveled and tempered cutting edge of metal forged,
cast or fabricated for this purpose.
4) Lowering
The lowering method is used to install a jointed casing string in a re-drilled hole. The
casing has to be lowered with the drilling machine, utilizing clamps, elevators or other
mechanical devices.
5) Floating
Where the casing load is extremely large it may be desirable to “float” the casing into
place. A float collar has to be installed on the casing at the appropriate place in the casing
string or a float plug has to be installed in the casing string near the bottom. Where a float
collar or float shoe is to be used a casing size dummy (12.2m minimum length) has to be
turn into the hole first to ensure that the hole is straight or free from obstruction which
could result in stuck casing.
Method of Joining Casing
Casing lengths have to be joined watertight by a method appropriate to the material used so
that the resulting joint has the same structural integrity as the casing itself. If metallic
casing is welded, the standards of the American Welding society shall apply.
If threaded and coupled joints are used, couplings shall be appropriate so that when tight all
threads will be buried in the lip of the coupling.
Plastic casing sections have to be joined watertight by either solvent welding or fusion
welding in accordance with the directions off the manufacture of the materials used, or by
the use of threaded and coupled joints.

When concrete pipe is used, the casing has to be joined in accordance with standards of the
American society for Testing and Materials or the American Water Works Association;
special care must be taken to avoid chipping or cracking the casing.
Casing made of other materials (aluminum, Copper, brass, fiberglass, etc.) shall be joined
in accordance with the manufacturer’s instruction.
7.6.1.4 Design of Well Casing and Housing pipe
The design includes the selection of a suitable material, diameter and thickness of pipe.
The size of the well should be properly chosen since it significantly affects the cost of well
construction. It must be large enough to accommodate the pump that is expected to be
required for the head and discharge (yield) with proper clearance. The diameter must also
be chosen to give the desired percentage of open area in the screen so that the entrance
velocities near the screen do not exceed certain values so as to reduce the well losses and
hence the drawdown.
Table Recommended well diameters for various yields
Anticipated well Nominal size of Size of well Casing

yield, 1/mm pump bowl, cm Minimum, cm Optimum, cm
400 10 12.5 15
400-600 12.5 15 20
600-1400 15 20 25
1400-2200 20 25 30
2200-3000 25 30 35
3000-4500 30 35 40
4500-6000 35 40 50
6000-10000 40 50 60
a) The diameter of the housing pipe should be at least 5 cm more in diameter

than the nominal diameter of the pump.
b) The depth of housing pipe below the ground level is selected such that the
pump is always submersed in water. It must set a few meters below the
lowest draw down level, taking into account the seasonal fluctuations in the
spring level or water level, interference from adjoining tube wells and the
likely lowering of the water table due to future development in the area.
c) The diameter of the pipe of the well section below the pump housing is fixed
by the permissible velocity (1.5-5m/s) of water through the pipe. A velocity
of order of 2.5-3m/s is found to be most suitable. The usual practice is to
provide constant diameter pipe.
7.6.1.5 Bore Size and Well Depth

Both influence the yield of wells.
Bore size
To facilitate the lowering of the casing pipe the diameter of the bore has to be at least 5cm
bigger in diameter than the casing.
If gravel pack is to be used, the minimum diameter should be twice the thickness of the
gravel pack plus the outside diameter of the casing pipe.
Well Depth
The depth of a tube well depends upon the locations of water-bearing formations, desired
yields of the well and economic considerations. It is determined from the lithological log of
the area and confirmed from the electrical resistivity and drilling-time logs. The well is
usually drilled up to the bottom of the aquifer so that aquifer thickness is available,
permitting greater well yield.
Well Granting and sealing off contaminating Water
The drilled hole is usually larger than the well casing. This creates an irregularly shaped
annular space around the well casing. It is essential to fill this space with grout.
dhole= dcasing+(7-15)cm
It is also necessary to seal out water of unsuitable quality strata above a fresh water aquifer.
7.6.2.1 Well Grouting
Well grouting involves filling the space around the pipe or casing (usually between the
casing and the wall of the well) with a suitable an impervious material.
Reasons for well grouting are
1. to protect an aquifer, or aquifers, from entry of contaminating fluids flowing

into it (unsatisfactory quality)
2. to prevent undesirable water movement from one aquifer to another for the
purposes of maintaining quality or preserving the hydraulic response of
producing zone(s) (Inter-flow from contaminated aquifer to freshwater
aquifer through the gravel pack).
3. Protecting the well against the entry of unwanted water from the surface or a
subsurface zone.
4. to protect the casing against exterior corrosive and also to assure structural
integrity of casing against external pressure and buckling. To make the
casing stay tight in the drilled hole.

Prior to grouting the annular space should be flushed to assure that the space is open and
ready to receive the sealing material. Grouting should be done in one continuous operation
in which the annular space is filled.
Materials mostly used in well grouting are:-
1. concrete
2. Sand cement
3. Neat cement
4. Bentonite clay
The usefulness of clay as a sealant in well construction is limited to instance where drying
out and washing away cannot occur. Generally, clays are usually not suitable as sealants
under the following conditions
i) when the sealants will be in contact with aquifers
ii) wherever structural strength or stability of the sealant is required
iii) wherever the sealant might dry out
iv) Wherever flowing or moving water might break down the sealant.
v) When shrinkage of the sealant might occur
Methods of Installation of Grout

a) Bailer dumping
b) Gravity filling without tremie method
c) Tremine method (grout pipe tremie)
d) Positive placement-Exterior method-pumping or forced injection by pressure
e) Positive placement-Interior method-Two plug
f) Positive placement-Interior method-upper plug
g) Positive placement-Interior method-Capped casing
h) Continuous injection method
i) Grout displacement method, well depth < 30m
Positive placement of grout by tremie, pumping, or pressure is strongly recommended. It is

important that the grout be introduced at the bottom of the open to be grouted to ensure that
the zone is properly sealed.
7.6.2.2 Sealing off contaminating Water (sanitary protection of

Wells)
Tube wells constructed for drinking water supply should be protected against pollution.
Therefore, upon completion of the well, the driller shall install a suitable threaded, flanged,
or welded cap or compression seal so as to prevent any pollutants from entering the well.
The general cause of pollution of shallow aquifers and the requirements of the locations of
wells for sanitary protection apply equally to tube wells.
Protecting the top section of a tube well from entry of contaminants:- The watertight casing
of any well shall extend not less than 30 cm above the pump house floor or final ground
level elevation and not less than 60cm above the normally anticipated flood level of record.

Any equipment which will permit direct open access to the well shall also meet the above
height requirements and shall be sealed or screened so as to prevent entrance of foreign
matter or contaminants. The ground immediately surrounding the top of the well casing
shall be sloped away from the well, extending at least 60cm in all directions. Cement slab is
constructed around the casing to protect surface with infiltration.
Common causes of contamination and their paths:- The followings the are some common
causes and paths of entry of contaminated surface water into the tube well:
1. Between the pump and the well casing
2. Around the well casing
3. Improperly placed gravel pack
4. Reverse flow through the pump
5. Subsidence of the soil or aquifer around the well casing due to sand pumping.
7.6.3 Water well Screens
A water well screen is usually a pipe with slots or openings along its wall. Wells that obtain
water from sand and gravel formations (unconsolidated formations) require the use of well
screens for proper completion. Well screen serves as the intake component of a well and
support and stabilizes the aquifer and filter zone and in the case of gavel envelope wells, it
filters the pack. That is,
-Well screen permits water to enter the well from the saturated aquifer, allows a maximum
amount of water to enter the well with a minimum hydraulic resistance.
-Prevents sand movement into the well
-Stabilizes the sides of the hole
Holes in hard rock formations with large fissures would not generally require screening.
Groundwater can directly enter into an uncased well.
The basic requirements of a well screen are:
i) it should be resistant to corrosion and deterioration,
ii) it should be strong enough to prevent collapse of a hole,
iii) it should offer minimum resistance to the flow of water, and
iv) size and shape of each slot
v) thickness and material of screen
Edward E. Johnson (1966) listed the following as the desirable features for a properly
designed well screen:
i) openings in the form of slots which are continuous and uninterrupted
around the circumference of the screen
ii) Close spacing of slot openings to provide the maximum percentage of
open area.
iii) V-shaped slot openings that widen inward
iv) Single metal construction to avoid galvanic corrosion.
v) Adaptability to different ground water and aquifer conditions by the use
of various materials

vi) Ample strength to resist the force to which the screen may be subjected
during and after installation.
vii) Full series of accessories to facilitate screen installation and well
completion operations.
7.6.3.2 Screen strength
The choice of screen material may be dictated by the strength requirements. The three loads
(or forces) imposed on a screen are column load (vertical compression), tensile load
(extending forces), and collapse pressure (horizontal forces).
The screen portion is especially weak so it must have collapse, tensile and column strengths
as high as possible. It must also withstand impact loads during transportation and also
during installation, filter packing and well development. Thus, the quality of the wire and
rod material, and the manufacturing process is extremely important. It must withstand
incrustation and corrosion.
7.6.3.3 Screen Material (material Selection)
Natural groundwater contains various substances which corrode metal and which generate
incrustation. Completely neutral ground water seldom exists. An anti-corrosive screen
material should be used which will also protect against acid or chlorine used during well
development or rehabilitation. The materials most commonly used for well screens are
stainless steel, silicon bronze, silicon red brass, galvanized iron, mild steel, plastic,
reinforced fiber glass, etc. However, the choice should be made on the basis of chemical
analysis of the water or prior knowledge of the water quality.
Experience has shown that the extended screen life afforded by stainless steel and bronze
makes them the most economical in the long run. Silicon red brass gives good services in
non-aggressive waters. Galvanized iron and low carbon steel screens have limited life, and
they are most suitable for temporary wells or for observation wells.
7.6.3.4 Length of Well screen
The optimum length of well screen is based on the thickness of the aquifer, available
drawdown, and nature of stratification of the aquifer. In virtually every aquifer, certain
zones will transmit more water than others. Thus, the intake part of the well must be placed
in those zones having the highest hydraulic conductivity.
To prevent rapid clogging, the minimum length of the well screen for a non-gravel pack
well is designed on the basis of the following equation (Walton, 1962)
h=
Where h= minimum length of the well screen, m
A0 = effective open area per meter length of the well screen, m2

Ve= entrance velocity at the screen, m/min
In the cased well screen in a gravel-pack well, the average value of the K of aquifer and the
gravel pack is used to determine the entrance velocity at the screen.
It is recommended that a screen length greater than this value should be provided wherever
possible to keep the entrance velocity lower than 3.0cm/s, in order to ensure a larger life of
the well.
The well screen is generally designed so that it fits the aquifer. However, generally, the
screen length may be selected by the following criteria:
I. When the formation being screened is homogeneous and the

ground water is under artesian
1. If less than 7.5m thick, use a length equal to 70% of the formation thickness.
2. If less between 7.5m and 15m thick, use a length equal to 75% of the formation
thickness.
3. If more than 15m thick, use a length equal to 80% of the formation thickness.
The screen should be best positioned at equal distance between the top and bottom of the
aquifer. The screen should never be placed less than a minimum depth (say 5m) below
ground, as this would open the borehole to pollution from the surface.
II. When the formation being screened is not homogeneous and

the groundwater is under artesian pressure. In this case, it is
best to screen the most permeable strata. Select the more
permeable sections from :
1. Laboratory tests of permeability, if representative samples are available.

2. Sieve analysis
3. Geophysical logging techniques
4. Visual inspection, if TV or photographic coverage of entire interval is available.
III. If the formation being screened is homogeneous and the ground

water is unconfined (water table conditions) theory and
experience have shown that screening the bottom one-third of
the formation
IV. If the formation being screened is not homogeneous (highly
stratified) and is under unconfined conditions the principles of
design are the same as in the case of non-homogeneous artesian
aquifer.
Minimum Length of screen: - The minimum length of the screen is the one that is required
to keep the entrance velocity through the opening less than the permissible value (0.1

ft/sec). An entrance velocity greater than the permissible value, will result in excessive
pumping of sand.
7.6.3.5 Well screen Diameter
Screen diameter is selected to satisfy a basic principle: enough open area must be provided
so that the entrance velocity of the water generally does not exceed the design standard of
3.0 cm/sec. Screen diameter can be adjusted within rather narrow limits after the length of
the screen and size of the screen opening have been selected. Well yields are affected by
screen diameter, although increasing the screen diameter has much less impact on well
yield than increasing the screen length.
7.6.3.6 Slot size of water well screens
Screen openings depend upon the gradation of the sediment and the size of the filter pack.
The slot size of the water well screen has to be precise and accurate. Too large slot size
allows sand to flow into the well and too small slot size prevents sand from entering the
well, impeding smooth water flow. In order to obtain a large volume of water without sand,
the exact slot size should be determined as follows:
I. Homogeneous Formations
1. Where the uniformity coefficient of the aquifer is greater than 6 and the aquifer is
overlain by essentially non-caving formations, the slot size shall be that which
retains 30% of the aquifer sample.
2. Where the uniformity coefficient of the aquifer is greater than 6 and the aquifer is
over-lain by unstable formation, the slot size shall be which retains 50% of the
aquifer sample.
3. Where the uniformity coefficient of the aquifer is 3 or lower and the aquifer is
overlain by an essentially non-caving formation, the slot size shall be that which
retains 40% of the aquifer samples.
4. Where the uniformity coefficient of the aquifer is 3 or lower and the aquifer is
overlain by a caving formation, the aperture size shall be that which retains 60% of
the aquifer sample.
5. For conditions between the extremes listed, the driller shall interpolate to obtain the
proper screen slot size.
II Non-Homogeneous Formation
6. Where formation to be screened has layers of differing grain size and gradations,
use the following rule:-
If the 50%of size of the coarsest layer (C.L) is less than 4 x 50% of the finest layer
(FL), i.e, if 50%C.L.< 4x50%F.L., the slot size shall be selected on the basis of the
finest layer, (F.L) or for each specific layer as indicated in 1,2,3,4, or 5.

7. If the water is corrosive or the accuracy of the chemical analysis is in doubt, select
slot size that will retain 10% more than as indicated in the above paragraphs.
Generally no allowance is required for stainless steel.
8. Where fine sand overlies coarse sand, use the fine sand size slot for the top 60cm of
the underlying coarse sand. The coarse size aperture shall not be larger than twice
the fine sand size slot.
For a filter(gravel) packed well:- A filter pack prevents sand from flowing into the well,
but the size of the filter material has to be suitable for the grain size of the aquifer material
and the slot size of the screen must be suitable for the size of the filter material. The width
retains 90% of the gravel pack. The screen opening is selected to prevent most of the pack
from passing. The generally recommended range is between 10% and 20% (occasionally as
high as 30%) of the envelope material to pass.
7.6.3.7 Types of well screens
Te types of well screens in use are listed as below:

i) Perforated pipe
ii) Punched and slotted pipe
iii) Reinforced wire wrapped punch pipe
iv) Louvered pipe
v) Continuous slot wire wound screen
The continuous-slot type of well screen provides more inlet area per square meter of screen
surface than any other design. It is the most efficient and can be closely matched to aquifer
gradations.
The best type of opening is the V-shaped slot that widens towards the inside of the screen,
i.e. opening beveled inside.
7.6.3.8 Methods of screen Emplacement (Installation of Well

Screens)
The method of installing well screens is influenced by the design of the well, the drilling
method and problems encountered during drilling. For naturally developed wells, the
common methods are:-
1. pull back method

2. Bail- down method
3. Open-hole method
4. Wash-down method
5. Driving
In gravel-packed wells: bail-down open hole and double casing (modified pull-back
method) are used.

Artificial Gravel Pack
A gravel pack (or filter pack consists of clean sand or gravel of selected grain size and
gradation which is installed in the annular space between the screen and the wall of the well
bore. The pack has a larger average grain size and usually a smaller coefficient of
uniformity than the aquifer material.
The usefulness of gravel pack in unconsolidated formation water well can be summarized
as follows:
i) it prevents or minimizes greatly the flow of sand from the aquifer into the screen
thus improving the quality of water, and reducing the wear and tear on pumps.
ii) it permits use of a larger screen slot size and consequent larger open area so that
entrance velocity is lowered and head losses to the well are reduced.
iii) it increase the effective diameter of the well to some extent since the filter has
higher permeability than the formation. This increases the efficiency and
specific capacity of a well and tends to reduce the possibility of excess sand
production.
iv) it fills the space between the borehole wall and lining pipe, and thus prevents
formation slumping
No all water bearing formations require artificial gravel pack. Ellithope (1970) recommends
the use of artificial gravel
1. To stabilize fine grained, poorly sorted sand aquifers and to avoid sand pumping.
2. To permit the use of larger slot openings and the resultant higher well efficiency in
fine grained aquifers.
3. In formations of alternating zones of coarse and fine aquifer material, it is difficult
to position screens of various slot sizes accurately. The use of an artificial gravel
pack will permit the use of a single slot size screen and eliminate the positioning
problem.
4. In deep aquifers, it may be less expensive to set a small diameter, artificially gravel-
packed screen in an under-reamed section of the hole than to ream the full diameter
hole to its full depth.
5. In case of loosely cemented, fine-grained sandstone aquifers, when a well is
finished as an open hole, some fine sand particles slough from the walls of the hole,
resulting in sand pumping well. Wells in such aquifer can be constructed
successfully with an artificial gravel pack.
7.6.4.1 Gravel pack Material

Careful selection of gravel for packing is very important for the life of the well. The
following conditions must be satisfied before a gravel pack material can be used in a water
well;
1. The filter pack should consist of clean, well rounded grains that are smooth and
uniform.
2. The gravel pack should be siliceous (quartz) with a limit of 5% by weight of
calcareous material.
3. The filter should not contain more than 2% by weight of thin, flat or elongated
pieces.
4. The filter should be obtained from an approved source and should consist of hard,
rounded particles with an average specific gravity of not less than 2.5
5. Not more than 1% by weight of the material should have a specific gravity of 2.25
or less.
6. Gravel pack should be free of mica, shale, clay, and organic impurities of any kind.
7. It should not contain an iron or manganese in a form or quantity that will adversely
affect the water quality.
8. Gravel pack should be free of pollutants. There must be no chance of contamination
of the filter material during mixing.
Disinfection of Filter Material:- The filter material is adequately disinfected during

installation with chlorine solution having a 50mg/l free –chlorine residual. Filter pack
should be introduced uniformly and continuously to minimize or eliminate hydraulic
segregation and bridging.
7.6.4.2. Design criteria for Gravel pack
Installation of a properly designed filter pack extends well life and reduces maintenance
costs of wells, pumps, and meters. The basic principle in the design of the gravel pack is
that the grading of the gravel pack must be correctly chosen in relation to the particle size
distribution of the water bearing formation.
If gravel-pack ratio (GPR) = = 4 to 5, generally have high efficiency.

GPR= 7-10 wells are less efficient
> 10 considerable sand is pumped
> 20 failure of well
Most commercial filter packs have Uc of approximately 2. In certain areas, however, filter
packs with Uc of 4 to 5 are used occasionally with good results.
7.6.4.3. Choice of gravel pack particle size

1. Minimum gravel pack particle size

=6
2. Maximum gravel pack particle size
=10
7.6.4.4 Thickness of filter pack
From a practical viewpoint, filter pack are usually about 10 to 20 cm thick. Generally, the
thinner the filter the better it is. However, the thickness of the gravel pack should not
ordinarily be less than 7.5cm.
There are two types of gravel packing, which are uniform grain size and graded grain size
pack. The former is widely accepted because the size of opening of the screen can be
controlled. The practice in EWWCA is packing of wells with uniform grain size gravel.
7.7 Water Well Development
A tube well is not completely ready for use just after construction. The tube well can
function successfully only after proper development.
Water well development is a process where by the mud cake or compacted borehole wall,
resulting from drilling activity, is broken down; the mud cake liquefied and drawn with
other fines into the well. This material is then removed by bailing or pumping. Well
development, therefore, stabilizes the walls of a well adjacent to the screen by a process
which removes fine particle from the formation immediately surrounding the well screen,
leaving coarser particles to contact and surround the screen.
Tube wells are developed to increases their specific capacity, prevent sanding and obtain
maximum economic well life. Development work is necessary step in completing all
types of wells. Most wells will not perform at maximum efficiency if they are not
properly developed.
The main objectives of well development are:-

1. to correct any damage to or clogging of the water bearing formation ; i.e., to
remove mud or clay particles which may have blocked the water movement
from the aquifer into the well.

2. to increase the porosity and improve the permeability of the water bearing
formation in the vicinity of the well.
3. to stabilize the sand formation (gravel pack) around a screened well and the
formation immediately
4. to reduce drawdown in the well during production or pumping.
Development is necessary in all gravel packed wells and other screened wells except when
the screen is formed of fine wire mesh located in a highly permeable formation.
The benefits which result from well development are:
1. sand pumping during well operation will be eliminated to a greater extent
2. the life of the well will be prolonged
3. Operation and maintenance costs will be reduced.
4. the specific capacity of the well will be improved (maximum yield at available
minimum drawdown)
7.7.1 Methods of well development
The methods commonly employed for well development are over pumping, backwashing,
use of compressed air, hydro fracturing, jetting and use of dispersing agents (chemicals).
Over pumping:- Loose sand and material are removed by pumping the well at a higher rate
than the well will be pumped when put into service. Over pumping has the advantage that
much of the fine material brought into the borehole is pumped out immediately.
Backwashing: - sand and fine materials are loosened by reversing the direction of flow
through the screen. By changing the flow respectively the loose material will be moved
through the screen into the well.
Air development:- Air lift technique can be used for surging and pumping. The practice of
alternatively surging and pumping with air has grown with the great increase in the number
of rotary drilling rigs equipped with large air compressors.
Surging is used to loosen sand and fine material in the screen and filter zone. The surging
action is created by lifting the water near to the surface by injecting air into the well and
then shut off the air to allow the water to flow back through the well and formation.
Pumping water with air lift can be used for cleaning a well from sand and fine material.
Using the air lift means no water, as would be the case if a submersible or turbine pump is
used to clean the well
Water Jetting:- High velocity water jetting can be used to loosen sand and fine material
from the filter zone and the screen.
A maximum development efficiency is achieved if water jetting is combined with
simultaneous pumping with air lift, as the loosened material is not allowed to settle again.
Hydro fracturing:- High pressure pumps are used to overcome the pressure of overlying
rock and inject fluids into newly opened fractures. Pressure in the production zone usually

causes small, tight breaks in the rock to open up and spread radially. The newly opened
fractures provide effective interconnections between nearby water-bearing fractures and the
well bore.
Dispersing agents:- Sometimes it is necessary to add a chemical agents to disperse the clay
particles in the mud cake or in the formation to avoid their sticking to sand grains, and to
speed up the development process.
Well development work must be done in a manner that does not cause undue settlement and
disturbance of the strata above the water bearing formation, not disturb the seal effected
around the well casing and there by reduces the sanitary protection otherwise afforded by
such a seal.
Development of the well shall be continued until water pumped from the well at the
maximum test pumping rate is clear and free of sand. The water shall be considered sand-
free when samples, taken during test pumping, contain more than 2ppm of sand by weight.
2-3 ppm tolerable for municipal and industrial water supply

1ppm may be permissible limit in a system that has many values and small orifices 20ppm
for irrigation.
But it can be recognized that any kind of sand in the water can damage the pump.
Sand content testing-5 samples averages
- 15 minute after the start of the test
- after 1/4th of total planned test time
- after 1/2nd of total planned test time
- after 3/4th of total planned test time
- near the end of the pumping test
Excessive sand pumping may result in the formation of cavities around the screen and
subsidence of the soil.
7.8 Well Testing for performance
Following the development of a new well, the well should be tested to provide information
on the potential yield of the borehole and drawdown.
Purpose of conducting a pump test of water well: - water well may be pump tested for
either of two main purposes:
1. The usual objective is to obtain information about the performance
and efficiency of the well being pumped. The result in such a case
is usually reported in terms of they yield, the observed drawdown,
and the calculated specific yield. These data, taken under
controlled conditions, give a measure of the productive capacity of
the completed well and provide information needed for selection of
the pumping equipment.

2. Another objective of well pumping test is to provide data for which

the principal factors of aquifer performance, transmissivity and
storage coefficient, can be calculated
In general, the data obtained from pumping test provide information necessary to
determine:-
a) capacity of the well

b) Aquifer characteristics
c) Well efficiency
d) Pumping rates
e) Pump installation depth settings
f) Other factors which will be of value in the long term operation and maintenance of
the well
g) Well design and construction equipment.
Types of pumping Test performance
i) Bailing test method

ii) Air Blow test Method
iii) Air lift test method
Volume of Filter pack Required
Example
Using the following data calculate the number of 50kg bags of gravel for gravel
packing the whole of the annular space (i.e. from the bottom of the well to ground
surface)- No consideration should be made over wash away (b/s it is necessitating
additional filter pack)

Borehole depth, L= 100m

Borehole diameter, D= 450mm

Well screen and plain pipes outside diameter, Ds=300mm

Total length of screen and plain pipes in borehole=100.5m

Grain size of gravel pack material=2 to 4 mm

Porosity of gravel pack material=36%

Dry density of gravel pack material=2650kg/m3
Solution
Volume of gravel, V= Volume of annual space in borehole
V= 8.836m3
Mass of grave l= m
m = density x volume (1 –porosity in % /100%/)
= 2650 x 8,83 x (1-36/100)= 14975.68kg

The number of 50 kg bags required will be =

n=
= 1495.68/50=299.5
Say n = 300 Formation stabilize + Filter pack
It is good practice to have extra filter pack on the site, especially if the stability of the
borehole is in doubt.
CHAPTR VIII
8.0 Ground water Balance and Management
8.1 water Resources Management in General
Water resources management means intervention in matters concerning water.

Such matters may be the planning, design or operation of hydraulic works, but they may
also be factors that are related indirectly to water (e.g. control of land use as a factor
affecting ground water quality; or water pricing to influence water demand).
Water resources management assumes that an authority exists powerful enough to define
the boundary conditions for water resources planning, and to impose decisions upon
individuals or at least to influence people’s behavior.
Although there are different interpretations of the field encompassed by water resources
management, in scope it focuses on enhancing and protecting collective interests in water
resources and guaranteeing that recognized individual or sectorial requirements continue to
be satisfied.
Objectives of Water Resources Development and Management
The many different objectives of water resources development and management can (after
Hall and Dracup, 1970) be grouped into three fundamental categories, paraphrased as
follows:
a) Conserve and control the water resources zone so as to prevent or minimize

excessive or deficiencies in quantity or quality.
b) Provide or maintain water in such places and times, and according to the many
single quantity and quality requirements;
c) Minimize expenditures involved in accomplishing all of the above
It should be noted that (b) may be subject to conflicts of interest or competition under
condition of scarcity; finding a compromise in such cases belongs to water resources
management

The word expenditures as used under the third category should be interpreted in the widest
sense, to include not only the cost of developing or conserving/controlling water, but also
the associated adverse ecological, environmental or social impacts if any.
Water resources management takes care of these objectives in a coordinated way in order to
maximize the over all net benefit that can be obtained from the water resources of the
region considered.
Generally, the functions of groundwater management are as follows

1. Regulation of water consumption
Water consumption can be regulated either directly by allocated or indirectly by a fee or tax
on consumption.
The objective of this function is to maintain the aquifer yield at a satisfactory level and to
prevent the mining of the aquifer when water withdrawals through a specified period of
time exceed the aquifer recharge during the same period.
2. Augmentation amplified of water supply

Several methods are used to increase the water supply, such as artificial recharge,
relocation of wells, or importing water
3. Aquifer restoration
certain measures should be taken to restore the integrity of the aquifer against
pollution and excessive withdrawal. The latter effect would deplete the groundwater
levels or piezometric heads, which might require deepening the wells or increasing
pump lifts.
In coastal (areas) aquifers, excessive withdrawal could lead to the expansion of salt water
encroachment.
Purpose of Ground water Management
The ideal purpose of groundwater management in a basin is to develop the maximum

possible groundwater to satisfy the requirements of all users within the basin and to meet
specific predetermined conditions, such as the level of water quality, the cases of
development and operation and certain legal, social, and political constraints.
Management procedures should be adequate to avoid present and future potential

detrimental effects, such as excessive water depletion, deterioration of water quality, and
land subsidence due to excessive pumping.
Need for Groundwater management

i) The continuous increase in population and the recent increase in water demands
due to the continuously rising standard of living created a new situation that
necessitated proper planning and sound management of groundwater resources.
ii) Aquifers can no longer be looked on as everlasting sources of abundant water of
good quality. Increases in urban wastes and expansion of industry and
agriculture lead to deterioration in the quality of groundwater. In coastal
aquifers, increases in water demand have resulted in inland progress of saltwater
intrusion. All these problems and others dictated the urgent need for
groundwater management.
Optimum economic water management requires an integrated approach to management of

both surface water and groundwater.
8.2 Groundwater Balance
In the management of ground water resources, man intervenes in the hydrologic cycle in
order to achieve beneficial goals.
This intervention takes the form of modifications imposed on the various components of
water balance.
Water and pollutants carried with it may enter an aquifer, or a considered portion of one, in
the following ways:
1. Groundwater inflow through aquifer boundaries and leakage from overlying or

underlying aquifers.
2. Natural replenishment (infiltration) from precipitation over the area.
3. Return flow from irrigation and septic tanks (or similar structures, including faulty
water supply or sewage networks)
4. Artificial recharge.
5. Seepage from influent streams and lakes
Water and pollutants carried with it may leave an aquifer in the following ways
1. Groundwater outflow through boundaries and leakage out of the considered aquifer
into underlying or overlying strata.
2. Pumping and drainage
3. Seepage into effluent streams and lakes
4. Spring discharge
5. Evapotranspiration
The difference between total inflow and total outflow of water and of pollutants during
any period is stored in the aquifer, causing a rise in water levels and in the concentration of
pollutants, respectively.

1. Inflow and outflow through Aquifer Boundaries

When a boundary of an aquifer (or a portion of one) is pervious, groundwater may enter the
aquifer through it from the outside (another aquifer or the remaining part of the aquifer.
Leakage
The leakage (volume of water per unit area and per unit time) through a semi permeable
layer from an overlying (or underlying) aquifer may take place.
2. Natural Replenishment from precipitation
Phreatic aquifers can be replenished from above by precipitation falling directly

over the ground surface overlying the aquifer, provided the ground surface is
sufficiently pervious.
Confined aquifers are replenished by groundwater inflow from an adjacent phreatic

aquifer, which in turn, is replenished from precipitation. Part of the area may be
completely impervious and does not contribute to the natural replenishment of the
aquifer beneath it.
3. Return Flow from Irrigation and sewage
Even in efficient irrigation practices, a certain portion of the water applied to an

area is not used up as consumptive use, but infiltrates, eventually reaching the water
table. We shall refer to this contribution to an aquifer’s replenishment as return flow
from irrigation.
The water used for irrigation may be that pumped from underlying aquifer (hence
the term return flow), surface water or water imported from other regions.
4. Artificial Recharge
It may be defined as man’s planned operations of transferring water from the

ground surface into aquifers
This is in contradiction to natural replenishment (or natural recharge), considered

above, whereby water from precipitation ad surface runoff reaches the aquifer with
out man’s intervention. Whereas natural replenishment is an uncontrolled (by man)
input to the groundwater system, artificial recharge is a controlled input.
The quantity, quality, location, and time of artificial recharge are decision variables,
the values of which are determined as part of the management policy of a
considered groundwater system.

5. River-Aquifer Interrelationships
Rivers passing through a region under-lain by a phreatic aquifer (and in special

cases even by a confined aquifer) may either contribute water to the aquifer or serve
as its drain.
When a stream cuts through an impervious layer, establishing a direct contact with
and underlying confined aquifer, the stream may be either an influent one or and
effluent one, depending on whether the piezometric heads in the aquifer are above
or blow the water level in the stream.
Much of the low water flow in streams (base flow) is derived from groundwater
whose water table elevations in the vicinity of a stream are higher than the stream;
such streams are called effluent streams. On the other hand, when the water level in
a stream is higher than the water level in an adjacent (or underlying) aquifer, water
will flow from the river to the aquifer. The river is called an influent river.
The same stream can be an influent one along one stretch and an effluent one along
another or it can be both influent and effluent at the same point.
The volume of water contributed to an aquifer by stream flow (or drained into a
stream from an aquifer), is part of the regional water balance.
6. Springs
It is a point (sometimes a small area) through which groundwater emerges from and
aquifer to the ground surface. The discharge of some springs is small and of no
significance in the groundwater balance, however, some are very large and
dominate the flow pattern in their vicinity.
Several types of springs
A depression spring occurs when a high water table intersects the ground surface.
Ac perched spring occurs when an impervious layer, which underlies a phreatic

aquifer intersects the groundwater
A confined aquifer can be drained in the form of a spring either through a pervious
fault or fissure reaching the ground surface, or where it becomes exposed at the
ground surface.
7. Evapo-Transpiration (ET)
This is another mechanism by means of which groundwater may leave an aquifer.

Evaporation is the net transfer of water from the liquid phase to the vapor one.

Transpiration is the process by means of which plants remove moisture from the
soil and release it to the atmosphere as vapor.
ET, a combination of the above two processes, is the term used to describe the
total water removal from an area partly covered by vegetation by transpiration,
evaporation from soil (actually from the water present in the void space of
unsaturated soil), from snow, from open water surface (lakes, streams, and
reservoirs).
Unless the ground water table is with in 1-1.5m from ground surfaces evaporation
from groundwater is practically zero. When the water table is near the ground
surface, ET may contribute a significant factor in the water balance.
We do have some evaporation from water in the unsaturated zone.
8. Pumpage and Drainage
Water can be withdrawn from an aquifer for beneficial usage by means of shallow
dug wells, tube deep wells, horizontal wells, and galleries. A well can pump
water as long as the water table at its location is higher than the elevation of the
pump installed in it. For water to enter a gallery, the water table should be above
its bottom.
In regional water balance, we are often interested only in the total withdrawal by
pump age during the balance period.
A drainage system (open channels, or buried drains) is usually installed in order to

control the elevation of the (ground) water table say, to maintain water levels
below the root zone. Groundwater will then leave the aquifer through this system
(say, to a near by stream) whenever the water table is higher than the drains.
The volume of water drained out of an aquifer in this way should not be left out of
the Water-balance.
9. Change in Storage
The difference between all inflows and outflows during a balance period
accumulates in the considered aquifer region. In a phreatic aquifer, water is
stored in the void space. In a confined aquifer, water is stored on account of
water and solid matrix compressibility. In the first case, increased storage is
followed by a rise of the phreatic surface. In the second case, increased storage is
followed by a rise in the piezometric head.
10. Regional Groundwater Balance

We can now summaries the regional groundwater balance by the following

equation
[Ground water inflow]-[Groundwater outflow]+[Natural replenishment]+[Return flow]+

[Artificial recharge]+[Inflow from streams and lakes]-[spring discharge]-[Evapo-
transpiration]-[Pump age and drainage]
= [Increase in volume of water stored in aquifer]
Where all the terms are expressed as volume of water during the balance period
8.3 Groundwater Resources Management Issues
Identifying the relevant issues is a crucial step in groundwater resources management

planning; omitting or misjudging one or more of them may lead to unbalanced, inefficient
or even ineffective plans.
The issue of concern for groundwater resources management reflects the physical
conditions and the socio-economic development of the area considered. But in spite of the
uniqueness of each groundwater system in this respect, the problems observed world-wide
seem to boil down to a relatively small list of main issues. They can be grouped roughly
under three different headings: Groundwater quantity management, groundwater quality
management and groundwater-related environmental protection. Table 8.1 lists and
classifies the groundwater resources management issues that will be commented in this
chapter.
Table 8.1 Common groundwater resources management issues
Groundwater Groundwater Environmental

quantity quality protection
management management
Rate of aquifer exploitation X
Allocation of groundwater X (X)
Conjunctive management of
groundwater and surface water X (X) (X)
Groundwater salinity control X (X)

Ground water pollution control X (X)
Conservation of water types (X) x

Groundwater level control (X) x
Control of land subsidence (X) x
Groundwater resources management is not new field of activity: some issues have been
recognized long ago in some countries and have given rise to the development of water

resources management approaches and activities. Such activities stared to be undertaken

one after another in response to observed needs, sometimes without people being aware that
they were dealing with groundwater resources management and with decision problems. A
wealth of professional creativity, however, has accumulated in the numerous approaches to
groundwater resources management developed over the years in several parts of the world.
Professionals engaged in groundwater resources management may benefit greatly from the
ideas developed and experiences gained elsewhere.
Therefore, a brief review of the mentioned issues and suggested or pioneered approaches
will follow.
1. The rate of aquifer exploitation
“How much groundwater to abstract from a certain aquifer?” is an old problem that has
puzzled many hydro geologists and water resources engineers. The following figure
outlines the principal choices to be made. Pumping at too low a rate means usually a loss of
potential benefits from groundwater; and excessive pumping, on the other hand, will
produce groundwater depletion and other undesired effects.
1
1- Sustained yield
2 2- Mining followed by
GW
Storage
sustained yield
3- Mining followed by
exhaustion
3
Time
The problem has frequently given rise to misconceptions and confusion. One of the
misconceptions is that it would be a technical problem only, to be solved merely by
technical means (which is suggested by the somewhat confusing term ‘safe yield’).
However, a hydrologist can not provide a quantitative answer unless it is specified whether
the resources should be exploited under a ‘mining policy’ or under a policy of sustainable
yield.
Mining depletes the storage and thus can only be practiced for a limited period of time. It is
often a dilemma to what extent it is wise and ethically justifiable to allow present-day
groundwater users to enjoy the benefits of groundwater mining and to leave the associated
problems for a future generation.

The sustainable-yield approach is based on the capture of recharge and thus will not
exhaust the aquifer. It avoids difficult decisions regarding intergenerational allocation of
water. Optimal yield is not only a function of physical factors, but depends equally well on
a complex of economic, social and political factors.
A second misconception is that the optimal rate of aquifer exploitation often implicitly is
thought to be constant in time (‘stationary approach’). As will be shown below, a more
dynamic approach-allowing discharge to be time-dependent-may be attractive.
 Sustainable-yield policy
Sustainable yield represents a groundwater abstraction rate that allows on a long term the
inputs and outputs of water to be balanced over the domain of the aquifer, thus leading to a
stable state of the aquifer. Many conventional groundwater assessment and development
studies implicitly associate maximum sustainable yield (MSY) with optimal yield. In
relation to sustainable yield, a few remarks can be made:
a) The maximum sustainable yield is not necessarily equal to the aquifer’s recharge:
rather, sustainable yield is the ‘ groundwater capture’, which is the difference
between recharge and ‘natural’’ discharge; consequently, maximum sustainable
yield (MSY) is the maximum capture attainable, which is sometimes considerably
less than the average recharge;
b) After all natural groundwater discharge has stopped due to abstraction, the dynamic
equilibrium between recharge and pumping at full MSY rate can be maintained at
different levels of groundwater storage so there is no typical value of stationary
groundwater stock in response to pumping at MSY rate;
c) Even under an sustainable-yield policy it is possible that economic or environmental
factors are limiting optimal yield to a level below ‘maximum sustainable yield’,
d) Sustainable exploitation regimes in principle may have abstraction rates that are
variable in time.
 Mining policy
Although by tradition there is often preference for a sustainable-yield policy (because it

does not threaten continuity), such an approach may be excessively conservative under
certain circumstances. Frequently, it seems to be more profitable to adopt a mining policy
for some limited period, before in a later stage a sustainable-yield policy is followed. This
is because the exploitation of ‘mining resources’ definitely produces a certain economic
profit and often also increases the ‘renewable resources’ , either by decreasing the natural
outflow, or by increasing the recharge.
 Is there really need for control?
Trying to control groundwater abstraction is only worth to be considered if uncontrolled

competitive groundwater abstraction would diverge substantially from a planned, socially

‘optimal’ abstraction regime. What makes competitive abstraction rates in principle diverge
from socially optimal raters? At least the following factors are important:
Lack of knowledge; technology and /or money
These factors have caused for a long time ‘underdevelopment’ of groundwater resources in
many aquifers of the world; people were not able to exploit them at rates that would be
indicated as optimal in planning studies.
The need for aquifer-wide groundwater storage management is especially large in areas
where the water resources are scarce and groundwater is highly profitable at the same time.
On the basis of several papers it can be concluded that the discrepancy between competitive
pumping and optimal control may be pronounced if any of the following conditions are
present: multi-pumper conditions, elastic demands for water, low social rates of discount,
high contrast between financial and social rates of discount, and limited capacity of the
groundwater reservoir.
1) Allocation problems
Considering groundwater as a resource to be abstracted and used, two different types of

allocation problems will be discussed below: allocation among users and spatial allocation.
 Allocation of abstracted groundwater among users
Under conditions of relative scarcity of water, groundwater demands of different users or

sectors may be competitive or even conflicting. Uncontrolled development then may cause
excessive interference or harmful aquifer depletion, both leading to economic losses. The
water resources management response to such circumstances is to allocate the available
resources among the users, either by licensing (granting water rights) or by other measures
such as taxation related to the type and intensity of water use.
Such an allocation needs a guiding principle; different approaches for such a guiding
principle are:
a) priority of the oldest rights (‘firs come, first served’)
b) Priority differences between sectors (domestic supply, agriculture, industry);
c) Priority differences between zones (e.g. surface water priority for water are
available);
d) Economic optimization (e.g. by linear programming)
Which principle to choose depends very much on existing water resources management
policy and plans, or on water resources management objectives adopted, and of course has
to be consistent with prevailing water rights?
 Allocation in space

Given a certain demand to be satisfied from a specific aquifer, different spatial patterns of
wells may be chosen. Some of these patterns are more favorable than other ones; hence the
problem is to find an optimal distribution in space of abstraction well. Depending on the
details of the problem and on the management objectives chosen, the analysis will focus
either on optimization (if the of decision-process is complex) or on simulation (if the
system’s behaviors is complex). An elegant approach is to combine optimization and
simulation in a spatially discrete model.
It a number of distinct aquifers is present, basically a similar approach can be followed, but
complexity increases. In the case that local groundwater and surface water resources are
insufficient to satisfy crucial water demands under acceptable conditions, inter basin
transfer of water becomes unavoidable. This is often the case in rapidly expanding
metropolitan zones.
1. Conjunctive management of ground water and surface water
Ground water and surface water tend to be strongly interrelated, in the sense that
groundwater may feed surface water bodies, and vice versa. Variations of flow, storage or
quality of water in one of the subsystems may directly affect the state of the other one.
These variations may have a natural cause (e.g. Weather conditions), but they can also be
induced by water resources development or management activities. Artificial recharge, base
flow suppletion and surface water dams are typical examples of the latter category.
Furthermore, the availability of both surface water and groundwater in an area opens the
possibility of conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water.
 Artificial recharge
Artificial recharge consists of storing surface water in an aquifer. Usually the main purpose
is to utilize the storage facility offered by the aquifer, thus enabling certain volumes of
surface water to be kept for use at other times (and increasing the permissible abstraction
from the aquifer). Other objectives sometimes aimed at by artificial recharge is the
improvement of the quality of the infiltrated water (decay of pathogen bacteria, mixing with
other waters, filtering), the use of the aquifer as a means to convey water to where it is
needed, or the control of the interface between fresh and saline groundwater.
 Base flow Separation
This is in fact the opposite of artificial recharge: groundwater is pumped from aquifers to
maintain a minimum base flow in streams during periods of drought. The activity is usually
related to the environment impacts of water
 Surface water storage dams
Although not always recognized, a surface water storage dam may have very important
consequences for the recharge of aquifers fed by the stream where the dam is constructed.
Water resources management officials should be aware of this interdependence, and should

care for an integrated analysis before any decision is taken on the physical works or on the
operation rules.
Storage dams and artificial recharge can be considered as alternatives: storage and use of
water via the recharge alternative is often more energy-consumptive, whereas surface water
reservoirs may be subject to higher losses of water due to evaporation.
 Conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water
Groundwater and surface water have different properties regarding flow variability, storage,
quality parameters, cost of exploitation and vulnerability for pollution. Coordinated use of
groundwater and surface water (conjunctive use) may take advantage of the ‘stronger’
properties of either source of water at proper time and location. Especially under conditions
of scarcity this approach may have distinct advantages over the isolated exploitation of
each of the resources.
Conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water is a component of almost all water
resources management plans for larger regions of high and conflicting demands for ware.
4. Salinity control
Many aquifers contain both fresh groundwater and saline or brackish groundwater. The
fresh zones usually are recharged by rain or by streams. The saline or brackish waters are
most frequently of marine origin and may be either connate waters (‘deposited’
simultaneously with the aquifer rocks; sometimes migrated and/ or mixed with fresh
waters) or intruded saline waters.
Although all kinds of configuration may occur, the situation that fresh water overlies saline
or brackish groundwater is very common; physically, this is a rather ‘stable’ situation, in
particular when the ‘interface’ is approximately horizontal. Saline groundwater on top of
fresh groundwater, on the other hand, presents an unstable situation, unless lithological
conditions prevent downward migration of the heavier saline water.
The purpose of groundwater salinity control is to prevent or minimize salination of the

fresh ground water resources; in other words: to conserve the resource for future use. In
order to do so, it is important to analyze how the flow processes in the aquifer might
develop under different technical alternatives of groundwater development. Due to the
differences in density between fresh water and saline water, the interface between fresh and
saline groundwater is extremely sensitive for disturbances of the groundwater regime.
Salinization of a fresh part of an aquifer is partially irreversible (as a consequence of
dispersion processes), thus is difficult to cure. Hence, protective measures are required, and
such measures should be designed on the basis of simulation.
Usually, sophisticated models are available for the simulation of fresh-saline groundwater
problems.
 Salt water upcoming

It is a common phenomenon under wells that abstract fresh water, which overlies brackish
or saline groundwater. Declines of the fresh-water head under such wells motivate an
upward movement of the saline groundwater. It is a local phenomenon that may reduce the
useful life of wells. Hence, a time horizon of some tens of years is often convenient for the
analysis of local upcoming problems.
 Saline water intrusion
Saline water intrusion may occur in coastal areas. Whereas upcoming often is little more
than a certain redistribution of fresh and saline groundwater within the aquifer, saline
intrusion always increases the volumes of saline water stored underground and may finally
lead to salinization of the entire aquifer.
 Soil salination
Soil salinity may be interrelated with aquifer management in different ways: evaporation
via capillary rise from shallow groundwater may cause soil salination, and soils-in turn may
contribute to aquifer salinity.
If the salts that are accumulating in soils are flushed down periodically by rain or by
irrigation water, then an influx of salt into the underlying aquifer will occur. The amounts
involved for irrigated lands in arid zones are of the order of 104kg per hectare.
5. Groundwater pollution control
 Well field protection
One of the most obvious options to protect a well field against pollution is to locate it at a
suitable site: in an aquifer zone of relatively low vulnerability regarding pollution (e.g.
covered by confining beds) and as far as possible or up gradient from sites that represent a
risk (e.g. a polluting industry).
Once in existence, well fields in many countries are protected against pollution by
establishing so-called groundwater protection zones. Inside these areas there is usually a
distinction between several zones: closer to the well field the control becomes more and
more strict. Table 4.3 shows characteristics of protection areas in a number of European
countries. The dimensions of the different more or less concentric protection zones are
based commonly on estimates of the time it would take for a contaminant to move from the
land surface or from the top of the aquifer to the wells.
Karstic aquifers pose a special problem: the size of protection zones based on the usual
travel time criteria would become easily too large to give it special protection.
 Aquifer protection

Protection of the entire aquifer against pollution has become a major concern during recent
years, after more and cases of severe contamination have been discovered in many different
countries.
The trend in groundwater management is shifting from the ‘defensive’ attitude (well field
protection) to wards control of the sources of contamination over the total exposed surface
of the aquifer. Intensive research is being carried out in many parts of the world to develop
a scientific base for this control. As far as the diffuse sources of pollution are concerned, it
becomes clear that control of land use and agricultural practices may contribute highly to
the conservation of groundwater quality. Strict regulations on the disposal of industrial and
hazardous domestic waste may greatly reduce point-source pollution.
4. Conservation of chemical water types
Water quality management is not only concerned with salinity control and pollution
control. It may also focus on apparently ‘minor’ changes in water quality, if these changes
have important practical implications.
Many of these changes in water quality are closely interlinked with water quantity
processes. Declines of shallow phreatic levels may enrich groundwater in nutrients
(because of mineralization processes) and in Sulphates (because of the oxidation of
poyrite). Intensive pumping from deep aquifers may cause a reduction of natural outflow of
deep groundwater, and ‘shallow’ flow systems may replace largely the contribution of the
deeper flow systems to the seepage in groundwater exfiltration zone. Increases of water
levels in surface water bodies may cause or increase the mixing of shallow groundwater
with surface water which is often of a different chemical composition. And irrigation will
lead to subsurface accumulation of solutes which tend to change the chemical
characteristics of shallow groundwater.
Important practical consequences of changing chemistry of groundwater have been reported

in relation to phreatophytic ecosystems. Such ecosystems occur prefferently in groundwater
exfiltration zones and are extremely vulnerable. They do not only violently react to
relatively small declines of the groundwater level; they may also degenerate in response to
changes in shallow groundwater chemistry.
5. Groundwater level control

Control of shallow ground water levels is traditionally the domain of drainage engineers.
Drainage activities are usually carried out independently of groundwater development
activities, but it is clear that both types of groundwater engineering may interfere
considerably. That is why groundwater management needs to ensure that such activities are
carried out in a co-ordinated way.
The level that should be considered as the optimum groundwater level varies according to
soil type, land use and climate conditions.

In agriculture, there is considerable empirical knowledge in the relation between yields of

groundwater-fed crops and the depth to groundwater. Ecologists have similar information
on the relation between depth to groundwater and the survival or modification of
ecosystems.
In the urban sector, in general, there are certain requirements on minimum depths
(sometimes also maximum depths) to groundwater to be maintained.
Thus, different sectors will come up with different requirements regarding the target
groundwater levels. This leads to spatial variation in drainage depth criteria, but sometime
also to incompatibilities.
The design of adequate drainage systems requires some kind of groundwater flow analysis,
which may range from the application of very simple to the use of numerical groundwater
models. Common technical means of groundwater level control are ditches, drains and
well-point systems.
It is perceived that ecological issues such as wetland conservation are gaining importance
in the planned control of groundwater level.
6. Control of land subsidence
Significant land subsidence may occur as a consequence of groundwater abstraction or

groundwater level control. This may be expected in particular when important drops of
hydraulic head are produced in zones where water-saturated peat, clay or silty layers occur
at relatively shallow depths (within some tens of meters from land surface).
Limiting land subsidence is in such cases an important constraint to water resources

development. Under particularly unfavorable conditions this may become so critical that
prevention of any further land subsidence becomes the main groundwater management
objective; an example is the situation of Venice, where further subsidence would cause the
city to drown in the Adriatic Sea.
Predication by simulation is also in subsidence prone cases the key to good management
approaches.
Not only is it important to asses the total expected land subsidence, the rate of subsidence is
also a crucial factor.

CHAPTER VIIII
9. 0 Artificial Recharge of Groundwater
9.1 Recharge in general
Groundwater in a certain basin is recharged from either surface water within the basin or
groundwater percolating from another basin. The recharge may be natural, incidental or
artificial.
Natural Recharge
It is usually produced under one or more of the following conditions
i) Deep infiltration of precipitation
ii) Seepage from surface water (stream & lakes)
iii) Under flow from another basin (if hydraulically interrelated)
Incidental Recharge
Incidental or unplanned, recharge occurs where water enters the ground as a result of a
human activity whose primary objective is unrelated to artificial recharge of groundwater.
In includes water from

Irrigation, cesspools, septic tanks, water mains, sewers, land fills, waste-disposal facilities,
canals, and reservoirs.
The quantity of incidental recharge normally for exceeds that deliberately accomplished by
artificial recharge projects.
Because several of these sources introduce polluted water into the underground degradation
of the quality of groundwater can occur.
Artificial Recharge
In order to increase the natural supply of groundwater, people artificially recharge

groundwater basins.
Artificial recharge may be defined as man’s planned operations of transferring water from
the ground surface into aquifers, or
Artificial recharge may be defined as augmenting the natural movement of surface water
into underground formation by some method of construction, by spreading of water, or by
artificially changing natural conditions.
9.2 Objectives of Artificial Recharge

AR may be practiced in order to achieve various objectives. Among them, we may list the
following.
1) Control of regional hydrological regime.

By artificially recharging an aquifer, water level, or piezometric heads, is
raised. By manipulating these levels (obviously, taking also the effect of
pumping into account), we can control the rate and direction of flow in an
aquifer, control the movement of water bodies of inferior quality, (eg. Sea
water intrusion, control spring discharge, and control seepage to or out of
adjacent water bodies (rivers and lakes, etc.).
2) Storage of water
Water can be stored in an aquifer, to be pumped at a later time. Phreatic
aquifer may serve as very large storage reservoirs. Water is stored in the
void later time by pumping
Long term storage In years with excess surface runoff, water may be
diverted from streams& lakes to be stored in aquifers for use in dryer years.
Short term storage may be used to make a more efficient use of the water
supply lines. Water may be delivered to a demand area at a constant rate
throughout the year, to be stored in the aquifer when supply exceeds demand
and pumped by local wells to supplement demand in excess of direct supply.
3) Control of water quality
As water is introduced into an aquifer and the indigenous water of the
aquifer moves, they mix as a result of hydrodynamic dispersion.
Mixing is also achieved by wells which pump simultaneously from the two
kinds of water
We can control the quality (in terms of dissolved matter) of pumped water
by manipulating pumping and artificial recharge, thus controlling the
movement of the water bodies introduced into the aquifer and the mixing
that takes place in the aquifer and in the pumping wells.
The water used for artificial recharge ma be either water of a quality higher
than that of the indigenous water of the aquifer, or of an inferior quality.
Due to the very slow movement of water in the aquifer, a period of year,
sometimes many years, may elapse between the time water is introduced
into an aquifer and the time it is pumped. During that time phenomena such
as chemical reactions among constituents present in the water, interaction
with the solid skeleton (adsorption and ion exchange), and decay (eg.
Radioactive), and filtering may take place. Thus the aquifer acts to improve
the quality of the injected water.
Suspended line material in surface water used for AR can be removed by the
filtering that takes place as the water percolates through the bottom of a
spreading basin and the soil underlying it on its downward way to the
aquifer.
Of special interest is the improvement of water quality (e.g. Removal and
destruction of micro organisms) as the recharge water percolates through the
unsaturated zone.

In addition to these major objectives, we may also mention the following additional ones.
1. Supplementing the difference between the demand for groundwater

and natural replenishment of an aquifer.
2. Disposal of liquid waste into deep formation where it will stay, or
move very slowly (some times for thousands of years) to wards
outlets.
3. Using the aquifer as a conduit or a water distribution system. By
recharging and pumping, water levels are raised and lowered,
respectively. It is therefore, possible to create a flow pattern within
the aquifer from the area of recharge to that of withdrawal by
pumping, with the aquifer serving as a conduit. Wells distributed
over an area may withdraw water for local use, thus avoiding the
need for a distribution system.
4. Maintenance of high water levels (or heads) to prevent land
subsidence or other undesirable phenomena which result from
lowered water levels (eg. Damage to foundations).
5. Conservation of water. For example, water used only for cooling
can be re-circulated by injecting the warm water back into the
aquifer from which it is pumped.
In most cases, artificial recharge is implemented to achieve a number of goals and in

conjunction with the utilization of surface water.
9.3 Recharge Methods
Artificial recharge can be implemented by several methods, the choice of method for each
particular case depends on the source of water, the quality of the water, the type of aquifer,
the topographical and geological conditions, type of soil, economic conditions, etc.
The most widely practiced methods can be described as types of water spreading releasing
water over the ground surface in order to increase the quality of water infiltration into the
ground and then percolating to the water table.
Although field studies of spreading have shown that many factors govern the rate at which
water will enter the soil, from a quantitative stand point, area of recharge and length of time
water is in contact with soil are most important. Spreading efficiency is measured in terms
of the recharge rate, expressed as the velocity of downward water movement over the
wetted area.
Spreading methods may be classified as basin, stream channel, ditch and furrow, flooding,
irrigation, and methods enhancing infiltration.
a) Methods for enhancing infiltration

In these methods, the objective is to increase infiltration by various agro techniques which
affect ground surface roughness, slope, vegetation cover, etc.
The purpose is to extend the time and area over which infiltration from surface runoff takes
place.
Both the slopes of the water shed and the drainage channel net work can be treated to
achieve this purpose. For example, small check dams in natural channels will cause the
water to spread over a large area.
b) Basin Method
Here water is diverted to specially constructed ponds or basins, and allowed to infiltrate
through their pervious bottom.
(Sometimes ditches, dug along around surface contours, are used instead of basins.) Two
objectives are achieved by this method. Storage (say, if water in the river is available in
winter and is needed for irrigation in summer) and purification. The latter is related to the
filtering of fine materials, mainly in the settling basin, but also through the soil layer just
beneath the infiltration basins.
c) Stream Channel Method
Water spreading in a natural stream channel involves operations that will increase the time
and area over which water is recharged from a naturally losing channel.
This involves both u/s management of stream flow and channel modifications to enhance
infiltration u/s reservoirs enable erratic runoff to be regulated ideally to limit stream flows
to rates that do not exceed the absorptive capacity of d/s channels.
Improvement of stream channels may include widening, leveling, scarifying, or ditching to

increase infiltration.
d) Ditch and Furrow Method
In this method water is distributed to a series of ditches, or furrows, that are shallow, flat
bottomed, and closely spaced to obtain maximum water contact area.
e) Flooding Method
In relatively flat topography, water may be diverted to spread evenly over a large area. In
practice, canals and earth distributing gullies are usually needed to release the water at
intervals over the upper end of the flooding area. It is desirable to from a thin sheet of water
over the land, which moves at a minimum velocity to avoid disturbing the soil.

f) Irrigation Method
In irrigated areas water is sometimes deliberately spread by irrigating cropland with excess
water during dormant, winter, or non irrigating seasons. The method requires no additional
cost for land preparation because the distribution system is already installed.
g) Pit Method
A pit excavated into a permeable formation serves as ideal facilities for groundwater
recharge. In areas where shallow subsurface strata, such as hard pans and clay layers,
restrict the downward passage of water, pits can effectively reach materials with higher
infiltration rates.
h) Recharge well Method
Recharge well may be defined as a well that admits water from the surface to freshwater
aquifers.
Its flow is the reverse of a pumping well, but its construction may or may not be the same.
Well recharging is practical where deep, confined aquifers must be recharged, or where
economy of space, such as in urban areas, is an important consideration, where extended
impervious layers are present between the g/surface and an underlying phreatic aquifer, and
where existing pumping wells can be used for recharge, thus eliminating the need for costly
artificial recharge installation.
i) Induced Recharge
Direct methods of AR described above involve the conveyance of surface water to some
point where it enters the ground
Induced recharge is accomplished by withdrawing groundwater at a location adjacent to a

river or lake so that lowering of the groundwater level will induce water to eater the ground
form the surface source.
By induced recharge we can achieve tow goals: recharge the aquifer by river water, to be
pumped for beneficial use, without constructing any recharge installations the aquifer it self
is used as a conduit, and filtration and purification of the river water as it travels through
the aquifer towards the abstraction installation.

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GROUND WATER ENG’G

Figure 1.1: Groundwater flow in the hydrologic cycle

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hydrogeology concern the development of flow systems concepts, hydrochemistry and

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Figure 2.1: Schematic representation of subsurface water in the soil

The type of openings (voids or pores) in which groundwater occurs is an important

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2.2 Unsaturated Zone/ Zone of aeration

Figure 2.2: Classification of subsurface water and variation in degree of saturation

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Figure 2.3: Typical pF-curves or soil moisture characteristics

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b) Confined aquifer: Such an aquifer consists of a completely saturated pervious layer

Figure2.4: Different types of aquifer formations

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Figure 2.5: Cross section showing hydraulic head (h)

2.4 Determination of groundwater flow parameters

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2.6. Specific yield of unconfined aquifer

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3. Specific retention (Sr)

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According to Kozeny-Carman’s formula

5. Transmissivity (T) and Vertical Resistance (C):

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Transmissivity of an aquifer formation will therefore be given as follows:

Figure 2.7: Flow parallel to stratification

permeability Ke of the aquifer length is:

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Figure 2.8 Flow normal to stratification

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Where A is horizontal area and h is fall in head

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independent of the direction of measurement at a point within a formation, the formation

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Figure 2.9: Homogeneity and Isotropy

2.5.1 Laboratory Tests

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Figure 2.10a: Constant head permeameter

For k >10-3 cm/sec

Water should be collected after a steady state of flow is attained.

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2. Falling head permeameters

Figure 2.10b: Falling head

Falling head permeameter is used for

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Transposing terms we get:

2.5.2 Field Methods

3.1. Darcy’s Law

Groundwater in its natural state is invariably moving. This movement is governed by

Q ~ hL and Q ~1/L and from continuity Q ~ A

Introducing the proportionality constant K, Q = -K.hL/L.A -----------Darcy Equation

3.1.1 Formulation of Darcy’s Law

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