Shaivism

Shaivism
Shaivism (/ˈʃaɪvɪzəm/; Sanskrit: शैवसम्प्रदायः,

romanized: Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu
Shaivism
traditions, which worships Shiva[1][2][3] as the Supreme
Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations,[4][5] it
incorporates many sub-traditions ranging from devotional
dualistic theism such as Shaiva Siddhanta to yoga-orientated
monistic non-theism such as Kashmiri Shaivism.[6][7][8] It
considers both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important
sources of theology.[9][10][11]
Shaivism developed as an amalgam of pre-Vedic religions

and traditions derived from the southern Tamil Shaiva
Siddhanta traditions and philosophies, which were assimilated
in the non-Vedic Shiva-tradition.[12] In the process of
Sanskritisation and the formation of Hinduism, starting in the
last centuries BCE, these pre-Vedic traditions became aligned
with the Vedic deity Rudra and other Vedic deities,
incorporating the non-Vedic Shiva-traditions into the Vedic-
Brahmanical fold.[2][13]
Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the Shiva (above) is the primary deity of
1st millennium CE, rapidly becoming the dominant religious Shaivism. Ritual at Muni ki Reti,
tradition of many Hindu kingdoms.[2] It arrived in Southeast Rishikesh
Asia shortly thereafter, leading to the construction of
thousands of Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving
with Buddhism in these regions.[14][15]
Shaivite theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, and destroyer to being the same as the
Atman (Self) within oneself and every living being. It is closely related to Shaktism, and some Shaivas
worship in both Shiva and Shakti temples.[8] It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and
emphasizes yoga, and like other Hindu traditions encourages an individual to discover and be one with
Shiva within.[6][7][16] The followers of Shaivism are called "Shaivites" or "Saivas".
Etymology and nomenclature

Shiva (śiva, Sanskrit: शिव) literally means kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious.[17][18] As a proper name,
it means "The Auspicious One".[18]
The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, including
Rudra.[19] The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one", this
adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature.[20][21] The term evolved
from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who is
the "creator, reproducer and dissolver".[20][22]
The Sanskrit word śaiva or shaiva means "relating to the god Shiva",[23] while the related beliefs,
practices, history, literature and sub-traditions constitute Shaivism.[24]
Overview
The reverence for Shiva is one of the pan-Hindu traditions found widely across India predominantly in
Southern India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal.[25][26] While Shiva is revered broadly, Hinduism itself is a complex
religion and a way of life, with a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions. It has no ecclesiastical
order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book;
Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic, or
humanist.[27][28][29]
Shaivism is a major tradition within Hinduism with a theology that is predominantly related to the Hindu
god Shiva. Shaivism has many different sub-traditions with regional variations and differences in
philosophy.[30] Shaivism has a vast literature with different philosophical schools ranging from nondualism,
dualism, and mixed schools.[31]
Origins and history

The origins of Shaivism are unclear and a matter of debate among
scholars, as it is an amalgam of pre-Vedic cults and traditions and
Vedic culture.[33]
Indus Valley Civilisation
Some trace the origins to the Indus Valley civilization, which

reached its peak around 2500–2000 BCE.[34][35] Archeological
discoveries show seals that suggest a deity that somewhat appears The development of various schools
like Shiva. Of these is the Pashupati seal, which early scholars of Shaivism from early worship of
interpreted as someone seated in a meditating yoga pose Rudra.[32]
surrounded by animals, and with horns.[36] This "Pashupati" (Lord
of Animals, Sanskrit paśupati)[37] seal has been interpreted by
these scholars as a prototype of Shiva. Gavin Flood characterizes
these views as "speculative", saying that it is not clear from the seal
if the figure has three faces, or is seated in a yoga posture, or even
that the shape is intended to represent a human figure.[35][38]
Other scholars state that the Indus Valley script remains

undeciphered, and the interpretation of the Pashupati seal is
uncertain. According to Srinivasan, the proposal that it is proto-
Shiva may be a case of projecting "later practices into archeological
findings".[39][40] Similarly, Asko Parpola states that other
archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to 3000–
The "Pashupati" seal from the Indus

Valley civilisation.
2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the
bull interpretation is likely more accurate.[35][41]
Vedic elements
The Rigveda (~1500–1200 BCE) has the earliest clear mention of Rudra in its hymns 2.33, 1.43 and 1.114.
The text also includes a Satarudriya, an influential hymn with embedded hundred epithets for Rudra, that is
cited in many medieval era Shaiva texts as well as recited in major Shiva temples of Hindus in
contemporary times. Yet, the Vedic literature only present scriptural theology, but does not attest to the
existence of Shaivism.[35]
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, likely composed before the Bhagavad Gita about 4th century BCE
contains the theistic foundations of Shaivism wrapped in a monistic structure. It contains the key terms and
ideas of Shaivism, such as Shiva, Rudra, Maheswara, Guru, Bhakti, Yoga, Atman, Brahman and self-
knowledge.[35][42]
Emergence of Shaivism
According to Gavin Flood, "the formation of Śaiva traditions as we

understand them begins to occur during the period from 200 BC to
100 AD."[46] Shiva was originally probably not a Brahmanical
god,[47][48] but eventually came to be incorporated into the
Brahmanical fold.[48][49] The pre-Vedic Shiva acquired a growing
prominence as its cult assimilated numerous "ruder faiths" and their Kushan coin of Vima Kadphises (2nd
mythologies,[50] and the Epics and Puranas preserve pre-Vedic century CE), with a possible Shiva,
myths and legends of these traditions assimilated by the Shiva- holding a trident, in ithyphallic
cult.[49] Shiva's growing prominence was facilitated by state[note 1] and next to a bull, his
identification with a number of Vedic deities, such as Purusha, mount, as in Shaivism.[43][44][45] The
Rudra, Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Vāyu, among others.[51] The deity was described by the later
followers of Shiva were gradually accepted into the Brahmanical Kushans in their coinage as
fold, becoming allowed to recite some of the Vedic hymns.[52] "Oesho", a possible Zoroastrian
deity.[44]
Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya, dated to the 2nd century BCE, mentions
the term Shiva-bhagavata in section 5.2.76. Patanjali, while
explaining Panini's rules of grammar, states that this term refers to a devotee clad in animal skins and
carrying an ayah sulikah (iron spear, trident lance)[53] as an icon representing his god.[46][54][55] The
Shvetashvatara Upanishad (late 1st mill. BCE) mentions terms such as Rudra, Shiva, and
Maheshwaram,[56][57] but its interpretation as a theistic or monistic text of Shaivism is disputed.[58][59] In
the early centuries of the common era is the first clear evidence of Pāśupata Shaivism.[2]
The Mahabharata mentions Shaiva ascetics, such as in chapters 4.13 and 13.140.[60] Other evidence that is
possibly linked to the importance of Shaivism in ancient times are in epigraphy and numismatics, such as in
the form of prominent Shiva-like reliefs on Kushan Empire era gold coins. However, this is controversial,
as an alternate hypothesis for these reliefs is based on Zoroastrian Oesho. According to Flood, coins dated
to the ancient Greek, Saka and Parthian kings who ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent after the arrival of
Alexander the Great also show Shiva iconography, but this evidence is weak and subject to competing
inferences.[46][61]
The inscriptions found in the Himalayan region, such as those in the Kathmandu valley of Nepal suggest
that Shaivism (particularly Pashupata monism) was established in this region during the Mauryas and the
Guptas reign of the Indian subcontinent, by the 5th century. These inscriptions have been dated by modern
techniques to between 466 and 645 CE.[62]
Puranic Shaivism
During the Gupta Empire (c. 320–500 CE) the genre of Purana literature developed in India, and many of
these Puranas contain extensive chapters on Shaivism – along with Vaishnavism, Shaktism, Smarta
Traditions of Brahmins and other topics – suggesting the importance of Shaivism by then.[35][54] The most
important Shaiva Puranas of this period include the Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana.[35][61]
Post-Gupta development
Most of the Gupta kings, beginning with Chandragupta II

(Vikramaditya) (375–413 CE) were known as Parama Bhagavatas
or Bhagavata Vaishnavas and had been ardent promoters of
Vaishnavism.[63][64] But following the Huna invasions, especially
those of the Alchon Huns circa 500 CE, the Gupta Empire declined
and fragmented, ultimately collapsing completely, with the effect of
discrediting Vaishnavism, the religion it had been so ardently
promoting.[65] The newly arising regional powers in central and
northern India, such as the Aulikaras, the Maukharis, the Maitrakas,
the Kalacuris or the Vardhanas preferred adopting Shaivism
instead, giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship
of Shiva.[65] Vaisnavism remained strong mainly in the territories Shiva with Trisula, worshipped in
which had not been affected by these events: South India and Central Asia. Penjikent, Uzbekistan,
7th–8th century CE. Hermitage
Kashmir.[65]
Museum.
In the early 7th century, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang
(Huen Tsang) visited India and wrote a memoir in Chinese that
mentions the prevalence of Shiva temples all over North Indian subcontinent, including in the Hindu Kush
region such as Nuristan.[66][67] Between the 5th and 11th century CE, major Shaiva temples had been built
in central, southern and eastern regions of the subcontinent, including those at Badami cave temples,
Aihole, Elephanta Caves, Ellora Caves (Kailasha, cave 16), Khajuraho, Bhuvaneshwara, Chidambaram,
Madurai, and Conjeevaram.[66]
Major scholars of competing Hindu traditions from the second half of the 1st millennium CE, such as Adi
Shankara of Advaita Vedanta and Ramanuja of Vaishnavism, mention several Shaiva sects, particularly the
four groups: Pashupata, Lakulisha, tantric Shaiva and Kapalika. The description is conflicting, with some
texts stating the tantric, puranik and Vedic traditions of Shaivism to be hostile to each other while others
suggest them to be amicable sub-traditions. Some texts state that Kapalikas reject the Vedas and are
involved in extreme experimentation,[note 2] while others state the Shaiva sub-traditions revere the Vedas
but are non-Puranik.[70]
South India
Shaivism was the predominant tradition in South India, co-existing with Buddhism and Jainism, before the
Vaishnava Alvars launched the Bhakti movement in the 7th century, and influential Vedanta scholars such
as Ramanuja developed a philosophical and organizational framework that helped Vaishnava expand.
Though both traditions of Hinduism have ancient roots, given their mention in the epics such as the
Mahabharata, Shaivism flourished in South India much earlier.[71]
The Mantramarga of Shaivism, according to Alexis Sanderson, provided a template for the later though
independent and highly influential Pancaratrika treatises of Vaishnava. This is evidenced in Hindu texts
such as the Isvarasamhita, Padmasamhita and Paramesvarasamhita.[71]
Along with the Himalayan region stretching from Kashmir

through Nepal, the Shaiva tradition in South India has been one
of the largest sources of preserved Shaivism-related manuscripts
from ancient and medieval India.[73] The region was also the
source of Hindu arts, temple architecture, and merchants who
helped spread Shaivism into southeast Asia in early 1st
millennium CE.[74][75][76]
There are tens of thousands of Hindu temples where Shiva is

The 7th to 8th-century Shore Temple at either the primary deity or reverentially included in
Mahabalipuram is a UNESCO World anthropomorphic or aniconic form (lingam, or
Heritage site. It features thousands of svayambhu).[77][78] Numerous historic Shaiva temples have
Shaivism-related sculptures.[72] survived in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, parts of Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka.[79] Certain regions have a greater density of Shiva
temples, such as in the Thanjavur region of Tamil Nadu, where
numerous Shaiva temples were built during the Chola empire era, between 800 and 1200 CE. Gudimallam
is the oldest known lingam and has been dated to between 3rd to 1st-century BCE. It is a carved five feet
high stone lingam with an anthropomorphic image of Shiva on one side. This ancient lingam is in Chittoor
district of Andhra Pradesh.[78][80][81]
Southeast Asia
Shaivism arrived in a major way in southeast Asia from south India,

and to much lesser extent into China and Tibet from the Himalayan
region. It co-developed with Buddhism in this region, in many
cases.[82] For example, in the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas, a
few caves include Shaivism ideas.[83][note 3] The epigraphical and
cave arts evidence suggest that Shaiva Mahesvara and Mahayana
Buddhism had arrived in Indo-China region in the Funan period,
that is in the first half of the 1st millennium CE.[75][76] In
Indonesia, temples at archaeological sites and numerous inscription An image collage of 1st millennium
evidence dated to the early period (400 to 700 CE), suggest that CE Shaivism icons and temples from
Shiva was the highest god. This co-existence of Shaivism and Southeast Asia (top left): Shiva in
Buddhism in Java continued through about 1500 CE when both yoga pose, Nandi, Prambanan
Hinduism and Buddhism were replaced with Islam,[85] and persists temple, Yoni-Linga and Hindu temple
layout.
today in the province of Bali.[86]
The Shaivist and Buddhist traditions overlapped significantly in

southeast Asia, particularly in Indonesia, Cambodia, and Vietnam between the 5th and the 15th century.
Shaivism and Shiva held the paramount position in ancient Java, Sumatra, Bali, and neighboring islands,
though the sub-tradition that developed creatively integrated more ancient beliefs that pre-existed.[87] In the
centuries that followed, the merchants and monks who arrived in Southeast Asia, brought Shaivism,
Vaishnavism and Buddhism, and these developed into a syncretic, mutually supporting form of
traditions.[87][88]
Indonesia
In Balinese Hinduism, Dutch ethnographers further subdivided Siwa (shaivaites) Sampradaya" into five –
Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba and Petapan. This classification was to accommodate the observed
marriage between higher caste Brahmana men with lower caste women.[89]
Beliefs and practices

Shaivism centers around Shiva, but it has many sub-traditions whose theological beliefs and practices vary
significantly. They range from dualistic devotional theism to monistic meditative discovery of Shiva within
oneself. Within each of these theologies, there are two sub-groups. One sub-group is called Vedic-Puranic,
who use the terms such as "Shiva, Mahadeva, Maheshvara and others" synonymously, and they use
iconography such as the Linga, Nandi, Trishula (trident), as well as anthropomorphic statues of Shiva in
temples to help focus their practices.[90] Another sub-group is called esoteric, which fuses it with abstract
Sivata (feminine energy) or Sivatva (neuter abstraction), wherein the theology integrates the goddess
(Shakti) and the god (Shiva) with Tantra practices and Agama teachings. There is a considerable overlap
between these Shaivas and the Shakta Hindus.[90]
Vedic, Puranik, and esoteric Shaivism
Scholars such as Alexis Sanderson discuss Shaivism in three categories: Vedic, Puranik and non-Puranik
(esoteric, tantric).[91][92] They place Vedic and Puranik together given the significant overlap, while placing
Non-Puranik esoteric sub-traditions as a separate category.[92]
Vedic-Puranik. The majority within Shaivism follow the

Vedic-Puranik traditions. They revere the Vedas, the
Puranas and have beliefs that span dualistic theism style
Shiva Bhakti (devotionalism) to monistic non-theism
dedicated to yoga and meditative lifestyle sometimes
with renouncing householder life for monastic pursuits of
spirituality.[93] The Yoga practice is particularly
pronounced in nondualistic Shaivism, with the practice
refined into a methodology such as four-fold upaya:
being pathless (anupaya, iccha-less, desire-less), being
divine (sambhavopaya, jnana, knowledge-full), being
energy (saktopaya, kriya, action-full) and being
individual (anavopaya).[94][note 4]
Non-Puranik. These are esoteric, minority sub-traditions
wherein devotees are initiated (dīkṣa) into a specific cult
they prefer. Their goals vary, ranging from liberation in
current life (mukti) to seeking pleasures in higher worlds
Two female Shaiva ascetics (18th
(bhukti). Their means also vary, ranging from meditative
century painting)
atimarga or "outer higher path" versus those whose
means are recitation-driven mantras. The atimarga sub-
traditions include Pashupatas and Lakula. According to
Sanderson, the Pashupatas[note 5] have the oldest heritage, likely from the 2nd century CE,
as evidenced by ancient Hindu texts such as the Shanti Parva book of the Mahabharata
epic.[91][92] The tantric sub-tradition in this category is traceable to post-8th to post-11th
century depending on the region of Indian subcontinent, paralleling the development of
Buddhist and Jain tantra traditions in this period.[95] Among these are the dualistic Shaiva
Siddhanta and Bhairava Shaivas (non-Saiddhantika), based on whether they recognize any
value in Vedic orthopraxy.[96] These sub-traditions cherish secrecy, special symbolic
formulae, initiation by a teacher and the pursuit of siddhi (special powers). Some of these
traditions also incorporate theistic ideas, elaborate geometric yantra with embedded spiritual
meaning, mantras and rituals.[95][97][98]
Shaivism versus other Hindu traditions
Shaivism sub-traditions subscribe to various philosophies, are similar in some aspects and differ in others.
These traditions compare with Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smartism as follows:
Comparison of Shaivism with other traditions
Vaishnava Shakta
Shaiva Traditions Smarta Traditions References
Traditions Traditions
Vedas,
Scriptural Vedas, Upanishads Vedas and Vedas and [5][99]
Upanishads and
authority and Agamas Upanishads Upanishads
Agamas
None (Considers
goddess [100][101]
Supreme deity god Shiva god Vishnu Parabrahman to be
Devi
so)
Creator Shiva Vishnu Devi Brahman principle [100][102]
Avatar Minor Key concept Significant Minor [5][103][104]
Monastic life Recommends Accepts Accepts Recommends [5][105][106]
Rituals, Bhakti Affirms[107][108][109] Affirms Affirms Optional[110] [111]
Ahimsa and Recommends,[107] Affirms Optional

Recommends, [112][113]
Vegetarianism Optional Optional
Free will, [100]

Affirms Affirms Affirms Affirms
Maya, Karma
Brahman
Brahman (Shiva), Brahman [100]
Metaphysics (Devi), Brahman, Atman
Atman (Self) (Vishnu), Atman
Atman
1. Perception
2. Inference
3. Comparison and
1. Perception 1. analogy
2. Inference 1. Perception
Perception 4. Postulation,
Epistemology 3. Reliable 2. Inference [115][116][117]
2. Inference derivation
(Pramana) testimony 3. Reliable
3. Reliable 5.
testimony
4. Self-evident[114] testimony Negative/cognitive
proof
6. Reliable
testimony
Vishishtadvaita,
Dvaita, qualified Shakti- Advaita, qualified [118][119]
Philosophy Dvaita, qualified
advaita, advaita advaita advaita
advaita, advaita
Videhamukti, Jivanmukta,
Jivanmukta, Bhakti,
Salvation Yoga, Advaita, Yoga, [121][122]
Charya-Kriyā-Yoga- Tantra,
(Soteriology) champions champions
Jnana[120] householder life
Yoga
monastic life
Texts
Over its history, Shaivism has been nurtured by Shaiva manuscripts that have survived
numerous texts ranging from scriptures to
(post-8th century)
theological treatises. These include the Vedas and
Upanishads, the Agamas, and the Bhasya. Nepal and Himalayan region = 140,000
According to Gavin Flood – a professor at South India = 8,600
Oxford University specializing in Shaivism and Others (Devanagiri) = 2,000
phenomenology, Shaiva scholars developed a Bali and SE Asia = Many
sophisticated theology, in its diverse
traditions.[124] Among the notable and influential
commentaries by dvaita (dualistic) theistic —Alexis Sanderson, The Saiva Literature[73][123]
Shaivism scholars were the 8th century
Sadyajoti, the 10th century Ramakantha, 11th
century Bhojadeva.[124] The dualistic theology
was challenged by the numerous scholars of advaita (nondualistic, monistic) Shaivism persuasion such as
the 8th/9th century Vasugupta,[note 6] the 10th century Abhinavagupta and 11th century Kshemaraja,
particularly the scholars of the Pratyabhijna, Spanda and Kashmiri Shaivism schools of
theologians.[124][126][127]
Vedas and Principal Upanishads
The Vedas and Upanishads are shared scriptures of Hinduism, while the Agamas are sacred texts of specific
sub-traditions.[10] The surviving Vedic literature can be traced to the 1st millennium BCE and earlier, while
the surviving Agamas can be traced to 1st millennium of the common era.[10] The Vedic literature, in
Shaivism, is primary and general, while Agamas are special treatise. In terms of philosophy and spiritual
precepts, no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature, states Mariasusai Dhavamony, will be acceptable
to the Shaivas.[10] According to David Smith, "a key feature of the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta, one might
almost say its defining feature, is the claim that its source lies in the Vedas as well as the Agamas, in what it
calls the Vedagamas".[9] This school's view can be summed as,
The Veda is the cow, the true Agama its milk.
— Umapati, Translated by David Smith[9]
The Śvetāśvatara Upanishad (400–200 BCE)[128] is the earliest textual exposition of a systematic
philosophy of Shaivism.[note 7]
Shaiva minor Upanishads
Shaivism-inspired scholars authored 14 Shiva-focussed Upanishads that are called the Shaiva
Upanishads.[129] These are considered part of 95 minor Upanishads in the Muktikā Upanishadic corpus of
Hindu literature.[129][130] The earliest among these were likely composed in 1st millennium BCE, while
the last ones in the late medieval era.[131]
The Shaiva Upanishads present diverse ideas, ranging from bhakti-style theistic dualism themes to a
synthesis of Shaiva ideas with Advaitic (nondualism), Yoga, Vaishnava and Shakti themes.[132]
Shaivism Upanishads
Composition
Shaiva Upanishad Topics Reference
date
1st
Shiva, Atman, Brahman, Sannyasa, Self- [133][134][135]
Kaivalya Upanishad millennium
knowledge
BCE
1st
Atharvashiras Upanishad millennium Rudra, Atman, Brahman, Om, monism [136][137][138]
BCE
1st
Shiva, Om, Brahman, chanting, [139]
Atharvashikha Upanishad millennium
meditation
BCE
Late
medieval, Shiva, sacred ash, prayer beads, [140]
Brihajjabala Upanishad
post-12th Tripundra tilaka
century
Meaning of Tripundra (three lines tilaka), [141][142]

Kalagni Rudra Upanishad Unknown
Ritual Shaivism
Dakshinamurti as an aspect of Shiva, [143]
Dakshinamurti Upanishad Unknown
Atman, monism
Sharabha Upanishad Unknown Shiva as Sharabha [144]
Late
medieval, Rosary, japa, mantras, Om, Shiva, [145]
Akshamalika Upanishad
post-12th symbolism in Shaivism iconography
century CE
Rudra-Uma, Male-Female are [146]

Rudrahridaya Upanishad Unknown
inseparable, nondualism
Late
Shiva, sacred ash, body art,
medieval, [147][148]
Bhasmajabala Upanishad iconography, why rituals and Varanasi are
post-12th
important
century
After the Shiva, Bhairava, Rudraksha beads and [129]

Rudrakshajabala Upanishad
10th century mantra recitation
16th or 17th Ganesha, Shiva, Brahman, Atman, Om, [149]

Ganapati Upanishad
century Satcitananda
About 7th Shiva, Sadashiva, nondualism, So'ham, [150][151]
Pancabrahma Upanishad
century CE Atman, Brahman, self-knowledge
Shiva, Pashupata theology, significance [152]

Jabali Upanishad unknown
of ash and body art
Shaiva Agamas
The Agama texts of Shaivism are another important foundation of Shaivism theology.[153] These texts
include Shaiva cosmology, epistemology, philosophical doctrines, precepts on meditation and practices,
four kinds of yoga, mantras, meanings and manuals for Shaiva temples, and other elements of
practice.[154][155] These canonical texts exist in Sanskrit[154] and in south Indian languages such as
Tamil.[156]
The Agamas present a diverse range of philosophies, ranging from theistic dualism to absolute
monism.[157][158] In Shaivism, there are ten dualistic (dvaita) Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-
dualism (bhedabheda) Agama texts and sixty four monism (advaita) Agama texts.[11] The Bhairava
Shastras are monistic, while Shiva Shastras are dualistic.[107][159]
The Agama texts of Shaiva and Vaishnava schools are premised on existence of Atman (Self) and the
existence of an Ultimate Reality (Brahman) which is considered identical to Shiva in Shaivism.[7] The texts
differ in the relation between the two. Some assert the dualistic philosophy of the individual Self and
Ultimate Reality being different, while others state a Oneness between the two.[7] Kashmir Shaiva Agamas
posit absolute oneness, that is God (Shiva) is within man, God is within every being, God is present
everywhere in the world including all non-living beings, and there is no spiritual difference between life,
matter, man and God.[7] While Agamas present diverse theology, in terms of philosophy and spiritual
precepts, no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature, states Dhavamony, has been acceptable to the
Shaivas.[10]
Traditions
Shaivism is ancient, and over time it developed many sub-
traditions. These broadly existed and are studied in three groups:
theistic dualism, nontheistic monism, and those that combine
features or practices of the two.[160][161] Sanderson presents the
historic classification found in Indian texts,[162] namely Atimarga
of the Shaiva monks and Mantramarga that was followed by both
the renunciates (sannyasi) and householders (grihastha) in
Shaivism.[163] Sub-traditions of Shaivas did not exclusively focus
on Shiva, but others such as the Devi (goddess) Shaktism.[164]
Kauai Hindu monastery in Kauai
Island in Hawaii is the only Hindu
Monastery(shaivaite) in the United
Sannyasi Shaiva: Atimarga
States.
The Atimarga branch of Shaivism emphasizes liberation (salvation)

– or the end of all Dukkha – as the primary goal of spiritual
pursuits.[165] It was the path for Shaiva ascetics, in contrast to Shaiva householders whose path was
described as Mantramarga and who sought both salvation as well as the yogi-siddhi powers and pleasures
in life.[166] The Atimarga revered the Vedic sources of Shaivism, and sometimes referred to in ancient
Indian texts as Raudra (from Vedic Rudra).[167]
Pashupata Atimargi
Pashupata: (IAST: Pāśupatas) are the Shaivite sub-tradition with the oldest heritage, as evidenced by
Indian texts dated to around the start of the common era.[91][92] It is a monist tradition, that considers Shiva
to be within oneself, in every being and everything observed. The Pashupata path to liberation is one of
asceticism that is traditionally restricted to Brahmin males.[169] Pashupata theology, according to Shiva
Sutras, aims for a spiritual state of consciousness where the Pashupata yogi "abides in one's own unfettered
nature", where the external rituals feel unnecessary, where every moment and every action becomes an
internal vow, a spiritual ritual unto itself.[170]
The Pashupatas derive their Sanskrit name from two words: Pashu (beast) and Pati (lord), where the chaotic
and ignorant state, one imprisoned by bondage and assumptions, is conceptualized as the beast,[171] and the
Atman (Self, Shiva) that is present eternally everywhere as the Pati.[172] The tradition aims at realizing the
state of being one with Shiva within and everywhere. It has extensive
literature,[172][173] and a fivefold path of spiritual practice that starts with
external practices, evolving into internal practices and ultimately
meditative yoga, with the aim of overcoming all suffering (Dukkha) and
reaching the state of bliss (Ananda).[174][175]
The tradition is attributed to a sage from Gujarat named Lakulisha (~2nd

century CE).[176] He is the purported author of the Pashupata-sutra, a
foundational text of this tradition. Other texts include the bhasya
(commentary) on Pashupata-sutra by Kaudinya, the Gaṇakārikā,
Pañchārtha bhāshyadipikā and Rāśikara-bhāshya.[165] The Pashupatha
monastic path was available to anyone of any age, but it required
renunciation from four Ashrama (stage) into the fifth stage of Siddha-
Ashrama. The path started as a life near a Shiva temple and silent
meditation, then a stage when the ascetic left the temple and did karma
exchange (be cursed by others, but never curse back). He then moved to
the third stage of life where he lived like a loner in a cave or abandoned
places or Himalayan mountains, and towards the end of his life he moved
to a cremation ground, surviving on little, peacefully awaiting his
death.[165]
Lakulisha at Sangameshvara
The Pashupatas have been particularly prominent in Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Temple at Mahakuta,
Kashmir and Nepal. The community is found in many parts of the Indian
Karnataka (Chalukya, 7th
subcontinent.[177] In the late medieval era, Pashupatas Shaiva ascetics century CE). His 5th–10th
became extinct.[171][178] century ithyphallic
statues[note 1] are also found
in seated yogi position in
Lakula Atimargi
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and
[168]
This second division of the Atimarga developed from the Pashupatas. elsewhere.
Their fundamental text too was the Pashupata Sutras. They differed from
Pashupata Atimargi in that they departed radically from the Vedic
teachings, respected no Vedic or social customs. He would walk around, for example, almost naked, drank
liquor in public, and used a human skull as his begging bowl for food.[179] The Lakula Shaiva ascetic
recognized no act nor words as forbidden, he freely did whatever he felt like, much like the classical
depiction of his deity Rudra in ancient Hindu texts. However, according to Alexis Sanderson, the Lakula
ascetic was strictly celibate and did not engage in sex.[179]
Secondary literature, such as those written by Kashmiri Ksemaraja, suggest that the Lakula had their
canons on theology, rituals and literature on pramanas (epistemology). However, their primary texts are
believed to be lost, and have not survived into the modern era.[179]
Grihastha and Sannyasi Shaiva: Mantramarga
"Mantramārga" (Sanskrit: मन्त्रमार्ग, "the path of mantras") has been the Shaiva tradition for both
householders and monks.[163] It grew from the Atimarga tradition.[182] This tradition sought not just
liberation from Dukkha (suffering, unsatisfactoriness), but special powers (siddhi) and pleasures (bhoga),
both in this life and next.[183] The siddhi were particularly the pursuit of Mantramarga monks, and it is this
sub-tradition that experimented with a great diversity of rites, deities, rituals, yogic techniques and
mantras.[182] Both the Mantramarga and Atimarga are ancient traditions, more ancient than the date of their
The horizontal three ash lines (Tripundra) with a red mark on forehead is a revered mark across Shaiva
traditions symbolizing Om.[180][181]
texts that have survived, according to Sanderson.[182] Mantramārga grew to become a dominant form of
Shaivism in this period. It also spread outside of India into Southeast Asia's Khmer Empire, Java, Bali and
Cham.[184][185]
The Mantramarga tradition created the Shaiva Agamas and Shaiva tantra (technique) texts. This literature
presented new forms of ritual, yoga and mantra.[186] This literature was highly influential not just to
Shaivism, but to all traditions of Hinduism, as well as to Buddhism and Jainism.[187] Mantramarga had
both theistic and monistic themes, which co-evolved and influenced each other. The tantra texts reflect this,
where the collection contains both dualistic and non-dualistic theologies. The theism in the tantra texts
parallel those found in Vaishnavism and Shaktism.[188][189] Shaiva Siddhanta is a major subtradition that
emphasized dualism during much of its history.[189]
Shaivism has had strong nondualistic (advaita) sub-traditions.[190][191] Its central premise has been that the
Atman (Self) of every being is identical to Shiva, its various practices and pursuits directed at understanding
and being one with the Shiva within. This monism is close but differs somewhat from the monism found in
Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankara. Unlike Shankara's Advaita, Shaivism monist schools consider Maya as
Shakti, or energy and creative primordial power that explains and propels the existential diversity.[190]
Srikantha, influenced by Ramanuja, formulated Shaiva Vishishtadvaita.[192] In this theology, Atman (Self)
is not identical with Brahman, but shares with the Supreme all its qualities. Appayya Dikshita (1520–1592),
an Advaita scholar, proposed pure monism, and his ideas influenced Shaiva in the Karnataka region. His
Shaiva Advaita doctrine is inscribed on the walls of Kalakanthesvara temple in Adaiyappalam
(Tiruvannamalai district).[193][194]
Shaiva Siddhanta
The Śaivasiddhānta ("the established doctrine of Shiva") is the earliest

sampradaya (tradition, lineage) of Tantric Shaivism, dating from the 5th
century.[189][195] The tradition emphasizes loving devotion to Shiva,[196]
uses 5th to 9th-century Tamil hymns called Tirumurai. A key philosophical
text of this sub-tradition was composed by 13th-century Meykandar.[197]
This theology presents three universal realities: the pashu (individual Self),
the pati (lord, Shiva), and the pasha (Self's bondage) through ignorance,
karma and maya. The tradition teaches ethical living, service to the
community and through one's work, loving worship, yoga practice and
discipline, continuous learning and self-knowledge as means for liberating
the individual Self from bondage.[197][198]
Tirumular, the great Tamil
The tradition may have originated in Kashmir where it developed a
Śaivasiddhānta poet and
sophisticated theology propagated by theologians Sadyojoti, Bhatta
mystic saint (siddha).
Nārāyanakantha and his son Bhatta Rāmakantha (c. 950–1000).[199]
However, after the arrival of Islamic rulers in north India, it thrived in the south.[200] The philosophy of
Shaiva Siddhanta, is particularly popular in south India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Singapore.[201]
The historic Shaiva Siddhanta literature is an enormous body of texts.[202] The tradition includes both
Shiva and Shakti (goddess), but with a growing emphasis on metaphysical abstraction.[202] Unlike the
experimenters of Atimarga tradition and other sub-traditions of Mantramarga, states Sanderson, the Shaiva
Siddhanta tradition had no ritual offering or consumption of "alcoholic drinks, blood or meat". Their
practices focussed on abstract ideas of spirituality,[202] worship and loving devotion to Shiva as SadaShiva,
and taught the authority of the Vedas and Shaiva Agamas.[203][204] This tradition diversified in its ideas
over time, with some of its scholars integrating a non-dualistic theology.[205]
Nayanars
By the 7th century, the Nayanars, a tradition of poet-saints in the

bhakti tradition developed in ancient Tamil Nadu with a focus on
Shiva, comparable to that of the Vaisnava Alvars.[207] The
devotional Tamil poems of the Nayanars are divided into eleven
collections together known as Tirumurai, along with a Tamil
Purana called the Periya Puranam. The first seven collections are
known as the Tevaram and are regarded by Tamils as equivalent to
the Vedas.[208] They were composed in the 7th century by
Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar.[209] Nayanars Shaiva poet-saints are
credited with Bhakti movement in
Tirumular (also spelled Tirumūlār or Tirumūlar), the author of the Shaivism. It included three women
Tirumantiram (also spelled Tirumandiram) is considered by saints, such as the 6th-century
Tattwananda to be the earliest exponent of Shaivism in Tamil Karaikkal Ammaiyar.[206]
areas.[210] Tirumular is dated as 7th or 8th century by Maurice
Winternitz.[211] The Tirumantiram is a primary source for the
system of Shaiva Siddhanta, being the tenth book of its canon.[212] The Tiruvacakam by Manikkavacagar
is an important collection of hymns.[213]
Tantra Diksha traditions
The main element of all Shaiva Tantra is the practice of diksha, a ceremonial initiation in which divinely
revealed mantras are given to the initiate by a Guru.[214]
A notable feature of some "left tantra" ascetics was their pursuit of siddhis (supernatural abilities) and bala
(powers), such as averting danger (santih) and the ability to harm enemies (abhicarah).[215][216][217]
Ganachakras, ritual feasts, would sometimes be held in cemeteries and cremation grounds and featured
possession by powerful female deities called Yoginis.[214][218] The cult of Yoginis aimed to gain special
powers through esoteric worship of the Shakti or the feminine aspects of the divine. The groups included
sisterhoods that participated in the rites.[218]
Some traditions defined special powers differently. For example, the Kashmiri tantrics explain the powers
as anima (awareness than one is present in everything), laghima (lightness, be free from presumed diversity
or differences), mahima (heaviness, realize one's limit is beyond one's own consciousness), prapti (attain,
be restful and at peace with one's own nature), prakamya (forebearance, grasp and accept cosmic
diversity), vasita (control, realize that one always has power to do whatever one wants), isitva (self
lordship, a yogi is always free).[219] More broadly, the tantric sub-traditions sought nondual knowledge and
enlightening liberation by abandoning all rituals, and with the help of reasoning (yuktih), scriptures (sastras)
and the initiating Guru.[220][217]
Kashmir Shaivism
Kashmir Shaivism is an influential tradition within Shaivism that

emerged in Kashmir in the 1st millennium CE and thrived in early
centuries of the 2nd millennium before the region was
overwhelmed by the Islamic invasions from the Hindu Kush
region.[221] The Kashmir Shaivism traditions became nearly extinct
due to Islam except for their preservation by Kashmiri
Pandits.[222][223]
Kashmir Shaivism has been a nondualistic school,[224][225] and is

A 3rd century Nandi statue from distinct from the dualistic Shaiva Siddhānta tradition that also
Kashmir. existed in medieval Kashmir.[226][227][228] A notable philosophy of
monistic Kashmiri Shaivism has been the Pratyabhijna ideas,
particularly those by the 10th century scholar Utpaladeva and 11th
century Abhinavagupta and Kshemaraja.[229][230] Their extensive texts established the Shaiva theology
and philosophy in an advaita (monism) framework.[222][227] The Siva Sutras of 9th century Vasugupta and
his ideas about Spanda have also been influential to this and other Shaiva sub-traditions, but it is probable
that much older Shaiva texts once existed.[227][231]
A notable feature of Kashmir Shaivism was its openness and integration of ideas from Shaktism,
Vaishnavism and Vajrayana Buddhism.[222] For example, one sub-tradition of Kashmir Shaivism adopts
Goddess worship (Shaktism) by stating that the approach to god Shiva is through goddess Shakti. This
tradition combined monistic ideas with tantric practices. Another idea of this school was Trika, or modal
triads of Shakti and cosmology as developed by Somananda in the early 10th century.[222][228][232]
Nath
Nath: a Shaiva subtradition that emerged from a much older Siddha tradition
based on Yoga.[233] The Nath consider Shiva as "Adinatha" or the first guru,
and it has been a small but notable and influential movement in India whose
devotees were called "Yogi" or "Jogi", given their monastic unconventional
ways and emphasis on Yoga.[234][235][236]
Nath theology integrated philosophy from Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism

traditions. Their unconventional ways challenged all orthodox premises,
exploring dark and shunned practices of society as a means to understanding
theology and gaining inner powers. The tradition traces itself to 9th or 10th
century Matsyendranath and to ideas and organization developed by
Goraknath founded the
Gorakshanath.[233] They combined both theistic practices such as
Nath Shaiva monastic
worshipping goddesses and their historic Gurus in temples, as well monistic
movement.
goals of achieving liberation or jivan-mukti while alive, by reaching the
perfect (siddha) state of realizing oneness of self and everything with
Shiva.[237][233]
They formed monastic organisations,[233] and some of them metamorphosed into warrior ascetics to resist
persecution during the Islamic rule of the Indian subcontinent.[238][239][240]
Lingayatism
Lingayatism, also known as Veera Shaivism: is a distinct Shaivite religious

tradition in India.[242][243][244] It was founded by the 12th-century
philosopher and statesman Basava and spread by his followers, called
Sharanas.[245]
Lingayatism emphasizes qualified monism and bhakti (loving devotion) to

Shiva, with philosophical foundations similar to those of the 11th–12th-
century South Indian philosopher Ramanuja.[242] Its worship is notable for
the iconographic form of Ishtalinga, which the adherents wear.[246][247]
Large communities of Lingayats are found in the south Indian state of
Karnataka and nearby regions.[242][248][249] Lingayatism has its own
theological literature with sophisticated theoretical sub-traditions.[250]
They were influential in the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire that reversed the A necklace with pendant
territorial gains of Muslim rulers, after the invasions of the Deccan region containing linga symbol of
first by Delhi Sultanate and later other Sultanates. Lingayats consider their Shiva are worn by
scripture to be Basava Purana, which was completed in 1369 during the Lingayats.[241]
reign of Vijayanagara ruler Bukka Raya I.[251][252] Lingayat (Veerashaiva)
thinkers rejected the custodial hold of Brahmins over the Vedas and the
shastras, but they did not outright reject the Vedic knowledge.[253][254] The 13th-century Telugu
Virashaiva poet Palkuriki Somanatha, the author of the scripture of Lingayatism, for example asserted,
"Virashaivism fully conformed to the Vedas and the shastras."[253][254]
Demography
There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within
Hinduism.[255] Large Shaivite communities exist in the Southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
Telangana, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh as well as in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and
Uttrakhand. Substantial communities are also found in Haryana, Maharashtra and central Uttar
Pradesh.[256][257]
According to Galvin Flood, Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate, as many Shaiva
Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly.[258] The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius Lipner, are
unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals
revering gods and goddesses polycentrically, with many Shaiva and Vaishnava adherents recognizing Sri
(Lakshmi), Parvati, Saraswati and other aspects of the goddess Devi. Similarly, Shakta Hindus revere Shiva
and goddesses such as Parvati, Durga, Radha, Sita and Saraswati important in Shaiva and Vaishnava
traditions.[259]
Influence
Shiva is a pan-Hindu god and Shaivism ideas on Yoga and as the god of performance arts (Nataraja) have
been influential on all traditions of Hinduism.
Shaivism was highly influential in southeast Asia from the late 6th
century onwards, particularly the Khmer and Cham kingdoms of
Indo-China, and across the major islands of Indonesia such as
Sumatra, Java and Bali.[260] This influence on classical Cambodia,
Vietnam and Thailand continued when Mahayana Buddhism
arrived with the same Indians.[261][262]
In Shaivism of Indonesia, the popular name for Shiva has been

Bhattara Guru, which is derived from Sanskrit Bhattaraka which
means "noble lord".[263] He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual
teacher, the first of all Gurus in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring
the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the Indian subcontinent.[264]
However, the Bhattara Guru has more aspects than the Indian
Shiva, as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes
with him. Bhattara Guru's wife in southeast Asia is the same Hindu
deity Durga, who has been popular since ancient times, and she too
has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations,
each visualized with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and
others.[265][266] Shiva has been called Sadasiva, Paramasiva, Shaivism and Buddhism have co-
Mahadeva in benevolent forms, and Kala, Bhairava, Mahakala in developed in many regions. Above a
his fierce forms.[266] The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same syncretic image of Yoni-Linga with
philosophical diversity of Shaivism traditions found on the four reliefs of the Buddha in a
subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the Vajrayana temple.
contemporary era, the more common are of those of Shaiva
Siddhanta (locally also called Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta).[267]
As Bhakti movement ideas spread in South India, Shaivite devotionalism became a potent movement in
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Shaivism was adopted by several ruling Hindu dynasties as the state religion
(though other Hindu traditions, Buddhism and Jainism continued in parallel), including the Chola and the
Rajputs. A similar trend was witnessed in early medieval Indonesia with the Majapahit empire and pre-
Islamic Malaya.[268][269] In the Himalayan Hindu kingdom of Nepal, Shaivism remained a popular form of
Hinduism and co-evolved with Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism.
Shaktism
The goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism is closely related to Shaivism. In many regions of India,
not only did the ideas of Shaivism influence the evolution of Shaktism, Shaivism itself got influenced by it
and progressively subsumed the reverence for the divine feminine (Devi) as an equal and essential partner
of divine masculine (Shiva).[270] The goddess Shakti in eastern states of India is considered the inseparable
partner of god Shiva. According to Galvin Flood, the closeness between Shaivism and Shaktism traditions
is such that these traditions of Hinduism are at times difficult to separate.[258] Some Shaiva worship in
Shiva and Shakti temples.[8]
Smarta Tradition
Shiva is a part of the Smarta Tradition, sometimes referred to as Smartism, another tradition of
Hinduism.[271] The Smarta Hindus are associated with the Advaita Vedanta theology, and their practices
include an interim step that incorporates simultaneous reverence for five deities, which includes Shiva along
with Vishnu, Surya, Devi and Ganesha. This is called the Panchayatana puja. The Smartas thus accept the
primary deity of Shaivism as a means to their spiritual goals.[25]
Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols (murti) are
icons of saguna Brahman, a means to realizing the abstract Ultimate
Reality called nirguna Brahman. The five or six icons are seen by Smartas
as multiple representations of the one Saguna Brahman (i.e., a personal
God with form), rather than as distinct beings.[272][273] The ultimate goal
in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, then follow a
philosophical and meditative path to understanding the oneness of Atman
(Self) and Brahman (metaphysical Ultimate Reality) – as "That art
Thou".[271][274][275]
Panchayatana puja that incorporates Shiva became popular in medieval

India and is attributed to 8th century Adi Shankara,[271][274] but
archaeological evidence suggests that this practice long predates the birth
of Adi Shankara. Many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been
A seated Ardhanarishvara uncovered that are from the Gupta Empire period, and one Panchayatana
symbolically presenting the set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers from Ajmer) has been
feminine Shakti as dated to belong to the Kushan Empire era (pre-300 CE).[276] According
inseparable part of masculine to James Harle, major Hindu temples from 1st millennium CE commonly
Shiva. embedded the pancayatana architecture, from Odisha to Karnataka to
Kashmir. Large temples often present multiple deities in the same temple
complex, while some explicitly include fusion deities such as Harihara
(half Shiva, half Vishnu).[275]
Vaishnavism
Shaivism iconography in Cambodia, at Kbal Spean river site. As in India, the site also co-features
Vaishnavism-related iconography.[277]
Vaishnava texts reverentially mention Shiva. For example, the Vishnu Purana primarily focuses on the
theology of Hindu god Vishnu and his avatars such as Krishna, but it praises Brahma and Shiva and asserts
that they are one with Vishnu.[278] The Vishnu Sahasranama in the Mahabharata list a thousand attributes
and epithets of Vishnu. The list identifies Shiva with Vishnu.[279]
Reverential inclusion of Shaiva ideas and iconography are very common in major Vaishnava temples, such
as Dakshinamurti symbolism of Shaiva thought is often enshrined on the southern wall of the main temple
of major Vaishnava temples in peninsular India.[280] Harihara temples in and outside the Indian
subcontinent have historically combined Shiva and Vishnu, such as at the Lingaraj Mahaprabhu temple in
Bhubaneshwar, Odisha. According to Julius Lipner, Vaishnavism traditions such as Sri Vaishnavism
embrace Shiva, Ganesha and others, not as distinct deities of polytheism, but as polymorphic manifestation
of the same supreme divine principle, providing the devotee a polycentric access to the spiritual.[281]
Similarly, Shaiva traditions have reverentially embraced other gods and goddesses as manifestation of the
same divine.[282] The Skanda Purana, for example in section 6.254.100 states, "He who is Shiva is
Vishnu, he who is Vishnu is Sadashiva".[283]
Sauraism (Sun deity)
The sun god called Surya is an ancient deity of Hinduism, and several ancient Hindu kingdoms particularly
in the northwest and eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent revered Surya. These devotees called
Sauras once had a large corpus of theological texts, and Shaivism literature reverentially acknowledges
these.[284] For example, the Shaiva text Srikanthiyasamhita mentions 85 Saura texts, almost all of which
are believed to have been lost during the Islamic invasion and rule period, except for large excerpts found
embedded in Shaiva manuscripts discovered in the Himalayan mountains. Shaivism incorporated Saura
ideas, and the surviving Saura manuscripts such as Saurasamhita acknowledge the influence of Shaivism,
according to Alexis Sanderson, assigning "itself to the canon of Shaiva text Vathula-Kalottara.[284]
Yoga movements
Yoga and meditation has been an integral part of Shaivism, and it has
been a major innovator of techniques such as those of Hatha
Yoga.[285][286][287] Many major Shiva temples and Shaiva tritha
(pilgrimage) centers depict anthropomorphic iconography of Shiva as a
giant statue wherein Shiva is a lone yogi meditating,[288] as do Shaiva
texts.[289]
Many Shaiva temples present
In several Shaiva traditions such as the Kashmir Shaivism, anyone who Shiva in yoga pose.
seeks personal understanding and spiritual growth has been called a Yogi.
The Shiva Sutras (aphorisms) of Shaivism teach yoga in many forms.
According to Mark Dyczkowski, yoga – which literally means "union" – to this tradition has meant the
"realisation of our true inherent nature which is inherently greater than our thoughts can ever conceive",
and that the goal of yoga is to be the "free, eternal, blissful, perfect, infinite spiritually conscious" one
is.[290]
Many Yoga-emphasizing Shaiva traditions emerged in medieval India, who refined yoga methods such as
by introducing Hatha Yoga techniques. One such movement had been the Nath Yogis, a Shaivism sub-
tradition that integrated philosophy from Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism traditions. It was founded by
Matsyendranath and further developed by Gorakshanath.[235][236][291] The texts of these Yoga
emphasizing Hindu traditions present their ideas in Shaiva context.[note 8]
Hindu performance arts
Shiva is the lord of dance and dramatic arts in Hinduism.[293][294][295] This is celebrated in Shaiva temples
as Nataraja, which typically shows Shiva dancing in one of the poses in the ancient Hindu text on
performance arts called the Natya Shastra.[294][296][297]
Dancing Shiva as a metaphor for celebrating life and arts is very common in
ancient and medieval Hindu temples. For example, it is found in Badami cave
temples, Ellora Caves, Khajuraho, Chidambaram and others. The Shaiva link to
the performance arts is celebrated in Indian classical dances such as
Bharatanatyam and Chhau.[298][299][300]
Buddhism
Buddhism and Shaivism have interacted and influenced each other since ancient
times, in both South Asia and Southeast Asia. Their Siddhas and esoteric
traditions, in particular, have overlapped to an extent where Buddhists and
Dancing Shiva Nataraja Hindus would worship in the same temple such as in the Seto Machindranath.
at the 6th century In southeast Asia, the two traditions were not presented in competitive or
Badami cave temples.
polemical terms, rather as two alternate paths that lead to the same goals of
liberation, with theologians disagreeing which of these is faster and simpler.[301]
Scholars disagree whether a syncretic tradition emerged from Buddhism and
Shaivism, or it was a coalition with free borrowing of ideas, but they agree that the two traditions co-existed
peacefully.[302]
The earliest evidence of a close relationship between Shaivism and Buddhism comes from the
archaeological sites and damaged sculptures from the northwest Indian subcontinent, such as Gandhara.
These are dated to about the 1st-century CE, with Shiva depicted in Buddhist arts.[303][note 9] The Buddhist
Avalokiteshvara is linked to Shiva in many of these arts,[304] but in others Shiva is linked to Bodhisattva
Maitreya with he shown as carrying his own water pot like Vedic priests.[303] According to Richard
Blurton, the ancient works show that the Bodhisattva of Compassion in Buddhism has many features in
common with Shiva in Shaivism.[304] The Shaiva Hindu and Buddhist syncretism continues in the
contemporary era in the island of Bali, Indonesia.[305] In Central Asian Buddhism, and its historic arts,
syncretism and a shared expression of Shaivism, Buddhism and Tantra themes has been common.[306]
The syncretism between Buddhism and Shaivism was particularly marked in southeast Asia, but this was
not unique, rather it was a common phenomenon also observed in the eastern regions of the Indian
subcontinent, the south and the Himalayan regions.[87] This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu
Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva.[87][note 10] In
the pre-Islamic Java, Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and allied religions, though not
identical religions.[308][note 11] This idea is also found in the sculptures and temples in the eastern states of
India and the Himalayan region. For example, Hindu temples in these regions show Harihara (half Shiva,
half Vishnu) flanked by a standing Buddha on its right and a standing Surya (Hindu Sun god) on
left.[310][311]
On major festivals of Bali Hindus, such as the Nyepi – a "festival of silence", the observations are
officiated by both Buddhist and Shaiva priests.[87][312][313]
Jainism
Jainism co-existed with Shaiva culture since ancient times, particularly in western and southern India where
it received royal support from Hindu kings of Chaulukya, Ganga and Rashtrakuta dynasties.[314] In late 1st
millennium CE, Jainism too developed a Shaiva-like tantric ritual culture with Mantra-goddesses.[314][315]
These Jain rituals were aimed at mundane benefits using japas (mantra recitation) and making offerings into
Homa fire.[314]
According to Alexis Sanderson, the link and development of Shaiva goddesses into Jaina goddess is more
transparent than a similar connection between Shaivism and Buddhism.[316] The 11th-century Jain text
Bhairavapadmavatikalpa, for example, equates Padmavati of Jainism with Tripura-bhairavi of Shaivism
and Shaktism. Among the major goddesses of Jainism that are rooted in Hindu pantheon, particularly
Shaiva, include Lakshmi and Vagishvari (Sarasvati) of the higher world in Jain cosmology, Vidyadevis of
the middle world, and Yakshis such as Ambika, Cakreshvari, Padmavati and Jvalamalini of the lower world
according to Jainism.[314]
Shaiva-Shakti iconography is found in major Jain temples. For example, the Osian temple of Jainism near
Jodhpur features Chamunda, Durga, Sitala, and a naked Bhairava.[317] While Shaiva and Jain practices had
considerable overlap, the interaction between the Jain community and Shaiva community differed on the
acceptance of ritual animal sacrifices before goddesses. Jain remained strictly vegetarian and avoided
animal sacrifice, while Shaiva accepted the practice.[318]
Temples and pilgrimage

Shaiva Puranas, Agamas and other
regional literature refer to temples by
various terms such as Mandir, Amarnath
Shivayatana, Shivalaya, Katas Raj

Shambhunatha, Jyotirlingam, Kedarnath Kailash
Badrinath
Shristhala, Chattraka, Bhavaggana, Jageshwar
Kathmandu
Bhuvaneshvara, Goputika, Bhairavanath
Harayatana, Kailasha, Sivasagar
Khajuraho
Mahadevagriha, Saudhala and Varanasi
[319] Deoghar
others. In Southeast Asia Shaiva Ujjain
Dwaraka Taraknath Chandranath
temples are called Candi (Java),[320] Omkareshwar
Pura (Bali),[321] and Wat (Cambodia Somnath
Triambak Ellora Puri
Aundha
and nearby regions).[322][323] Bhima
Parli
Many of the Shiva-related pilgrimage Srisailam
sites such as Varanasi, Amarnath,
Kedarnath, Somnath, and others are
broadly considered holy in Hinduism.
Chidambaram
They are called kṣétra (Sanskrit:
क्षेत्र[324]). A kṣétra has many temples, Rameshwaram
Koneswaram
including one or more major ones. Munneswaram
These temples and its location attracts
pilgrimage called tirtha (or
[325] Major Shaiva Hindu temple sites. Orange markers are UNESCO
tirthayatra). world heritage sites.
Many of the historic Puranas literature

embed tourism guide to Shaivism-
related pilgrimage centers and temples.[326] For example, the Skanda Purana deals primarily with Tirtha
Mahatmyas (pilgrimage travel guides) to numerous geographical points,[326] but also includes a chapter
stating that a temple and tirtha is ultimately a state of mind and virtuous everyday life.[327][328]
Major rivers of the Indian subcontinent and their confluence (sangam), natural springs, origin of Ganges
River (and pancha-ganga), along with high mountains such as Kailasha with Mansovar Lake are
particularly revered spots in Shaivism.[329][330] Twelve jyotirlinga sites across India have been particularly
important pilgrimage sites in Shaivism representing the radiant light (jyoti) of infiniteness,[331][332][333] as
per Śiva Mahāpurāṇa.[334] They are Somnatha, Mallikarjuna, Mahakaleshwar, Omkareshwar, Kedarnatha,
Bhimashankar, Visheshvara, Trayambakesvara, Vaidyanatha, Nageshvara, Rameshvara and
Grishneshwar.[330] Other texts mention five Kedras (Kedarnatha, Tunganatha, Rudranatha,
Madhyamesvara and Kalpeshvara), five Badri (Badrinatha, Pandukeshvara, Sujnanien, Anni matha and
Urghava), snow lingam of Amarnatha, flame of Jwalamukhi, all of the Narmada River, and others.[330]
Kashi (Varanasi) is declared as particularly special in numerous Shaiva texts and Upanishads, as well as in
the pan-Hindu Sannyasa Upanishads such as the Jabala Upanishad.[335][336]
The early Bhakti movement poets of Shaivism composed poems about pilgrimage and temples, using these
sites as metaphors for internal spiritual journey.[337][338]
See also
Chaturdasa Devata
Hindu denominations
History of Shaivism
Jangam Lingayat
Shaiva Siddhanta
Kashmiri Shaivism
Notes
1. The ithyphallic representation of the erect shape connotes the very opposite in this
context.[339] It contextualize "seminal retention" and practice of celibacy[340] (illustration of
Urdhva Retas),[341][342] and represents Lakulisha as "he stands for complete complete
control of the senses, and for the supreme carnal renunciation".[339]
2. Kapalikas are alleged to smear their body with ashes from the cremation ground, revered the
fierce Bhairava form of Shiva, engage in rituals with blood, meat, alcohol, and sexual fluids.
However, states David Lorenzen, there is a paucity of primary sources on Kapalikas, and
historical information about them is available from fictional works and other traditions who
disparage them.[68][69]
3. The Dunhuang caves in north China built from the 4th century onwards are predominantly
about the Buddha, but some caves show the meditating Buddha with Hindu deities such as
Shiva, Vishnu, Ganesha and Indra.[84]
4. There is an overlap in this approach with those found in non-puranik tantric rituals.[94]
5. Pashupatas have both Vedic-Puranik and non-Puranik sub-traditions.[92]
6. Vasugupta is claimed by two Advaita (Monistic) Shaivism sub-traditions to be their spiritual
founder.[125]
7. For Śvetāśvatara Upanishad as a systematic philosophy of Shaivism see: Chakravarti 1994,
p. 9.
8. For example:
[It will] be impossible to accomplish one's functions unless one is a master of

oneself.
Therefore strive for self-mastery, seeking to win the way upwards.
To have self-mastery is to be a yogin (yogitvam). [v. 1–2]
[...]
Whatever reality he reaches through the Yoga whose sequence I have just
explained,
he realizes there a state of consciousness whose object is all that pervades.
Leaving aside what remains outside he should use his vision to penetrate all
[within].
Then once he has transcended all lower realities, he should seek the Shiva
level. [v. 51–53]
[...]
How can a person whose awareness is overwhelmed by sensual experience
stabilize his mind?
Answer: Shiva did not teach this discipline (sādhanam) for individuals who are
not [already] disaffected. [v. 56–57]
[...]
— Bhatta Narayanakantha, Mrigendratantra (paraphrased), Transl: Alexis

Sanderson[292]
9. Some images show proto-Vishnu images.[303]

10. Similarly, in Vaishnavism Hindu tradition, Buddha is considered one of the avatars of
Vishnu.[307]
11. Medieval Hindu texts of Indonesia equate Buddha with Siwa (Shiva) and Janardana
(Vishnu).[309]
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External links
Encyclopædia Britannica, "Shaivism" (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaivism)
Saivism.Net (http://www.saivism.net/)
Alexis sanderson, Publications (https://web.archive.org/web/20171207081214/http://www.al
exissanderson.com/publications.html), scholarly studies in Shaivism
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Shaivism

Shaivism (/ˈʃaɪvɪzəm/; Sanskrit: शैवसम्प्रदायः,

Shaivism developed as an amalgam of pre-Vedic religions

Etymology and nomenclature

Origins and history

Indus Valley Civilisation

Some trace the origins to the Indus Valley civilization, which

Other scholars state that the Indus Valley script remains

The "Pashupati" seal from the Indus

According to Gavin Flood, "the formation of Śaiva traditions as we

Most of the Gupta kings, beginning with Chandragupta II

Along with the Himalayan region stretching from Kashmir

There are tens of thousands of Hindu temples where Shiva is

Shaivism arrived in a major way in southeast Asia from south India,

The Shaivist and Buddhist traditions overlapped significantly in

Beliefs and practices

Vedic, Puranik, and esoteric Shaivism

Vedic-Puranik. The majority within Shaivism follow the

Shaivism versus other Hindu traditions

Creator Shiva Vishnu Devi Brahman principle [100][102]

Avatar Minor Key concept Significant Minor [5][103][104]

Monastic life Recommends Accepts Accepts Recommends [5][105][106]

Rituals, Bhakti Affirms[107][108][109] Affirms Affirms Optional[110] [111]

Ahimsa and Recommends,[107] Affirms Optional

Free will, [100]

Vedas and Principal Upanishads

The Veda is the cow, the true Agama its milk.

— Umapati, Translated by David Smith[9]

Shaiva minor Upanishads

Meaning of Tripundra (three lines tilaka), [141][142]

Sharabha Upanishad Unknown Shiva as Sharabha [144]

Rudra-Uma, Male-Female are [146]

After the Shiva, Bhairava, Rudraksha beads and [129]

16th or 17th Ganesha, Shiva, Brahman, Atman, Om, [149]

Shiva, Pashupata theology, significance [152]

The Atimarga branch of Shaivism emphasizes liberation (salvation)

The tradition is attributed to a sage from Gujarat named Lakulisha (~2nd

Grihastha and Sannyasi Shaiva: Mantramarga

The Śaivasiddhānta ("the established doctrine of Shiva") is the earliest

By the 7th century, the Nayanars, a tradition of poet-saints in the

Tantra Diksha traditions

Kashmir Shaivism is an influential tradition within Shaivism that

Kashmir Shaivism has been a nondualistic school,[224][225] and is

Nath theology integrated philosophy from Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism

Lingayatism, also known as Veera Shaivism: is a distinct Shaivite religious

Lingayatism emphasizes qualified monism and bhakti (loving devotion) to

In Shaivism of Indonesia, the popular name for Shiva has been

Panchayatana puja that incorporates Shiva became popular in medieval

Sauraism (Sun deity)

Hindu performance arts

Temples and pilgrimage

Shivayatana, Shivalaya, Katas Raj

Many of the historic Puranas literature

[It will] be impossible to accomplish one's functions unless one is a master of

— Bhatta Narayanakantha, Mrigendratantra (paraphrased), Transl: Alexis

9. Some images show proto-Vishnu images.[303]

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