MENDELIAN

INHERITANCE

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 Mendelian Inheritance Outline
MENDELIAN GENETICS
⚫ Monohybrid Inheritance
⚫ Sex determination, sex linkage
⚫ Dominance
⚫ Codominance
⚫ Incomplete Dominance
⚫ Dihybrid inheritance

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 Objectives – At the end of this topic
you should be able to:
1. Define the terms
⚫ Monohybrid Inheritance, Dihybrid inheritance
⚫ Sex determination, Sex linkage,
⚫ Dominance, Codominance, Incomplete
Dominance
2. Work out the genotype and phenotype of
progeny from the different types of
inheritance and test crosses (state ratios).
3. State /Explain the law of segregation and
the law of independent assortment

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 Gregor Mendel
Gregor Mendel (Austrian monk)
⚫ First to formulate principles that
would lead to an understanding
of the mechanism of Inheritance.
⚫ Started experiments in 1856
⚫ Experimented with the garden
pea (Pisum sativum) because of the
following properties
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 Properties of Garden Pea

⚫ Easy to grow,
⚫ Had many varieties
⚫ Controlling pollination was relatively
easy.
⚫ Normally self pollinating and fertilizing
⚫ Can be maintained as pure-breeding
lines, that is, the characteristics of the
parents are transmitted to the offspring
unaltered, generation after generation.

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 Monohybrid inheritance

⚫ Mendel’s earliest experiments

involved selecting plants of two
varieties showing a single pair of
contrasted characteristics e.g.,
⚫ tall vs. short plants,
⚫ round vs. wrinkled seeds,
⚫ yellow vs. green pods.

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 Monohybrid inheritance

⚫ Mendel chose pure/true

breeding plants (plants
which showed the same
trait after many
generations) e.g.,
⚫ tall plants that always
produce tall plants.
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 Monohybrid inheritance

⚫ He then crossed the plants with

each other to observe the offspring.

⚫ The first plants pollinated are called

the parental (P1 generation).

⚫ The offspring of the P1 generation

are called the first filial (sons &
daughters) generation or F1.
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Monohybrid inheritance

Mendel’s observations
P Tall x Short

F1 Tall

⚫ Mendel noticed that one trait

(short) disappeared all together.
⚫ All offspring resembled only one of
the two parents.
⚫ He called this trait the dominant
trait. 9
 Monohybrid inheritance

⚫ He then crossed the F1 (with

F1), resulting in the F2
generation (second filial
generation).

⚫ In the F2 generation, the ‘lost’

trait reappeared but there was
more offspring with the
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dominant trait.
 Monohybrid inheritance
⚫ So, even though all the F1 looked
alike (Tall), the F2 generation
showed non-parental (and non-F1)
traits.

⚫ He reasoned that the other trait

must have been present in the
F1 but failed to be expressed so
it was called the recessive trait.
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 Monohybrid ratio
⚫ When the number of F2 plants were counted,
the ratio of dominant to recessive traits was
always approximately 3:1.
⚫ This ratio is called the Monohybrid ratio.

P cross Tall x Short

F1 Tall
F1 cross Tall x Tall
F2 3 Tall : 1 Short
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Monohybrid ratio for F2
Examples of Mendel’s Results

Smooth : wrinkled
5474 : 1850
3 :1

Tall : short
778 : 227
3: 1
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 st
1 Law: Law of Segregation
⚫ After several similar results Mendel
reached a conclusion now called Mendel’s
First Law (the Law of Segregation).

⚫ Anorganisms’ characteristics are

controlled by ‘factors’ which occur in
pairs, but singly in gametes (that is,
they separate before gametes are
formed).

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 Mendel’s Conclusions
1. Since the original parents were true
breeding, the dominant variety must
have possessed two factors and the
recessive variety two factors.
⚫ ie 2 factors give the trait ‘tall’ and 2
give the trait ‘short’.

2. There were two alternative forms of a

factor, so that a trait can be expressed
in different ways.
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 Mendel’s Conclusions -
Monohybrid
3. The F1 generation possessed one factor
from each parent which was carried by
the gametes.
4. The factors did not blend, contaminate
or eliminate the other in the F1 – they
retain their individuality.
5. One factor is dominant to the other.

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 Update
Mendel’s ‘factors’ are now called genes
Genes occur in pairs.
The alternative forms of genes are called
alleles.
The two alleles occupy the same locus on
both homologues of the homologous pair
of chromosomes.

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 Update- Law of segregation
⚫ The Segregation is known to occur
during meiosis when homologous
chromosomes (each with one of a pair
of genes) separate in anaphase I.

⚫ Let T represent the trait ‘tall’ which is

dominant.
⚫ Let t represent the trait ‘short’ which is
recessive.

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 Law of segregation
Since
⚫ parents are pure breeding (homozygous -
having 2 identical alleles for a trait) and
⚫ genes occur in pairs (one paternal, the
other maternal)
genotypes of the parents can be
represented as: Tall - TT (homozygous
dominant)
short – tt (homozygous recessive)

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 Law of segregation
⚫ Gametes (haploid) will have one allele
so those produced from homozygous
individuals will be as follows.

TT parent will produce gamete T

tt parent will produce gamete t

A heterozygous parent Tt would produce

two types of gametes: T and t.

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 Law of segregation
“genes occur in pairs, but singly in gametes”

Homozygous

Heterozygous
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 Law of segregation
Parents TT x tt
Gametes T x t
F1 Tt (tall)

⚫ F1 genotype will be Tt.

⚫ Since both alleles are different the F1 is heterozygous
for the trait.
⚫ T is dominant over t so Tt plants will phenotypically
look the same as the parent with the homozygous
dominant genotype TT.

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Terminology
Genotype
⚫ Genetic make up; genes
(usually represented by letters)

Phenotype
⚫ Observable characteristics;
physical expression of the gene
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 Segregation
⚫ When meiosis occurs in a heterozygous
organism each of the gametes has an equal
chance of getting one or the other allele.

⚫ At the end of meiosis, each sperm/pollen or

egg cell has an equal chance of carrying the
dominant or recessive allele

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Monohybrid Cross
Parents TT x tt
Gametes T x t
F1 Tt (tall)
F1 cross Tt x Tt
F1 Gametes T t x T t
F2 genotype TT Tt Tt tt
F2 Phenotype Tall Short

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 monohybrid ratio
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 Monohybrid Cross Results
⚫ F1 - all offspring of one
genotype and phenotype

⚫ F2
⚫ Monohybrid ratio
⚫Genotypic ratio1:2:1
⚫Phenotypic ratio 3:1

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 The test cross

⚫ The tall organism observed in the F1 (Tt) is

genotypically different from the tall parent (TT).
⚫ A tall organism obtained in the F2 can be either
TT of Tt.
⚫ When the dominant trait is observed
phenotypically, the genotype may vary.

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 Test cross
⚫ A tall plant can be homozygous dominant (TT)
or heterozygous (Tt).
⚫ How do we know the genotype of an individual
showing the dominant phenotype?.

⚫ The test cross is used to determine the

‘unknown’ genotype of an organism showing the
dominant trait.

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 Test cross
⚫ The organism is crossed with one whose genotype
is accurately known - usually the homozygous
recessive.

F2 dominant phenotype (unknown genotype) is

crossed with homozygous recessive (known
phenotype and genotype).

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 Test Cross Results
F2 x tt
⚫ If the unknown genotype is homozygous
dominant, then all the offspring will show the
dominant phenotype.

⚫ If the unknown genotype is heterozygous then

the offspring will show equal quantities of
dominant and recessive phenotypes.

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Monohybrid Test Cross Results

If unknown was homozygous dominant

Test cross TT x tt
Gametes T x t
Result Tt (All tall)
If unknown was heterozygous dominant
Test cross Tt x tt
Gametes T t x t
Result Tt (Half tall) tt (Half short)

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 Monohybrid Test Cross Results

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 Incomplete dominance
⚫ Alleles may not show complete dominance or
complete recessiveness

⚫ A blending of the two traits can occur and be

expressed in the phenotype.

⚫ This is called incomplete dominance.

e.g., flower colour in Snapdragon.
⚫

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 Incomplete dominance
Snapdragon flowers
Red parents crossed with white parents resulted in
⚫

pink (a blend of red and white) F1offspring.

⚫ When the F1 is crossed the F2 had white, pink and

red offspring in a 1:2:1 ratio.

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Incomplete dominance
Parents RR (Red) x WW (White)
Gametes R x W
F1 RW (Pink)
F1 cross RW x RW
F1 Gametes R W x R W
F2 genotype RR RW RW WW
F2 Phenotype Red Pink Pink White
Phenotypic 1 2 1
Ratio
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 Incomplete dominance
Parental Cross

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 Incomplete dominance
F1 Cross

38 Red 1 : Pink 2 : White 1

 Incomplete dominance
F1 Cross
Since red and white reappear in the F2 generation
the individual characteristics did not disappear in
the F1.

The effect of each gene is modified by the

presence of the other.

Together they form a third phenotype which

resembles neither parent but is an intermediate.

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 Codominance
⚫ Both alleles in the heterozygous condition are
fully expressed.
⚫ E.g., blood groups in humans.

⚫ Human blood type is determined by gene I which

has three alleles.

⚫ Two alleles are co-dominant and one is recessive.

⚫ Any two of the three can occur at a single locus at

any one time.

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 Codominance
⚫ Alleles IA, IB and IO
⚫ IA and IB are codominant while IO is recessive to both

Genotype Phenotype
IA I B AB codominance
IA IA A homozygous dominant
IB I B B homozygous dominant
IO IO O homozygous recessive
IA IO A dominance
IB IO B dominance
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 Sex determination
⚫ Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
⚫ Of these, 22 pairs are identical in both sexes.
These are autosomes

⚫ The 23rd pair, however is different in the male

and female. These are the sex chromosomes (or
heterosomes).
⚫ In females the two sex chromosomes are identical
and are called the X chromosomes.

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 Sex determination
⚫ In males, one X chromosome is also present but
the other of the pair is the Y chromosome.
⚫ The Y chromosome is smaller in size, carries
fewer genes and has a different shape from the X.

⚫ Females (XX) produce gametes that all contain the

X chromosome.
⚫ Females are therefore said to be homogametic –
producing only one type of gamete.

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 Sex determination
⚫ Males (XY) produce two types of gametes, in equal
numbers;
⚫ Half of the total number of male gametes contains
the X chromosome and the other half the Y
chromosome

⚫ Males are therefore said to be heterogametic –

producing more than one type of gamete.

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Sex determination - Chromosomes

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Sex determination
⚫ The sex of the offspring therefore
depends on whether the ovum is
fertilized by a X-bearing or a
Y-bearing sperm.
Female Male

1 : 1

NB. The symbols used here represent the entire chromosome rather than gene
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 Sex determination
Parents Male x Female
Chromosomes XY x XX
Gametes X Y x X X
Progeny XX XX XY XY
Phenotype Female Female Male Male
Ratio 1 1

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48
 Sex Linkage
⚫ Sex linkage refers to the carrying of genes on the
sex chromosomes that determine body characters,
not sex.

⚫ The X chromosomes carry more of such genes

than the Y chromosome.
⚫ In some cases, genes carried on the X
chromosome have no counterpart on the Y
chromosome so

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 Sex linkage
⚫In Males any allele carried only on the on the X
chromosome will be expressed even if it is
recessive.

⚫In Females a recessive allele on one X

chromosome may be masked by a dominant
allele on another X chromosome and will not
be expressed

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 Sex linkage
⚫ A sex-linked gene in humans
causes colour (red-green)
blindness.
⚫ The allele is recessive and is
linked to (present on) the X
chromosome.
⚫ The condition therefore occurs
mostly in males.
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 Sex linkage
⚫ In females, the recessive gene is usually masked by
the appropriate dominant gene on another X
chromosome.

⚫ Heterozygous females are not affected but are

capable of passing on the recessive gene to their
offspring (therefore are ‘carriers’).

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 Sex Linkage
⚫ When the recessive gene occurs in males, it
expresses itself because the Y chromosome does
not carry any corresponding dominant gene.

Inheritance of Colour blindness

⚫ Normal sight dominant (XB)

⚫ Red-green colour-blindness (Xb)

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Sex linkage
Inheritance of colour blindness
Parental Cross
Parents XB XB x XbY
Parental normal x colour blind
Phenotype female male

Gametes XB x Xb Y
F1 XB Xb X BY
F1 carrier female normal male
Phenotype
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Sex linkage
Inheritance of colour blindness
F1 Cross
F1 Parents XB Xb x X BY
F1 Parental carrier female x normal male
Phenotype
F1 Gametes XB Xb x XB Y
F2 XB XB XB Y XbXB XbY
F2 normal normal carrier colour
Phenotype female male female blind
male
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 Punnet Squares

⚫ A punnet square can be used to

make working out the progeny for
a set of gametes easier.
Sperm B
Eggs
X Y
XB X BX B XB Y

Xb X bX B Xb Y

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 Sex linkage- Inheritance of colour
blindness in females
⚫ Males are affected 16 times more often than
females, because the gene is located on the X
chromosome.
⚫ Females can only be colour blind in the
homozygous condition.
⚫ Colour blind male with carrier female (very rare)
⚫ ½ of daughters colour blind; half carriers
⚫ ½ of sons colour blind; half normal

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Sex linkage
Inheritance of colour blindness
Parental Cross
Parents XB Xb x XbY
Parental carrier x colour blind
Phenotype female male

Gametes XB Xb x Xb Y
F1 XB Xb XbXb XbY X BY
F1 Carrier Blind Blind Normal
Phenotype
58 female female male male
 Dihybrid Inheritance
⚫ Mendel also investigated inheritance involving
two pairs of contrasted characteristics.
⚫ This is called the dihybrid inheritance.

⚫ E.g., he crossed a plant true breeding for two

dominant traits with another plant true
breeding for the recessive alternative of the
same traits.

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 Dihybrid Inheritance
⚫ Using pea shape (round vs. wrinkled) and cotyledon
colour (yellow vs. green).

⚫ He already knew that round and yellow were

dominant (from monohybrid cross).

⚫ He got all round and yellow in the F1 (all showing

the dominant phenotype; similar results to the
monohybrid F1)
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Dihybrid Inheritance
Parental Cross Summary
P round, yellow x wrinkled, green
F1 round, yellow

⚫ The F1 seeds were planted, raised

and self pollinated (F1 x F1)

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 Dihybrid Inheritance
F1 Crossed

⚫ The peas were collected and counted and gave the

following results.

Round, Yellow x Round Yellow

⚫ round, yellow 315 (parental type)
⚫ wrinkled, yellow 101
⚫ round, green 108
⚫ wrinkled, green 32 (parental type)

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 Dihybrid Inheritance
⚫ This ratio obtained for the F2 phenotype, 9:3:3:1

is called the dihybrid ratio.

⚫ The new combinations which appeared

combined one dominant and one recessive trait.

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 Dihybrid Inheritance
⚫ The ratio of each pair of phenotypes appeared in
a 3:1 ratio that is,
⚫ round: wrinkled (315+108 : 101 + 32);
⚫ yellow : green (315+ 101 : 108 + 32).

⚫ Therefore, the two traits behaved independently

of each other.

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 nd
2 Law: Law of Independent
Assortment.
⚫ Mendel formulated his second law regarding
Independent Assortment.

⚫ Each of a pair of contrasted characters may be

combined with either of another pair.

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 nd
2 Law: Law of Independent
Assortment.
⚫ Independent assortment occurs because
chromosomes align in different ways at
metaphase I of meiosis.

⚫ The alleles of genes at different loci segregate

(separate) independently of each other during
gamete formation.

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 Independent Assortment of chromosomes

⚫Genes on different chromosomes can

assort independently at metaphase 1 of
meiosis

Alternative assortment
67 Ab, aB OR AB, ab
 Assortment of genes on a
chromosome in Prophase 1

Also, remember that

genes on the same
chromosome (linked
genes) can be
separated in prophase
1 of meiosis (crossing
over) if they are
relatively far from
each other.

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 Dihybrid Inheritance
R = round seeds; r= wrinkled seeds
G = yellow seeds; g= green seeds

Parental Cross
P Phenotype ROUND, YELLOW x wrinkled, green
P Genotype RRGG X rrgg
Gametes RG x rg
F1 Genotype RrGg
F1 Phenotype Round, Yellow

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 Dihybrid Inheritance

F1 Cross
F1 phenotype Round, Yellow X Round, Yellow
F1 genotype RrGg X RrGg
Gametes RG Rg rg rG x RG Rg rg rG
F2 genotype See Punnet square

F2 phenotype

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Dihybrid F1 cross – Punnet square

Gametes RG Rg rG rg
RG RRGG RRGg RrGG RrGg
Rg RRGg RRgg RrGg Rrgg
rG RrGG RrGg rrGG rrGg
rg RrGg Rrgg rrGg rrgg

For phenotypic ratio, remember R is

dominant over r and G is dominant over g.
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 Dihybrid F1 cross results
Ratio
Genotype Phenotype Genotypic Phenotypic
RRGG ROUND YELLOW 1 9 round yellow
RRGg ROUND Yellow 2
RrGG Round YELLOW 2
RrgG Round Yellow 4
RRgg ROUND green 1 3 round green
Rrgg Round green 2
rrGG wrinkled YELLOW 1 3 wrinkled yellow
rrGg wrinkled Yellow 2
rrgg wrinkled green 1 1 wrinkled green
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 Dihybrid test cross
⚫ A test cross can be used to determine the genotype
of the dominant phenotype of the F1.

⚫ F1 is crossed with the homozygous recessive

⚫ If F1 was homozygous dominant the test cross

result would show the dominant phentoype

⚫ If F1 was heterozygous dominant the test cross

result would show all 4 phenotypes in a 1:1:1:1 ratio.

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 Dihybrid test cross results
If unknown was homozygous dominant
Test cross RRGG x rrgg
Gametes RG x rg
Genotype RrGg (All Round Yellow)
If unknown was heterozygous dominant
Test cross RrGg x rgrg
Gametes RG Rg rG rg x rg
Genotype RGrg Rgrg rGrg rgrg
Phenotype Round Round wrinkled wrinkled
Yellow green Yellow green
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Dihybrid Example 2
⚫ T = Tall; t= short; F= fat, f = slim;

⚫ T is dominant over t and F is

dominant over f

male parent: Tall, fat, homozygous

genotype: TT,FF
female parent: short, slim
75 genotype: ttff
Dihybrid example 2
Parental Cross
P Phenotype Tall, fat, x short, slim
P Genotype TT,FF X ttff
Gametes (haploid) TF x tf
F1 Genotype (diploid) TtFf
F1 Phenotype Tall, fat

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Test Cross to determine F1
genotype

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 Dihybrid example 2 contd

F1 Cross
F1 phenotype Tall, fat X Tall, fat
F1 genotype TtFf X TtFf
Gametes TF Tf tF tf x TF Tf tF tf
F2 genotype See Punnet square

F2 phenotype

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example 2
Dihybrid F1 cross – Punnet square

Gametes TF Tf tF tf
TF TTFF TTFf TtFF TtFf
Tf TTFf TTff TtFf Ttff
tF TtFF TtFf ttFF ttFf
tf TtFf Ttff ttFf ttff

For phenotypic ratio, remember T is

dominant over t and F is dominant over f.
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 Dihybrid F1 cross results
Ratio
Genotype Phenotype Genotypic Phenotypic
TTFF Tall Fat 1 9 tall fat
TTFf Tall Fat 2
TtFF Tall Fat 2
TtfF Tall Fat 4
TTff Tall Slim 1 3
Ttff Tall Slim 2
ttFF Short Fat 1 3
ttFf Short Fat 2
ttff Short slim 1 1
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