RADMASTE CAPS Grade-10 Chemistry-Learner-Guide

RADMASTE
LEARNER GUIDE
PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
FOR CAPS GRADE 10
CHEMISTRY
A Learner Guide for Grade 10 Physical Sciences

with Learner Activities for Prescribed (formal
assessment), Recommended (non-formal
assessment) and selected other Practical
Activities for Chemistry.
PREPARED BY:
RADMASTE Centre, Wits School of Education,

1st Floor Marang Block, 27 St Andrew’s Road, Parktown, 2193
Private Bag 3, WITS, 2050
Websites: www.radmaste.org.za; www.microsci.org.za
CONTENTS
CHEMISTRY
PAGE
MATTER AND MATERIALS 4

Activity C1 Investigating Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Mixtures 5
Activity C2 Using Molecular Models to build Pure Substances - Elements and Compounds 7
Activity C3 Using Paper Chromatography to Separate Coloured Water-Soluble Mixtures 8
Activity C4 Testing of Materials (Electrical Conductivity, Thermal Conductivity and 10
Magnetic Properties)
PP
Activity C5 Heating and Cooling Curve of Water 12
RPA Activity C6 Flame Tests to Identify some Metal Cations and Metals 14
Activity C7 The Electrolysis of Water 17
Activity C8 Particles and Formulae 19
Activity C9 Molecules and Formulae 21
CHEMICAL CHANGE 23
Activity C10 Using 2D Pictures and 3D Models to show States of Matter and Changes of 24
State
Activity C11 Heating Iron and Sulfur and Testing the New Substance Formed 27
Activity C12 The Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide – a Chemical Change 29
Activity C13 What Happens when Hydrogen Burns in Oxygen? 32
RPA Activity C14 Proving the Law of Conservation of Matter 35
Activity C15 Modelling the Conservation of Atoms and Mass 40
Activity C16 Investigating the Mole Ratios in which Different Compounds React 42
Activity C17 Dissolving - Energy Changes Associated with Dissolving and Using 45
Conductivity to Study the Dissolving of Solids in Water
Activity C18 Tests for Ions in Aqueous Solution - Halides, Sulfates and Carbonates 50
Activity C19 The Preparation of a Chromate Salt from its Soluble Reagents 53
RPA Activity C20 Identifying Different Types of Chemical Reactions in Aqueous Solution 55
Activity C21 Determination of the Water of Crystallization in Hydrated Copper(II) Sulfate 59
CHEMICAL SYSTEMS 61
RPA Activity C22 Analysis of Water Samples: pH, Different Ions and Appearance 62
PP Activity C23 PROJECT: Purification and Quality of Water 68

PP PPA = PRESCRIBED PRACTICAL ACTIVITY
RPA RPA = RECOMMENDED PRACTICAL ACTIVITY

MATTER AND MATERIALS
PAGE
Activity C1 Investigating Homogeneous and Heterogeneous 5
Mixtures
Activity C2 Using Molecular Models to build Pure Substances - 7
Elements and Compounds
Activity C3 Using Paper Chromatography to Separate Coloured 8
Water-Soluble Mixtures
Activity C4 Testing of Materials (Electrical Conductivity, Thermal 10
Conductivity and Magnetic Properties)
PPA Activity C5 Heating and Cooling Curve of Water 12
Activity C6 Flame Tests to Identify some Metal Cations and Metals 14
RPA
Activity C7 The Electrolysis of Water 17
Activity C8 Particles and Formulae 19
Activity C9 Molecules and Formulae 21

ACTIVITY C1: INVESTIGATING HOMOGENEOUS AND
HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURES
LEARNERS’ INSTRUCTIONS
A. Answer the following questions in your groups:
1. Which of the following every-day substances are pure substances and which of them are mixtures:
water sugar vinegar air
petrol salt coal steel
2. How would you describe the mixtures in (1) – as homogeneous or heterogeneous?

3. Give three new examples of homogeneous mixtures.
4. Give three new examples of heterogeneous mixtures.
B. Making predictions
Which of the following mixtures will be homogeneous, which will be heterogeneous and which
are you not sure about?
Pair 1
sand Potassium
dichromate
water water
Pair 2
iodine iodine
water ethanol
RADMASTE LEARNER GUIDE: PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES FOR CAPS GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY 5

C. Testing your predictions
Make sure that your group has the following:
From the Advanced Microchemistry kit:
• a comboplate • 2 propettes
• four microspatulas
Collect from your teacher:

• Tap water
• Ethanol (collected in one of the propettes)
• Sand
• Potassium dichromate crystals, K2Cr2O7(s), (1 crystal should be enough)
• Iodine crystals, I2(s), (1 crystal should be enough)
Procedure for the experiment

Testing Pair 1:
1. Use a propette to fill wells F1 and F2 of the comboplate half-full with tap water.
2. Use the narrow end of a clean microspatula to add one grain of sand to the tap water in well F1 and
stir the mixture in well F1 with the microspatula.
3. Use the narrow end of a clean microspatula to add one crystal of potassium dichromate to the tap
water in well F2 and stir the mixture in wellF2 with the microspatula.
4. Allow the mixtures in F1 and F2 to stand for a few minutes and note your observations.
Testing Pair 2:
1. Use a propette to fill well F3 of the comboplate half-full with water.
2. Use a propette to fill well F4 of the comboplate half-full with ethanol.
3. Use the narrow end of a clean microspatula to add one crystal of iodine to each of wells F3 and F4
and stir the mixture in each well with a different microspatula.
4. Allow the mixtures in F3 and F4 to stand for a few minutes and note your observations.
D. Answer the following questions in your book:

1. Which of your mixtures were homogeneous? Explain your answer.
2. Which of your mixtures were heterogeneous? Explain your answer.
3. Were your predictions correct? If not, explain how your prediction differed from the experiment.
4. Complete the following sentence for Pair 1: Sand and water form a ........................ mixture, but
potassium dichromate and water form a .............................. mixture.
5. Complete the following sentence for Pair 2: Iodine and ethanol form a ........................ mixture, but
iodine and water form a .............................. mixture.
Clean all apparatus thoroughly. Ask your teacher what to do with any iodine remaining.
Place all other waste into a waste container.

ACTIVITY C2: USING MOLECULAR MODELS TO BUILD PURE
SUBSTANCES - ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
Requirements
Collect the following from your teacher:
Beads, Prestik, RADMASTE Molecular Stencil (RMS)
A. Molecular Modelling
Pure Substances: Elements and Compounds
In pure substances the particles are all the same. There are two types of pure substances – elements and
compounds. In elements the atoms are all of the same type. In compounds the atoms are of two or more
types.
ACTIVITY 1
1
Activity 1.1
Make 6 identical models of diatomic molecules of any element you choose and make 6
identical models of diatomic molecules of any compound you choose. For this purpose, to
make a model of a diatomic molecule you do not need to get the number of bonds or valence
electrons correct: you just need to take two beads and stick them together with a tiny bit of
Prestik.
2
Activity 1.2
Arrange the molecular models on a blank sheet of paper in each case to represent the element
and the compound in the liquid state. Write the chemical formula of each of the substances
you have represented, next to each arrangement.
B. Molecular Pictures
Pure Substances: Elements and Compounds
In pure substances, the particles are all the same. There are two types of pure substances – elements and
compounds. In elements the atoms are all of the same type. In compounds the atoms are of two or more
types.
ACTIVITY 2 (FET or GET stencil)

3
Activity 2.1
Use the RMS to show the molecular nature of a liquid element and a liquid compound. (Use at
least 6 molecules in each case.)
Activity 2.2
Write the chemical formula of the substances you have represented.

ACTIVITY C3: USING PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY TO SEPARATE
COLOURED WATER-SOLUBLE MIXTURES
• a small sample vial • a comboplate  1 propette

• Methylated spirits (collected in the propette)
Other:
 1 water-based felt-tipped pen
• a sheet of filter paper

• pair of scissors
• 1 measuring ruler

1. Cut a strip of filter paper with dimensions 6 cm x 1 cm from the sheet of filter paper, or use a piece
of white tissue (You can substitute the filter paper with ordinary white tissues. Unfold a white
tissue, and cut out the middle section. Roll this loosely to resemble a cigarette).
2. Draw a thin line the width of the filter paper/rolled tissue on the paper with a coloured felt-tipped
pen about 15 mm from the edge of the paper, as shown in Diagram A below. Be careful not to
damage the paper while drawing the line.
Diagram A Diagram B
Filter paper Filter paper standing

upright in sample vial
Small sample vial

6 cm
Line of coloured ink Line of coloured ink

above level of methanol
15 mm 5 mm methylated spirits
3. Insert the small sample vial in well F1 of the comboplate.

4. Use a propette to put methylated spirits (to a height of approximately 5 mm) into the sample vial.
Avoid spilling drops of methylated spirits on the sides of the vials as this will affect the separation.
5. Carefully insert the strip of filter paper into the sample vial so that the thin ink line on the strip is
just above the level of the methylated spirits (see Diagram B).
6. Leave the setup undisturbed for 20 – 30 minutes, watching carefully what happens.

Answer the following questions in your book
1. Describe what you see just after the experiment has started.
2. Describe what you see on each strip after about 20 - 30 minutes.
3. Which component in the coloured ink is most soluble in the solvent? Explain
4. Which component in the coloured ink is least soluble in the solvent? Explain.
5. Is the ink in your pen a mixture or a pure substance? Explain your answer.
6. If black ink is a mixture, would it be homogeneous or heterogeneous? Explain your answer.
Pour the contents of the vial into a waste container.

Rinse all apparatus with clean water.

ACTIVITY C4: TESTING OF MATERIALS

• a glass rod • a wooden toothpick  One graphite electrode
• a comboplate • a propette
From the Basic Microelectricity kit:
 Two 1,5V cells in a cell holder  Two crocodile clips
 A copper strip  A zinc strip
 A magnet  An iron strip

• a multimeter
 A piece of aluminium foil
Other:
 Hot water
• small piece of margarine

Part A – testing the electrical conductivity of materials
1. Build the following circuit, using components from the Basic Microelectricity kit:
Test sample
multimeter
2. Test each of the following materials in turn: a glass rod, a wooden toothpick, a graphite electrode, a
copper strip, a zinc strip, an iron strip and a strip of aluminium foil.
3. Read the current on the multimeter and note your results in a table.

Part B –testing the thermal conductivity of materials
1. Cover one end of each of the test materials you have used in Part A with a small piece of margarine
or candle wax.
2. Put each of the materials in one of the large wells of the comboplate.
3. Use a propette to fill each of the wells ½-full of hot water.
4. Observe the ends of the strips covered in candle wax or margarine and note your observations in a
table.
Piece of candle wax Aluminium

or margarine foil
Hot water
Glass Wooden Graphite Copper Zinc Iron
rod splint electrode strip strip strip
CLEAN THE TEST MATERIALS WELL BEFORE PROCEEDING WITH PART C
Part C –testing the magnetic properties of materials
1. Use the magnet for the Basic Electricity Kit to test whether each material is magnetic or not and
note your observations in a table.

1. Which of the materials tested was neither an electrical nor a thermal conductor and also non-
magnetic?
2. Which one of the materials tested conducted both electricity and heat and was also magnetic?
3. Which of the materials tested were the best thermal conductors?
4. Are all electrical conductors also metals? Explain your answer.
5. One would expect glass to be a thermal conductor. Was this confirmed in the experiment? If not,
give possible reasons for this.
Rinse all chemistry apparatus with clean water.

Return the cells and cell holder to your teacher.

ACTIVITY C5: HEATING AND COOLING CURVE OF WATER

• a large sample vial (no lid needed) • the plastic lunch box provided as container for
the Advanced Microchemistry Kit.

 A stopwatch, a digital wristwatch or a timer on a cell phone
 Graph paper
• a thermometer (-10 - 100°C)
• crushed ice
• hot water
• 4 teaspoons of table salt (for cooling curve only)
 A plastic teaspoon for stirring the ice and salt mixture (for cooling curve only)
Instructions for a heating curve:

1. Draw up a table with three columns, using the following headings: Time (minutes),
Temperature (°C) and Observations.
2. Measure the room temperature and note your reading in the table.
3. Fill the large sample vial with crushed ice. Carefully stir the ice with the thermometer and
find the temperature of the ice. Note your reading in the table.
4. Fill the lunch box with cold tap water to a depth of ± 1 cm and place the sample vial with ice
in the tap water so that the ice can start to melt.
5. Record the starting time and the initial temperature of the ice in the table.
6. Carefully stir the ice in the sample vial with the thermometer.
7. Take at least three temperature readings on the thermometer while the ice is melting and
record the time and the temperature readings in the table.
8. Observe the ice in the sample vial and note your observations in the table.
9. Gradually add hot water to the water in the lunch box and take a temperature reading of the
water in the sample vial every minute until the water in the sample vial has reached room
temperature.
Now after recording all your readings, plot the graph of temperature (T) against time (t) on the graph paper
you have collected from your teacher.
or
Instructions for a cooling curve:

1. Draw up a table with three columns, using the following headings: Time (minutes),
Temperature (°C) and Observations.
2. Fill a large sample vial with warm water. Carefully stir the warm water with the thermometer
and find the temperature of the hot water. Note your reading in the table.
2. Fill the lunch box with crushed ice to a depth of ± 2 cm and place the sample vial with warm
water in the crushed ice so that the warm water can start to cool.

3. Record the starting time and the initial temperature of the warm water in the table.
4. Carefully stir the warm water with the thermometer and take a temperature reading every
minute for five minutes. Record your time and temperature readings in the table.
5. When the temperature of the water in the sample vial has reached ± 10°C, add four teaspoons
of table salt to the crushed ice in the lunch box and stir the ice and salt mixture with the
plastic teaspoon. Take care to keep the sample vial upright.
6. Take at least three more readings of the water temperature in the sample vial after the
temperature of the water has reached freezing point.
Now after recording all your readings, plot the graph of temperature (T) against time (t) on the graph paper
you have collected from your teacher.

1. What do your results tell you about average kinetic energy of the molecules of the
substance during your experiment?
The graph below shows the change in temperature of a substance when it is heated. These types of graphs
are called heating curves. Study the graph and answer the questions that follow:
2. What is the name of the substance? How do you know?

3. What is happening between A and B?
4. Use the Kinetic Molecular Theory and give a microscopic description of what is happening
between B and C.
5. Explain what is happening to the energy and movement of the particles between C and D
by referring to the Kinetic Molecular Theory.
6. Why is the graph horizontal between D and E?
7. A block of ice is taken out of a freezer at –10 0C. Describe what happens to its particles as
its temperature rises to –1 0C.
Rinse all apparatus with clean water.

Dry the lunchbox so that the microchemistry components can be placed back into it

ACTIVITY C6: FLAME TESTS TO IDENTIFY SOME METAL CATIONS
AND METALS
Introduction
The flame test is used to visually determine the identity of an unknown metal or metalloid, as an element or
in a compound, based on the characteristic colour the salt turns the flame of a burner.
When an electron in an excited state (higher energy) returns to its ground state (lower energy), an atomic
spectrum is produced. A specific quantity of energy is associated with each electron, and when an electron
returns to a lower energy level, a specific quantity of energy is released. The energy is released as
electromagnetic radiation. Certain wavelengths will be visible to the naked eye; other wavelengths can only
be detected with instruments. In the activity below, we will investigate the colours emitted by certain metal
atoms. Different colours indicate different wavelengths of visible radiation.
Requirements:
Apparatus: From the Advanced Microchemistry kit
1 x microburner; 1 x comboplate; 1 x combustion tube; 1 x sample vial; glass rod
Chemicals: NaCl(s); KCl(s); CaCl2.2H2O(s); CuCl2.2H2O (s); copper powder, magnesium powder, zinc
powder, iron powder.
You will also need: Tap water and paper towel.
Dip the glass rod in well

Dip the glass rod in well F1
F1
HEALTH & SAFETY: Carry out the whole experiment in a safe, well ventilated area.
Wear eye protection.
 Darken the room if possible.

 Treat all chemicals in this lab as toxic. Do not touch any of them with your bare hands.
 Wash well with water immediately if you touch chemicals accidentally.
 Copper chloride dihydrate, CuCl2.2H2O (s), is highly toxic by ingestion; avoid contact with eyes, skin
and mucus membranes.
 Wash your hands with soap and water after you complete the day‟s lab work, even if you didn‟t touch
any chemicals directly.
 A spectacular coloured flame or jet should be seen in each case. The colour of the flame depends on the
metal in the salt or powder used.

Procedure
NB: The flame colours are more easily observed if the experiment is carried out in dim light, such
as a room with drawn windows.
1. Place 2 level spatulas of NaCl(s) in well F1 of the comboplate.
2. Set up the microburner in well F6. Light the burner.
3. Dip the glass rod in well F1, and immediately hold the glass rod in the flame of the microburner. Take
note of the flame colour.
4. Rinse the glass rod in the tap water and dry it with the towelling paper.
5. Place 2 level spatulas of KCl(s) into well E1, CaCl2.2H2O (s) into E2, CuCl2.2H2O (s) into E3, Mg
powder into E4,Zn powder into E5, Fe powder into E6 and Cu powder into F3.
6. Dip the glass rod in well E1, and immediately hold the glass rod in the flame of the microburner. Take
note of the flame colour.
7. Rinse the glass rod in the tap water and dry it with the towelling paper.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 with the CaCl2.2H2O (s), CuCl2.2H2O (s), Mg powder, Zn powder, Fe powder, and
Cu powder in wells E1-E6 and well F3.
9. Report your results in the table below.
Salt/metal sample analysed Metal present Flame colour observed
NaCl (s)
KCl (s)
CaCl2.2H2O (s)
CuCl2.2H2O (s)
Magnesium powder
zinc powder
iron powder
copper powder
Assessment exercise
Element Copper potassium sodium calcium magnesium Iron
Flame colour Green lilac Yellow/orange Orange red Bright white Gold
There are four kinds of fireworks in a box. The table below shows the colours seen as each was set off.
Substance Firework A Firework B Firework C Firework D
Orange red
Dark green/ Bright
Flame colour Yellow/orange shower, shooting Lilac spray
white
green balls
1. What elements could each of the fireworks have in them?

2. How could there be two colours in one firework?
3. Is the pure elemental substance put into fireworks? Explain.
4. Suppose you were a firefighter and you were called to a chemical plant fire. Upon arrival you see a
bright white flame. What chemical would that tell you is burning?
5. If you observed another firework burn which started gold and then turned orange red, which two
chemicals were used?

QUESTIONS
1. Why do different metals have different characteristic flame test colours?
2. Most salts are compounds of a metal and a non-metal. Look at the compounds we tested and determine
whether it is the metal or the non-metal that is responsible for the colour produced in the flame test for
that salt. How can you be sure your answer is correct?
3. Why do the chemicals have to be heated in the flame before the coloured light is emitted?

ACTIVITY C7: ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER
Requirements
Apparatus: From the Microchemistry Kit:

1 x 9 V heavy duty battery (or 2 x 1.5 V cells); 1 x comboplate;
1 x current indicator (LED) with wire connections; 2 x drinking straw electrodes; 1 x plastic microspatula;
1 x small sample vial; 1 x microburner; 1 x box of matches; 1 x thin stemmed propette;
2 x red coated copper wires (with exposed ends); 1 x black coated copper wire (with exposed ends).
Chemicals: Sodium sulphate decahydrate, Tap water.
NB: Sodium sulphate decahydrate ,Na2SO4.10H2O, will be added to tap water in this experiment to
increase the conductivity of the tap water.
Tap water containing Na2SO4.10H2O
Procedure
1. Push the current indicator into well E6 of the comboplate.
2. Mark each of the drinking straw electrodes into 1 cm units using a permanent marker pen. Let one of
the electrodes be called electrode 1 and the other electrode 2.
3. Remove the lid from the small sample vial and fill half of the vial with tap water. Place the vial into
well E5 next to the current indicator in well E6.

4. Use the plastic microspatula to place 2 level spoons of sodium sulphate decahydrate , Na2SO4.10H2O
into the small sample vial and it will quickly dissolve on stirring. Use an empty propette to suck up
some of the solution from the vial.
5. Hold electrode 1 with the open end upwards and fill the electrode completely with the water from the
propette.
6. Quickly turn electrode 1 the other way up and place it into the water in the small sample vial. Repeat
this procedure for electrode 2. Return any remaining solution in the propette to the small sample vial.
7. Connect the end of the long black wire from the current indicator to the negative (-) terminal of the
battery. Connect the end of the short black wire to electrode 1.
8. Connect the one end of the red wire to the positive (+) terminal of the battery. Connect the other end of
the red wire to electrode 2
9. Disconnect the current indicator from the circuit. Reconnect electrode 1 directly to the negative (-)
terminal of the battery with the loose red wire supplied.
10. Let the substance produced in electrode 1 be called substance A. Let the substance produced in
electrode 2 be called substance B. (Periodically tap each electrode with your finger, to dislodge
substances A and B which may build up in localised areas.)
11. When electrode 1 is full of substance A (at the end of the last pen marking on the electrode), disconnect
the battery from the circuit. This may take approximately 10 minutes (or longer if you are using two 1.5
V cells).
12. Light the microburner. Carefully remove electrode 1 from the water, sealing the open end with your
finger when it is out of the water. Bring electrode 1 very close to the flame of the microburner. Do not
burn yourself or the straw!
13. Remove your finger from the opening, allowing substance A to escape. When you have observed what
happens, thoroughly rinse your fingers with tap water.
Rinse the vial out with clean water.
QUESTIONS
1. What effect is there on the current indicator when the battery is connected to the electrodes?
2. What is the reason for your observation in question 1?
3. What do you observe at the different electrodes?
4. When electrode 1 is full of substance A, how much of substance B is there in electrode 2?
5. What happens when substance A is exposed to the flame?
6. What is the name given to substance A?
7. What is the name of substance B?
8. What test would you do to prove substance B is what you say it is?
9. Why was a greater volume of substance A produced than of substance B?
10. Write a summary of what happens when water is electrolysed.
11. From question 10, would you say that tap water is a compound, an element or a mixture? Explain your
answer.

ACTIVITY C8: PARTICLES AND FORMULAE
Requirements
Beads, Prestik, RADMASTE Molecular Stencil
A. Rules for Writing Molecular Formulae

When writing down a molecular formula to show the atomic composition of a molecule, there are
conventions to follow in the sequence of symbols used. The general rule is to follow the sequence of
electronegativity of the atoms, with the least electronegative coming first. With regard to the Periodic
Table this means that first, within a period we follow a left to right sequence and then, within a group we
follow a bottom to top sequence. Thus, for example, we write NO2 not O2N. These two formulae do have
the same meaning and both would be understood, but only the first one is correct. The formula rules of
sequence are in harmony with naming rules also (for example nitrogen dioxide, not dioxygen nitride).
There is one overriding exception to this rule: in organic molecules (based upon carbon), the carbon
atom symbol always comes first! There are also one or two historic exceptions of molecules of some
common compounds, e.g. ammonia NH3.
And finally, note that the sequence of symbols in the formula has no relationship with the actual
sequence of atoms and bonds in the molecule – (for example in the NO2 molecule, we do not have an
atomic sequence N-O-O!).
ACTIVITY 1
For each of the molecules of compounds shown on the RMS, write down a molecular formula
different from the one shown, and then explain why the one you have written is not correct!
B. Molecular Formula and Relative Molecular Mass

The chemical formula of a molecule shows the atomic composition of the molecule. Each type of atom is
represented by the element symbol, and the number of each type of atom is shown by a number as a right
subscript to that symbol (except that 1 is not shown but assumed). In the Periodic Table we find the
relative masses of atoms (standard atomic weights) and we can use these to calculate the relative
molecular masses of molecules on the RMS. Note that these are relative masses (compared with the
relative mass of a carbon atom = 12), not actual masses.
ACTIVITY 2
Activity 2.1
Draw the shape of each molecule on the RMS and write the molecular formula next to it in
each case. Calculate the relative molecular mass of each one.

Activity 2.2
There are attractive forces between molecules (intermolecular forces) and the magnitude of
these increases with increasing mass. (The forces are not gravitational however; they are
electrostatic and originate in the charged sub-atomic particles that make up atoms. The number
of charged sub-atomic particles in a molecule increases with the mass.) At normal temperatures
of our environment substances with molecules with relatively large mass are solids: the
intermolecular forces hold the molecules together. Substances with molecules of relatively low
mass are gases or liquids under the same conditions because the intermolecular forces are
weaker. Only three of the molecules shown on the RMS are found in solid substances at normal
temperatures: which ones are these? Give reasons for your choice.
C. From Molecular Formula to Structural Formula

Different atoms have different capacities for forming bonds with other atoms to make molecules. These
bonding capacities are referred to as the valencies of the atoms. The valencies normally found for the
atoms bonded together in the molecules on the RMS are: H = 1, O = 2, N = 3, C = 4, S = 2, 4 or 6, Cl =
1, I = 1. Although this information is not enough to understand all cases, it takes us a long way towards
understanding why molecules with a particular molecular formula occur. This is best revealed by
writing/drawing a structural formula for the molecule which is consistent with the molecular formula but,
in addition, shows which atoms are bonded directly to one another, and with how many bonds.
ACTIVITY 3
Study the molecules shown on the RMS but exclude the molecule of sucrose (a molecule of
“sugar”), the nitrogen oxide molecules and the ions. Using the valency information given,
write/draw structural formulae for all the other molecules. (In structural formulae, you show
which atoms are joined to which by using the atom symbols joined by lines: one line for one
bond, two lines for two bonds, etc. A simple example would be the hydrogen molecule, where
the structural formula is H-H. This is because the valency of H atoms is one, meaning they can
form one bond.)
D. From Structural Formula to Molecular Model
The structural formula of a molecule shows which atoms are bonded to which and with how many
bonds. The atoms are represented by the element symbol (e.g. H for a hydrogen atom) and the bonds by
lines between the symbols (e.g. H-H and O=O). Note that one tiny bit of Prestik should represent one
bond.
ACTIVITY 4
Activity 4.1
Make a model of each of the molecules represented by the following structural formulae:
(i) H-H (v) O=S=O
(ii) O=O (vi) O=C=O
(iii) N≡N (vii) H-C≡C-H
(iv) H-O-H
Activity 4.2
Find the shapes of each of the triatomic molecules (iv) – (vi) on the RMS. Make any changes
to your molecular models (iv) – (vi) that your inspection of the shapes on the RMS suggests.
Name the different shapes shown by these triatomic molecules.

ACTIVITY C9: MOLECULES AND FORMULAE
Requirements
Beads, Prestik
Representing Atoms, Molecules and Chemical Bonds
In this modelling system we use beads to represent atoms and tiny bits of Prestik to represent chemical bonds
between atoms. The result of atoms bonding together is molecules. If we know there is a single bond
between two atoms then we use one tiny bit of Prestik; if there are two bonds between the same two atoms
then we use two tiny bits of Prestik; and for three bonds, three tiny bits of Prestik. If we are uncertain about
the number of bonds then we can use just one bit of Prestik to show that at least we know there is chemical
bonding between the atoms.
Activity 1 Modelling the Atoms and Chemical Bonds in Some Simple Molecules
Make models of molecules of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water. Place them on a clean
sheet of paper and write the name, the structural formula and the molecular formula next to each model.
Which ones are molecules of elements and which ones are molecules of compounds? How do you know?
Activity 2 Modelling the Atoms and Chemical Bonds in Some Giant Molecules
2.1 Elements
Although many people know the way atoms are bonded together in simple molecules like the ones in
Activity 1, rather few know the same about giant molecules - like those formed by all metals, most semi-
metals (metalloids) and many non-metals. At this stage it is not really necessary to know in order to begin to
understand how these molecules work. We shall therefore assume they are all the same and of the easiest
type to model.
Make a model of a metal (e.g. magnesium, sodium) giant molecule, by following these instructions (your
teacher will tell you which one you, or your group, should build – use ivory beads for magnesium atoms and
black beads for sodium atoms):
1. Make a layer of chemically bonded atoms by sticking together (with Prestik) 3 atoms in a row, three
times. Then stick each of these sets of atoms alongside each other. You should then have a layer of 9
atoms, bonded together in a regular 3 x 3 arrangement.
2. Repeat step 1 twice more.
3. Use tiny bits of Prestik to stick the 3 layers of 9 atoms together, one on top of the other.
4. You should now have a cube of 27 identical atoms all bonded together.
5. Although a giant molecule may have billions of atoms, instead of 27, we shall say that this is a model of
a giant molecule of a metal.
Place the model on a clean sheet of paper and write the name and the molecular formula next to your model.
Look at an atom on the inside of your model. How many bonds has it got to neighbouring atoms? (This
number, and larger ones, are normal in metal elements.)
Although hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, magnesium and sodium are all elements, the first three are gases and
the last two are solids at room temperature. Why is that?

2.2 Compounds
Many of the compounds formed by metals (e.g. magnesium oxide, sodium chloride) are also found as ionic
giant molecules, and we know them as solids at room temperature. They may be referred to as ionic because
of the large difference in the electronegativities of the atoms involved. We shall make models of these
molecules in a similar way to the models of giant molecules of elements.
Make a model of magnesium oxide or sodium chloride according to the teacher‟s instruction. Use EITHER
ivory beads for magnesium atoms and red beads for oxygen atoms, OR black beads for sodium atoms and
green beads for chlorine atoms.
1. Make one layer of chemically-bonded atoms by sticking together (with Prestik) 3 atoms in a row, four
times. Make two rows in the sequence M-X-M and two rows in the sequence X-M-X (where M = metal
atom (Mg or Na), and X= non-metal atom (O or Cl)). Then stick these rows of atoms alongside each
other, alternating the sequences. Thus you should finish with a layer comprising the following
arrangement:
M-X-M-X
| | | |
X-M-X-M
| | | |
M-X-M-X
2. Repeat step 1 twice more.
3. Use tiny bits of Prestik to stick the 3 layers of 12 atoms together. When you do so place the second layer
onto the first layer in such a way that every X atom in layer 2 is bonded to an M atom in layer 1. This
means that in layer 2 the arrangement shown in step 1 above is turned around through 180o. Then layer 3
is placed on top of layer 2 in the same arrangement as layer 1; this again means that every X atom in
layer 2 is bonded to an M atom in layer 3.
4. You should now have a model of a giant molecule of 36 atoms all bonded together (3 layers of 12 atoms
each).
How many M atoms and how many X atoms are shown in your model?
Place the model on a clean sheet of paper and write the name and the molecular formula next to your
model.
The formulae of giant molecular substances are usually empirical formulae which just show the atomic
ratios in the molecule. They do not show the actual numbers of atoms in the molecules. What is the
empirical formula of the compound for which you have built a molecular model?

CHEMICAL CHANGE
PAGE
Activity C10 Using 2D Pictures and 3D Models to show States of 24
Matter and Changes of State
Activity C11 Heating Iron and Sulfur and Testing the New Substance 27
Formed
Activity C12 The Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide – a Chemical 29
Change
Activity C13 What Happens when Hydrogen Burns in Oxygen? 32
RPA Activity C14 Proving the Law of Conservation of Matter 35

Activity C15 Modelling the Conservation of Atoms and Mass 40
Activity C16 Investigating the Mole Ratios in which Different 42

Compounds React
Activity C17 Dissolving - Energy Changes Associated with Dissolving 45
and Using Conductivity to Study the Dissolving of Solids in
Water
Activity C18 Tests for Ions in Aqueous Solution - Halides, Sulfates and 50
Carbonates
Activity C19 The Preparation of a Chromate Salt from its Soluble 53
Reagents
RPA
Activity C20 Identifying Different Types of Chemical Reactions in 55
Aqueous Solution
Activity C21 Determination of the Water of Crystallization in Hydrated 59
Copper(II) Sulfate

ACTIVITY C10: USING 2D PICTURES AND 3D MODELS TO SHOW
STATES OF MATTER AND CHANGES OF STATE
Requirements
1. States of Matter
We can make models of individual molecules to help us understand their properties. We can also use many
of these together at the same time to help us understand the properties of substances. For example the
different properties of solids, liquids and gases, are familiar to us, and we can model their molecular nature
to show how the properties can be explained.
ACTIVITY 1
Activity 1.1
Make 18 identical models of any diatomic molecule you choose. For this purpose, to make a
model of a diatomic molecule you do not need to get the number of bonds or valence
electrons correct: you just need to take two beads and stick them together with a tiny bit of
Prestik.
Use 6 models to represent the solid substance, 6 models to represent the liquid substance
and 6 models to represent the gaseous substance. Do this by laying the models of the
molecules on a flat, horizontal surface, which is covered with a blank sheet of paper.
Activity 1.2
Write on the sheet of paper the name of the state shown by each arrangement.
Explain how your three arrangements of molecular models can account for the different
properties of the three states of the substance.
Save the three arrangements for activity 2.
2. Changes of State
When the state of a substance changes, we describe the change with different names depending on what kind
of change it is. There is:
 melting ((s) → (l)),
 boiling ((l) → (g)),
 freezing ((l) → (s)),
 condensation ((g) → (l)), and
 sublimation ((s) → (g)).

ACTIVITY 2
Activity 2.1
Link the three molecular arrangements you have made in activity 1 above, by drawing on
the paper with arrows, and write the name of the change alongside it.
Activity 2.2
Study each of the arrangements and how they change. For each of the changes state whether
there will be any change in mass of the substance (if so, will it increase or decrease?).
Give reasons for your answers
1. States of Matter
Textbooks can only show 2-D pictures of 3-D objects. So frequently there is a need to visualize from a 2-D
picture, what the 3-D objects are like. This is particularly difficult when the objects are too small to see!
These activities provide practice in this, using the RADMASTE Molecular Stencil (RMS).
ACTIVITY 1
Activity 1.1
Using the RMS, and any diatomic or triatomic molecule shape shown thereon, draw
diagrams to represent the molecular nature of the solid, liquid and gaseous substance you
have chosen. Use the same molecular shape for each state, and draw at least 6 molecules in
each case.
Activity 1.2
Write the chemical formula of the substance you have represented in each state. This means
you must use the molecular formula shown on the RMS with the state of the substance as
(s), (l) or (g) (for example, H2O (s)).
2. Changes of State
Changes of state have specific names. There is
 melting (fusion) ((s)  (l)),

 boiling ((l)  (g)),
 freezing ((l)  (s)),
 condensation ((g)  (l)),
 sublimation ((s)  (g)).
These changes of state are accompanied by energy changes. The lowest energy state is when the molecules
are as closely packed as possible; the highest energy state is when the molecules are free and far apart on
average.

ACTIVITY 2
Activity 2.1
Link the three diagrams you have drawn, in activity 1 above, with arrows and write the name
of the change alongside it.
Activity 2.2
In some of the changes the system of molecules absorbs energy from the surroundings as the
change of state occurs. The final state has a higher energy than the initial state. In other cases
the system of molecules loses energy to the surroundings as the change of state occurs. The
final state has a lower energy than the initial state. Label the arrows in your previous
diagram accordingly.
Activity 2.3
Bearing in mind that intermolecular forces are attractive overall, explain the energy gains
and losses you have shown in the previous diagram

ACTIVITY C11: HEATING IRON AND SULFUR
AND TESTING THE NEW SUBSTANCE FORMED
Heat iron and sulfur with a burner and test to see whether the product is a new substance (result of a
chemical reaction)
Requirements for the experiment
Each group will require the following: From the Microchemistry kit.
 1 comboplate
 1 microburner
 1 glass rod
 2 microspatulas
 1 combustion tube
 2 silicone tubes and two well lids (Lids 1 and 2)
Other
 1 Digital Pocket Scale (DPS)

 1 small bar magnet (from the Microelectricity kit)
 matches
 two white pieces of paper
 Iron and sulfur powders
 Cotton wool
 Methylated spirits for the microburner
Procedure
1. Use the microspatula provided and white paper to collect about 0.2 g of the iron and sulfur mixture
prepared by your teacher.
2. Note the appearance of the pure elements and the mixture. Demonstrate that iron can be separated from
the mixture by physical means. Do this by wrapping the end of a small bar magnet in a paper tissue, and
dipping it into the prepared mixture. The iron will be attracted, but the sulfur remains on the white paper.
3. Place about 0.1 g of the heterogeneous mixture into a combustion tube.
4. Insert cotton wool into each end of the combustion tube as shown in the diagram.
5. Heat the powder mixture at the base of the combustion tube – gently at first and then more strongly. Heat
until an orange glow is seen inside the combustion tube. Immediately stop heating. Note that the glow
spreads through the mixture.

6. Allow the tube to cool down.
7. Observe and note the appearance of the product.
8. Use the small bar magnet to test the product for magnetic properties. Compare this with your observation
in instruction 2 above.
QUESTIONS
1. What observable evidence indicates that a chemical reaction is taking place?
2. Is the reaction shown exothermic or endothermic? Cite observations that justify your choice.
3. How could you demonstrate that the iron and sulfur before reaction constituted a mixture, but after the
reaction a compound had been made?

ACTIVITY C12: THE DECOMPOSITION OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
– A CHEMICAL CHANGE
Requirements
Each group will need the following:
Apparatus:
The following items can be found in the Advanced Microchemistry Kit:
• 1 x comboplate; • 1 x propette • 1 x well lid (Lid 1) • 1 x syringe;
• 1 x silicone tube with U-bend (U-tube); • 1 x plastic microspatula;
• 1 x gas collecting tube with lid; • toothpick splint/s; • Prestik;
Chemicals:
The following chemicals should be collected from the teacher:
 10% fresh hydrogen peroxide solution (H2O2(aq));
 Manganese dioxide powder (MnO2(s))
Other:
You will also need:
• 1 x small plastic cup or similar container • Waste container • Tap water• Matches
• Paper towel • pair of scissors • RADMASTE Molecular Stencil (RMS)
Group members must work together during this activity to ensure success. Whilst one member
is preparing the gas collecting tube in the plastic cup/container, other group members can set
up the remaining apparatus. Use the picture to guide you but read the instructions carefully to
make sure everything is set up correctly before adding the hydrogen peroxide solution.
If the hydrogen peroxide solution is fresh, bubbles will appear quickly when the solution is added to the
manganese dioxide powder. If the bubbles appear slowly and then cease soon after adding the
hydrogen peroxide solution, it means the solution is not fresh. You should add more solution to the well
or ask your teacher for a fresh solution.
Be very careful when lighting the matches and the toothpick splint.
What to do:

1. Uncoil the straight portion of the U-tube. Use the scissors to cut about half the length of the straight end
of the tube. You should now have a tube with a U-bend followed by a shorter straight piece. Keep the
other piece of tubing you have cut off in your kit.
2. Remove the lid from the gas collecting tube. Attach a small piece of Prestik to the outer end of the lid
and stick the lid inside the bottom of a small plastic cup or similar container.
3. Fill about half of the plastic cup with tap water.
4. Fill the gas collecting tube to the brim with water. Place the tip of one of your fingers over the mouth of
the gas collecting tube and invert it (turn it upside down), making sure that no air bubbles remain in the
tube.
5. Keeping your finger in place, lower the upside-down tube into the water in the plastic cup.
Do not remove your finger until the mouth of the tube is below the level of the water in the cup.
6. Use the spoon end of a clean microspatula to add one level microspatula of manganese dioxide powder
(MnO2(s)) into well F1.
7. Seal well F1 tightly using Lid 1.
8. Attach the straight end of the U-tube to the tube connector on Lid 1. Carefully lower the bent end of the
U-tube into the plastic cup. The bent end must be on the bottom of the cup next to the mouth of the gas
collecting tube.
9. Fill the syringe with 1 ml of the 10% hydrogen peroxide solution (H2O2(aq)). Fit the nozzle of the
syringe into the syringe inlet on Lid 1.
If you have followed steps 1 to 8 correctly, your set-up will look like the picture provided.
10. Carefully add about half of the hydrogen peroxide solution to the manganese dioxide in well F1.
11. Wait for several bubbles to appear in the water from the bent end of the U-tube in the plastic cup.
Carefully place the gas collecting tube over the bent end of the U-tube.
12. Leave the gas collecting tube in this position until it has filled with the gas escaping from the U-tube. If
the bubbles stop before the tube is full, add more of the hydrogen peroxide solution to well F1.
13. Now, lift the gas collecting tube away from the U-tube and push it into the lid in the plastic cup.
Never lift the gas collecting tube above the water level in the cup.
14. Carefully twist the tube so that the tube and its lid are dislodged from the Prestik. Remove the gas
collecting tube from the cup.
It does not matter if the Prestik remains stuck to the lid of the gas collecting tube. Simply remove it when
you take the tube out of the water. Make sure that you do not remove the lid from the tube otherwise the
gas inside will escape.
15. Light a match. Use this match to light the flat end of a toothpick splint. Blow out the flame on the match.
16. Wait until the flame on the toothpick splint goes out, but the end of the splint begins to glow.
If the flame does not go out on its own, blow gently on the flame to put it out. Make sure that the end of
the splint is still glowing. If it is grey and not glowing, you will need to light the splint again until it is
glowing once more.
17. Remove the lid from the gas collecting tube and hold the glowing end of the splint inside the mouth of
the tube. Observe what happens and answer all the Questions that follow.
Pour the contents of well F1 into a waste container. Rinse the comboplate thoroughly with tap
water and make sure that all solid has been washed out of well F1. Dry the well with paper
towel to remove any brown solid that sticks to the inside of the well after rinsing. Rinse all
remaining apparatus.

QUESTIONS:
1. What do you observe in well F1 when the hydrogen peroxide solution is added to the manganese dioxide
powder?
2. Why is it necessary to let a few bubbles enter the water from the end of the U-tube before collecting the
gas in the gas collecting tube?
3. What happens to the water in the gas collecting tube as the bubbles of gas enter the tube?
4. What is the term used to describe what happens to the water in Question 3?
5. What happens when the glowing portion of the splint is held inside the mouth of the gas collecting tube?
6. What is the name of the gas that you collected? How do you know that it was this gas that you
collected?
7. Based on your observations, is this reaction a chemical change or a physical change? Explain your
answer.
8. Write a balanced chemical equation to show what happens when hydrogen peroxide solution
decomposes.
9. Do you think that the manganese dioxide took part in the reaction? (Hint: what did the manganese
dioxide powder look like at the beginning of the reaction and at the end of the reaction?)
10. What do we call substances, like manganese dioxide, that help a reaction to take place, but are not used
up or changed at the end of the reaction? (You may have to look this up!)
NOTE: Your group will need a RADMASTE Molecular Stencil (RMS) to complete Question 11.
11. How can you picture the change that you have just carried out? To answer this question, look at the
following diagram.
11.1 The diagram shows the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. Two molecules of hydrogen peroxide
have been drawn for you. Complete the diagram by using the RMS and your balanced chemical
equation (answer to Q8) to draw the products of the reaction.
11.2 Look carefully at your diagram. Are the numbers of atoms of each kind the same in the reactant and
product molecules? (In other words, are the numbers of atoms conserved?) Explain your answer.
11.3 Are the numbers of molecules conserved during the chemical reaction? Explain your answer by
referring to the diagram.
11.4 How does the diagram show that a chemical change has taken place?

ACTIVITY C13: WHAT HAPPENS WHEN HYDROGEN BURNS IN
OXYGEN?
Requirements
Apparatus:
• 1 x comboplate; • 1 x propette; • 2 x well lids (Lids 1 and 2) • 1 x syringe;
• 1 x shortened U-tube (from Activity C12) • 1 x silicone tube (remaining from the cut U-tube);
• 3 x plastic microspatulas; • 1 x gas collecting tube • toothpick splint/s; • Prestik.
Chemicals:
 10% fresh hydrogen peroxide solution (H2O2(aq));  5.5 M hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq))
 Manganese dioxide powder (MnO2(s))  Zinc powder (Zn(s))
 Anhydrous copper(II) sulfate powder (CuSO4(s))
Other:
You will also need:
• A small container such as a small (100 ml) yoghurt cup; • Waste container • Tap water
• Extra prestik • Matches • Paper towel • Marking pen • ruler (optional) • scissors
You need to be familiar with Activity C12 (Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide) before
carrying out this activity. If you have not yet done Activity C12, ask your teacher for the
instructions as you will need to collect oxygen in the first part of this experiment.
Group members must work together during this activity to ensure success. Whilst one member is
preparing the gas collecting tube in the plastic cup/container, other group members can set up some of
the remaining apparatus. Use the picture to guide you but read the instructions carefully to make sure
everything is set up correctly before adding the hydrogen peroxide and acid solutions.
If the hydrogen peroxide solution is fresh, bubbles will appear quickly when the solution is added to the
manganese dioxide powder. If the bubbles appear slowly and then stop soon after adding the hydrogen
peroxide solution, it means the solution is not fresh. You should add more solution to the well or ask
your teacher for a fresh solution.
Be very careful when lighting the matches and the toothpick splint. Keep the comboplate away from
any flames.
What to do:
A. Setting up the Apparatus
1. Remove the lid from the gas collecting tube and place the tube flat down on your desk. Use the marking
pen to clearly mark the length of the tube into thirds. You may use a ruler if you cannot estimate the
distance between each third.
2. Collect a large piece of prestik from your teacher. Make sure that the piece of prestik will completely
cover the mouth of the gas collecting tube.
3. Fill about two thirds of the small container/cup with tap water. Place the piece of prestik into the water. It
should sink to the bottom of the container.
4. Follow instructions 4 to 9 for Activity C12. Do not add any hydrogen peroxide to well F1 yet.

5. Cut a 1 cm piece of silicone tube from the piece of tubing that remained after you shortened the U-tube
for Activity C12. (If you have not done Activity C12, then you will need to cut the U-tube as explained
in Instruction 1 of Activity C12).
6. Push the 1 cm piece of silicone tube into the vent of Lid 2 so that a small bit of the tube protrudes on the
inner side of the lid.
7. Use a clean microspatula to add 2 level microspatulas of zinc powder into well F6. Seal well F6 with Lid
2.
If you have followed steps 1 to 7 correctly, your set-up will look like the picture below.
B. Preparing and Collecting the Oxygen Gas

1. Carefully add about half of the hydrogen peroxide solution to the manganese dioxide powder in well F1.
2. Wait for several bubbles to appear in the water from the bent end of the U-tube in the plastic cup.
Carefully place the gas collecting tube over the bent end of the U-tube. If the rate of bubble production
slows down, add a little more of the hydrogen peroxide solution to well F1.
3. Leave the gas collecting tube in this position until you see the water level has moved to the first marking
on your tube. Immediately lift the gas collecting tube away from the U-tube, but do not lift it above the
water level in the container/cup.
The bubbles of gas may appear very quickly, which means you need to watch the water level in the
tube carefully so that no more than one third of the gas collecting tube is filled with oxygen gas.
4. Remove the U-tube from the plastic container, making sure that the gas collecting tube does not move or
tip over.
C. Preparing and Collecting the Hydrogen Gas

1. Disconnect the straight end of the U-tube from Lid 1. Connect the U-tube to the tube connector on Lid 2.
2. Remove the syringe from Lid 1. Discard any hydrogen peroxide solution remaining into a waste
container. Thoroughly rinse and dry the syringe to remove all traces of hydrogen peroxide solution.
3. Fill the dry syringe with 0.5 ml of the 5.5 M hydrochloric acid. Fit the syringe into the piece of silicone
tube which you pushed into Lid 2 on well F6. Do not add any of the acid yet.
4. Move the plastic container to the other end of the comboplate near well F6.
5. Carefully lower the bent end of the U-tube into the plastic container until it rests on the bottom of the
container. Make sure that you do not disturb the gas collecting tube.
6. Add half of the hydrochloric acid solution dropwise to the zinc powder in well F6.

If you add the acid too quickly, zinc granules and acid will shoot up into the U-tube and will be
carried into the water in the container. Add the acid slowly!
7. As before, wait until several bubbles have entered the water from the end of the U-tube. Now place the
mouth of the gas collecting tube over the bent end of the U-tube. Do not let the gas collecting tube fall
over. Hold it in position if it starts to tip over.
8. Carefully watch the level of the water in the gas collecting tube. As soon as the entire tube has been filled
with gas, lift the gas collecting tube away from the U-tube.
If you cannot see the water level clearly at the bottom of the gas collecting tube, you will know that the
tube has been completely filled with gas when you see a big bubble emerge from the bottom of the tube.
9. Remove the U-tube from the container. Carefully push the mouth of the gas collecting tube into the
prestik at the bottom of the container. Make sure that the tube is sealed before lifting it out of the
container. Place the sealed, inverted (upside down) tube onto a piece of paper towel.
10. Dry the gas collecting tube with paper towel so that all water is removed from the exterior of the tube
and the prestik.
D. Burning the Hydrogen in the Oxygen

1. Move the comboplate and other apparatus out of the way.
2. Light a match and use it to ignite a toothpick splint. Whilst one group member holds the sealed tube in a
horizontal position, another group member must bring the flame of the splint close to the mouth of the
tube.
3. Quickly remove the prestik from the mouth of the gas collecting tube and hold the flame of the splint in
the mouth of the tube. Record all of your observations.
4. Look inside the tube where the flame was extinguished. What do you notice?
5. Use the narrow end of a clean microspatula to add a small quantity of grey-white anhydrous copper
sulfate solid to the clear liquid. What happens to the white solid?
Pour the contents of wells F1 and F6 into a waste container. Rinse the comboplate thoroughly with tap
water and make sure that all solid has been washed out of well F1. Dry the well with paper towel to
remove any brown solid that sticks to the inside of the well after rinsing. Rinse all remaining
apparatus.
QUESTIONS:
1. Write a balanced equation for the production of gas you carried out in well F1? (Hint: refer to Activity
C12.)
2. Why is it necessary when collecting the second gas from well F6, to let a few bubbles enter the water
from the end of the U-tube before collecting the gas in the gas collecting tube?
3. What gas was produced from the reaction in well F6? Write a balanced chemical equation to support
your answer.
4. What happened when you held the flame of the toothpick splint in the mouth of the gas collecting tube?
5. Did another substance form inside the tube? If so, what was the appearance of this substance?
6. Based on your test with the white, anhydrous copper sulfate, were you able to deduce what substance
was formed when the hydrogen burned in the oxygen in the tube? Explain your answer.
7. Is the reaction that occurred between the two gases in the gas collecting tube a chemical change or a
physical change? Explain your answer based on your observations.
8. Write a balanced chemical equation to show what happens when hydrogen gas is burned in oxygen gas.
9. Looking at your answer to question 8, explain why you filled only one third of the gas collecting tube
with the oxygen gas.
10. a The formation of water from the burning of gaseous hydrogen in gaseous oxygen produces 286 kJ of
energy per mole (18 g) of water formed. Is this reaction endothermic or exothermic?
b. If you had never been told how much energy is produced during the burning of hydrogen in oxygen,
would you still have been able to answer 10a after completing this activity? Explain.

ACTIVITY C14: PROVING THE LAW OF CONSERVATION
OF MATTER
Part 1: The Reaction of Lead(II) Nitrate with Sodium Iodide
Requirements:
Apparatus:
You will need the following:
 1 Digital Pocket Scale (DPS),  two large vials,  two syringes
Chemicals:
 0.25 M lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2(aq),  0.25 M sodium iodide, NaI(aq).
Procedure
1. Use one of the syringes provided to measure accurately 0.5 ml of 0.25 M Pb(NO3)2(aq). Empty this
quantity into one of the large vials.
2. Use the second syringe to measure accurately 1 ml of 0.25 M NaI (aq) and put this into the second large
vial.
3. Put the two vials with Pb(NO3)2 and NaI solutions onto the DPS. Measure and note down the mass in the
table in 7 below.
4. Now pour the contents of the first vial into the second vial
and put both vials on the DPS. What do you notice?
5. Write down the reading shown on the DPS after the

reaction.
6. Repeat steps 1-5 two more times.
7. Tabulate your results in the table below:
Trial Mass of vials plus solutions of Pb(NO3)2 and NaI/g Mass of vials plus the product(s)/g
1
2
3
Average A B

Questions
1. The balanced chemical equation for the reaction occurring in 3 above is the following:
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaI(aq) = PbI2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
Write down a word equation which represents the above chemical equation.
2. (a) What type of a chemical reaction is represented in your answer to question 1?
(b) What is the colour of the solid product formed?
3. Compare the average mass readings in A and B above. What do you notice?
4. Draw an appropriate conclusion from this activity.
Part 2: The Reaction of Sodium Hydroxide with Hydrochloric Acid
Requirements:
Apparatus:
 1 Digital Pocket Scale (DPS),  two large vials,  two syringes
Chemicals:
 0.1 M sodium hydroxide, NaOH(aq),  0.1 M hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq),
 Bromothymol blue (BTB) indicator solution
Procedure
1. Use one of the syringes provided to measure accurately 2 ml of 0.1 M NaOH and put this into one of the
large vials.
2. Use the propette to add 3 drops of Bromothymol blue (BTB) indicator solution to the sodium hydroxide.
3. Use the second syringe to measure accurately 2 ml of 0.1 M HCl and put this into the second large vial.
4. Put the two vials with NaOH and HCl solutions onto the DPS.
Measure and note down the mass in the table in 9 below.
5. Now pour the contents of the first vial into the second vial and put
both vials on the DPS. What do you notice?
6. Is there any colour change after mixing the solutions? What do you
think could have been the reason for the colour change?
7. Write down the reading shown in 5 above on the DPS.
8. Repeat steps 1-7 two more times.

9. Tabulate your results in the table below:
Mass of vials plus the

Trial Mass of vials plus solutions of NaOH & HCl/g
product(s)/g
1
2
3
Average D E
Questions
1. Write down a balanced chemical equation for the reaction occurring in step 5 above.
2. What type of a chemical reaction is represented in your answer to question 1?
3. Compare the average mass readings recorded in the Table 9 above. What do you notice?
4. Draw an appropriate conclusion from this activity.
Part 3: Reaction of Cal-C-Vita Tablet in Water
The reaction of Cal-C-Vita tablet in water is an acid – base reaction but water serves as a medium in which
the tablet can dissolve. In Cal-C-Vita tablets all the reactants are in the solid phase. When the tablet is
dissolved in water one of the reactants, citric acid, will react with another reactant sodium carbonate to form
a salt, water and carbon dioxide. When the neutralization point has been reached the final solution is orange
in colour due to the added colourants (red beetjuice dried and betacarotene).The actual reaction that occurs is
as shown:
C6H8O7(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) = C6H6O7Na2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
When citric acid reacts with sodium carbonate, an acid – base reaction occurs resulting in the formation of
the salt sodium citrate and water, as shown in the above chemical equation. It can also be seen from the same
chemical equation that carbon dioxide gas is produced.
Requirements:
Apparatus:
• Digital Pocket Scale (DPS), • a syringe, • a rubber/elastic band, • scissors,
• a large vial with its lid, • a thin latex glove.
Chemicals:
Cal-C-Vita tablet, tap water.
Procedure
1. Measure out 5 ml of water into the large vial using a syringe.
2. Measure the mass of a small piece of the Cal-C-Vita tablet to approximately 0,5 g.
3. Place the large lid on the vial. Remove the central part (small inner lid) from the large lid to leave an
opening in the centre of the lid.

4. Place the piece of the Cal-C-Vita tablet on one side of the opening in the large lid, making sure it does
not fall into the vial.
5. Cut off one “finger” of a thin latex glove. Cover the mouth of the vial, the lid and the Cal-C-Vita tablet
with the glove finger. Carefully tighten the glove finger by wrapping an elastic band around it. (See
diagram.) This is to capture the gas produced in the reaction.
6. Measure the combined mass of the large vial with glove finger, 5 ml of water and 0,5 g of the Cal-C-Vita
tablet, before the reaction is started.
7. Without removing the glove finger, carefully push the piece of the Cal-C-Vita tablet with your forefinger
through the opening in the lid, into the vial with water. The reaction will start.
8. Measure the mass of the vial with glove finger and its contents soon after the reaction has stopped.
Trial Mass of vial + contents before reaction/g Mass of vial + contents after reaction/g
1
2
3
Average F G
Questions
1. Write down a balanced chemical equation for the reaction occurring in step 7 above.
2. What type of a chemical reaction is represented in your answer to question 1?
3. Compare the average mass readings recorded in the Table for question 8 above. What do you notice?
Draw an appropriate conclusion from this activity.

Summary of results for the 3 activities
Fill in the following table for reactants and products masses (including the mass of rubber band and rubber
finger in part 3).
Mass of reactants + containers/g Mass of products + containers/g
Reaction 1
Reaction 2
Reaction 3
1. In each of the Reactions an average was calculated as A and B, D and E, and F and G. Enter these
average results in the table above.
2. For each reaction compare the mass of the reactants to the mass of the products. What do you notice?
3. Is mass conserved in these reactions?
In this experiment you should have found that the mass at the start of the reaction is the same as the mass at
the end of the reaction in each case. You may have found that these masses differed slightly, but this may be
due to experimental errors in measurements and in performing experiments.
Assessment Exercise:
Determining a missing mass of reactant or product
1. Consider the following balanced chemical equation:
CaCO3 = CaO + CO2

Determine the mass of CaO produced if 200 grams of CaCO3 decomposes and produces 88 grams of CO2.
2. Consider the following decomposition reaction
2H2O2 = 2H2O + O2
If 72 grams of water and 64 grams of oxygen are produced, what mass of H2O2 decomposed?
A. 72 grams
B. 136 grams
C. 64 grams
D. Not enough information given
3. Consider the following chemical reaction
2NaCl + Ca(OH)2 = CaCl2 +2NaOH

If 191 grams of NaCl reacted with 74 grams of calcium hydroxide and 80 grams of sodium hydroxide is
produced, what mass of calcium chloride is produced?
A. 52.5 grams
B. 111 grams
C. 91 grams
D. 185 grams

ACTIVITY C15: MODELLING THE CONSERVATION OF
ATOMS AND MASS
Requirements
The changes of substances can be classified as either physical changes or chemical changes. In physical
changes the composition of the molecules does not change. In chemical changes it does. In physical changes
the number of molecules does not change. In chemical changes the number of molecules (of all types) may
change. In neither type of change does the number of atoms change. Hence the mass of the system in which
the physical or chemical change occurs does not change either (see Activity C14).
Chemical changes can be represented by word equations, but these are only qualitative descriptions.
Balanced chemical equations are more often used to represent chemical changes, because they are
quantitative. In symbolic form they affirm that atoms and mass are conserved in chemical changes and the
equal sign is the indicator of this.
Activity 1 Comparing Physical and Chemical Changes
A 1.1 Modelling the Boiling of Water

The symbolic equation representing the boiling of water is:
H2O(l) = H2O(g)
Explain why this equation correctly represents the boiling of water as a physical change.
Make models of 8 molecules of water and place them on a blank piece of paper. Arrange 4 to represent liquid
water and 4 to represent gaseous water. Write the appropriate formulae next to the two arrangements and an
equal sign in between them.
Explain how the models show this is a physical change.
A 1.2 Modelling the Electrolysis of Water

When liquid water is electrolysed, it is decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen. Using the 8 models of water
molecules you made in Activity 1.1, keep 4 of them to represent liquid water, and make the correct number
of hydrogen and oxygen molecules which would result from the decomposition of 4 water molecules. (This
implies that you must break up the other 4 of your water molecule models.)
Arrange these models of molecules to represent a gaseous mixture of hydrogen and oxygen. Write the
appropriate formulae next to the two arrangements and an equal sign in between them.
Explain why the models show that they represent a chemical change in this case.
A 1.3 Comparing Physical and Chemical Changes

Draw up a table comparing the boiling of water and the electrolysis of water in terms of whether there is a
change in (1) the composition of the molecules, (2) the number of molecules of all types, (3) the number of
atoms of all types, (4) the total mass.

Activity 2 Balanced Chemical Equations
A 2.1 Balancing Chemical Equations with Symbols of Atoms

The following symbolic equations are not balanced chemical equations. In each case explain why they are
not, and change them into ones that are. To do this you may not change the formulae (that would change the
molecules!); you may only change the coefficients.
(i) H2(g) + N2(g)  NH3(g)
(ii) 2HCl(g) + 2H2O(l)  2H3O+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
(iii) S8(s) + O2(g)  8SO2(g)
A 2.2 Balancing Chemical Equations with Models of Atoms and Molecules

The S8 molecule has a cyclic structure, that is the eight S atoms are bonded together in a continuous ring.
Make a model of one S8 molecule.
Based upon your answer to (iii) above, how many molecules of oxygen would you need to react completely
with this S8 molecule?
Make models of the required number of oxygen molecules. Then from these models (of both S8 and O2
molecules) make as many models of SO2 molecules as you can. (Note you may not use any extra atoms!)
Did you have a balanced chemical equation in (iii) above?
What does the term “balanced” imply in this context?
Activity 1 Comparing Physical and Chemical Changes
B 1.1 Picturing the Boiling of Water

Use the RMS to make drawings to show liquid and gaseous water. Make both drawings on the same piece of
paper and in each case draw 8 molecules of water. Label one as H2O(l) and the other as H2O(g).
Explain how the drawings show that boiling water is a physical change.
B 1.2 Picturing the Electrolysis of Water

When liquid water is electrolysed, it is decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen. Use the RMS to represent
this change. Show 8 molecules of water in the liquid state to start with, and show the products resulting from
their complete decomposition. Do both drawings on the same piece of paper.
Explain how the drawings show that the electrolysis of water is a chemical change.
Activity 2 Balanced Chemical Equations
B 2.1 Balancing Chemical Equations with Symbols of Atoms

See and follow A 2.1 above.
B 2.2 Balancing Chemical Equations with Drawings of Atoms and Molecules

Use the RMS to represent the chemical reaction in which solid sulfur, S8(s), burns in oxygen to form gaseous
sulfur dioxide. Explain how your drawing shows what the balanced chemical equation represents.

ACTIVITY C16: INVESTIGATING THE MOLE RATIOS IN WHICH
DIFFERENT COMPOUNDS REACT
Requirements
Apparatus:
• 1 x comboplate; • 6 x propettes • 3 x microspatulas
Chemicals:
 0.5 M potassium chromate (K2CrO4(aq))  0.5 M barium chloride (BaCl2(aq))
 0.5 M sodium iodide (NaI(aq))  0.5 M lead nitrate (Pb(NO3)2(aq))
 0.1 M iron(III) chloride (FeCl3(aq))  0.1 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH(aq))
Other:
You will also need:
• Waste container • Tap water • Paper towel • clock or watch for timing
What to do:
Part 1: In what Mole Ratio do Potassium Chromate and Barium Chloride React?
1. Before you start the activity, look at the colours of the potassium chromate (K2CrO4(aq)) and barium
chloride (BaCl2(aq)) solutions. Note the appearance of each solution.
2. Choose two clean propettes that are identical. Fill one propette with the K2CrO4(aq) and the other
propette with the BaCl2(aq).
3. Use the following table to accurately add drops of BaCl2(aq) and K2CrO4(aq) to wells A1 to A5. Add all
of the barium chloride drops first, followed by the drops of potassium chromate solution.
Table 1:
Well A1 A2 A3 A4 A5
Drops of BaCl2(aq) 9 7 5 3 1
Drops of K2CrO4(aq) 1 3 5 7 9
4. Use the narrow end of a clean microspatula to stir the contents of well A1. Wipe the end with some
paper towel.
5. Repeat step 4 with the other wells, making sure to wipe the microspatula between stirring.
6. Allow the comboplate to stand for about 10 minutes so that the solids in each well can settle.
Whilst you are waiting you can start to answer the questions for Part 1.
7. After 10 minutes, hold the comboplate to the light and look at the wells from the side. Which well has
the highest level of precipitate (i.e. the most precipitate)?
8. Record all of your observations and answer the questions for Part 1.
If the other small wells in the A row are clean, you can continue with Part 2. If the other A wells
are not clean, you must rinse and dry the comboplate before starting Part 2.

Part 2: In what Mole Ratio do Lead Nitrate and Sodium Iodide React?
1. Choose another two clean propettes that are identical. Fill one propette with the lead nitrate solution
(Pb(NO3)2(aq)) and the other propette with the sodium iodide solution (NaI(aq)).
2. Use the following table to accurately add drops of Pb(NO3)2(aq) and NaI(aq) to wells A8 to A12. Add all
of the lead nitrate drops first, followed by the drops of sodium iodide solution.
Table 1:
Well A8 A9 A10 A11 A12
Drops of Pb(NO3)2(aq) 2 4 7 8 10
Drops of NaI(aq) 10 8 5 4 2
3. Use the narrow end of a clean microspatula to stir the contents of well A8. Wipe the end of the
microspatula with some paper towel.
4. Repeat step 3 with the contents of the other wells, making sure to wipe the microspatula between stirring.
5. Allow the comboplate to stand for about 10 minutes as in Part 1.
Whilst you are waiting you can start to answer the questions for Part 2.
6. After 10 minutes, hold the comboplate to the light and look at the wells from the side. Write down the
number of the well that contains the most precipitate.
7. Record all of your observations and answer the questions for Part 2.
Rinse the comboplate with clean water as soon as you have completed Part 2. If you leave the yellow
lead iodide precipitates in the wells, they will be very difficult to remove later.
Part 3: In what Mole Ratio do Iron(III) Chloride and Sodium Hydroxide React?
1. Choose another two clean propettes that are identical. Fill one propette with the iron(III) chloride
solution (FeCl3(aq)) and the other propette with the sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH(aq)).
2. Make sure the A wells of the comboplate are clean and dry. Use the following table to accurately add
drops of FeCl3(aq) and NaOH(aq) to wells A7 to A1. Add all of the iron(III) chloride drops first,
followed by the drops of sodium hydroxide solution.
Table 1:
Well A7 A6 A5 A4 A3 A2 A1
Drops of FeCl3(aq) 2 3 4 6 8 9 10
Drops of NaOH(aq) 10 9 8 6 4 3 2
3. Use the narrow end of a clean microspatula to stir the contents of well A7. Wipe the end of the
microspatula with some paper towel.
4. Repeat step 3 with the contents of the other wells, making sure to wipe the microspatula between stirring.
5. As soon as you have finished stirring, look at the wells from the side. Now place the comboplate onto a
piece of white paper and look at the wells from above. Write down which well/s contain the most
precipitate? Record all of your observations.
6. Let the comboplate stand for about 2 minutes and observe the wells again from the top and the side as
before.
7. Record your observations and answer all the questions for Part 3.
Rinse the comboplate with clean water. Empty small volumes of solutions from the propettes into
waste containers (ask your teacher what to do with larger volumes of solutions left in the propettes
because these may be needed for other classes). Rinse the empty propettes and microspatulas.

QUESTIONS:
Part 1: In what Mole Ratio do Potassium Chromate and Barium Chloride React?
1. What is the colour of:
a. the barium chloride solution?
b. the potassium chromate solution?
2. What happens in well A1 after adding the drop of potassium chromate solution?
3. What causes a precipitate to form when barium chloride and potassium chromate solutions are mixed?
4. Why does the height of the precipitate change as the ratio of barium chloride:potassium chromate
changes?
5. a. Which well contains the most precipitate?
b. Calculate the ratio of number of drops K2CrO4(aq):number of drops BaCl2(aq) for this well. This will
give you the reaction ratio for potassium chromate and barium chloride.
6. Write down a balanced chemical equation to represent the reaction between barium chloride and
potassium chromate.
7. a. What do you notice about the appearance of the solutions above the precipitates in wells A1 and A2?
b. What do you notice about the appearance of the solutions above the precipitates in wells A4 and A5?
8. Explain the observations made in 7a and b. (Hint: Look also at your answers to questions 1a and 1b.)
Part 2: In what Mole Ratio do Lead Nitrate and Sodium Iodide React?
1. Write down what you see when the sodium iodide solution is added to the lead nitrate solution in each
well.
2. What is the name of the substance formed in Q1?
3. Look carefully at the microwells after 10 minutes. Which well contains the most solid?
4. Based on your observations, in what ratio do lead nitrate and sodium iodide react?
5. Write down a balanced chemical equation for this reaction.
Part 3: In what Mole Ratio do Iron(III) Chloride and Sodium Hydroxide React?
1. What is the colour of the FeCl3(aq) before adding any NaOH(aq)?
2. What happens as soon as you add the NaOH(aq) to the FeCl3(aq) in each well?
3. In which well/s do you observe the most precipitate?
4. What is the volume ratio of FeCl3(aq):NaOH(aq) in this well/s?
5. Why do you think well A7 contains almost the same amount of precipitate as A6, even though more
drops of sodium hydroxide were added to well A7?
6. In what ratio do iron(III) chloride and sodium hydroxide react?
7. Write down a balanced chemical equation for this reaction.
8. How can you tell which reactant is in excess in wells A3 to A1? Explain.

ACTIVITY C17: DISSOLVING
ENERGY CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH DISSOLVING AND USING
CONDUCTIVITY TO STUDY THE DISSOLVING OF SOLIDS IN WATER
Part 1: What Energy Changes are Associated with Dissolving a Solid in Water?
Requirements
Apparatus:
• 1 x 2 ml syringe • 5 x propettes; • 4 x microspatulas.
Chemicals:
 sugar (C12H22O11(s))  solid sodium chloride (NaCl(s));
 anhydrous calcium chloride powder (CaCl2(s))  ammonium chloride powder (NH4Cl(s))
 distilled water
Other:
You will also need:
• A thermometer • A container for waste; • Paper towel
It is better to use a thermometer graduated in 0.1 °C intervals so that the temperature

can be recorded accurately.
What to do:
1. Before you start with the experiment draw Table 1 (see Questions) into your workbooks. You will use
this table to record all the temperatures you measure during the experiment.
2. Using the thermometer provided, measure the temperature (± 0.1 °C) of the water you will use to
dissolve the solids in this activity. When you place the thermometer into the water, wait about 10 – 15
seconds before recording the temperature and make sure the bulb of the thermometer is adequately
covered with water.
3. Record the water temperature in column 2 of Table 1. It will be assumed that this initial temperature for
water will be the same as the initial temperature (Ti) of all the water + solid mixtures.
4. Rinse the thermometer with water from a clean propette and dry it thoroughly.
5. Use the spoon end of a clean microspatula to place 2 level spatulas of sugar into well F1.
For the next few steps group members should help each other so that time can be saved and accurate
temperature readings recorded. One member can add the water to the well, whilst another stirs the
solution with the thermometer and takes the temperature reading.
6. Fill a clean 2 ml syringe with water. While holding the thermometer in well F1, quickly but carefully add
the water to the sugar in the well.
7. Stir the solution immediately with the thermometer to make sure that all the sugar crystals dissolve. Do
not splash the solution out of the well.
8. Measure the temperature of the solution as soon as the sugar has all dissolved. Record this as the final
temperature (Tf) for the sugar solution in Table 1.

9. Rinse the thermometer and dry it thoroughly.
10. Repeat steps 5 to 9 with the NaCl(s) in well F2, the CaCl2(s) in well F3 and the NH4Cl(s) in well F4. Stir
the solution each time for as long as required to dissolve all of the solid. Measure the maximum or
minimum temperature reached each time and record your results in Table 1.
Make sure that you use a clean microspatula each time for adding the solids to the wells. Do not mix
up the spatulas as this will lead to incorrect results. Be careful not to spill any of the solids into
other wells.
Rinse the thermometer and dry it.
Keep the comboplate with all of the solutions from Part 1 for Part 2
Part 2: Using Conductivity to Study the Dissolving of Various Solids

Requirements
Apparatus:
• 1 x comboplate; • 1 x propette; • 4 x microspatulas; • 1 x 2 ml syringe
• 1 x LED current indicator with connections; • 2 x carbon rods (pencil leads);
• prestik (optional).
Chemicals:
All solutions prepared in the wells of the comboplate in Part 1 will be used for Part 2.
All the solids used in Part 1 are also required.
Other:
You will also need:
 A container for waste; • Paper towel • 1 x 9V battery
The experiment should be performed in a room with dim lighting so that the brightness of the
light emitting diode (LED) can be observed better. If this is not possible, then a group member
should cup one hand around the current indicator to show up the glowing LED.
You will notice that bubbling occurs around the electrodes when they are lowered into some
solutions, especially around the electrode connected to the black wire of the current indicator. This
means that electrolysis is taking place in these solutions. You must record the brightness of the LED
as soon as possible, because electrolysis decomposes the solutions and affects their conductivity.
What to do:
this table to record all of your observations.

2. Set up the LED current indicator apparatus as shown in the diagram on the previous page.
Be careful when you are setting up the LED that you do not spill the solutions in the large
wells. If one solution spills into another well containing a different solution, then
incorrect conductivity readings will be obtained!
3. Push the lid with the LED into well E6. The long red wire with crocodile clip should be on the left side
facing you and the shorter black wire with crocodile clip should be on the right side.
4. Connect the red wire to one carbon electrode using the crocodile clip. Connect the black wire to another
carbon electrode in the same way.
5. Attach the battery clip to a 9V battery so that the red wire is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery and the black wire is connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
If the battery is heavy and falls over when you move the red and black wires, use a piece of prestik to
attach the battery to the side of the comboplate (see diagram).
6. Fill a clean, dry syringe with 2 ml of distilled water. Add the water to well F6.
7. Carefully lower both of the carbon electrodes into the water. Do not push the electrodes against the
bottom of the well and do not allow the electrodes to touch one another at any time.
8. Observe what happens to the red LED and record the brightness of the bulb in Table 2. Dry the
electrodes gently with paper towel.
9. Use the spoon end of a clean microspatula to place 2 spatulas of sugar crystals into
well E1. Use the microspatula to heap the solid in the well.
10. Carefully hold the carbon electrodes below the surface of the sugar mound. Try not
to touch the bottom of the well and do not allow the electrodes to touch one another.
Observe the brightness of the LED and record your results in Table 2.
11. Wipe the electrodes with paper towel. Carefully lower the electrodes into the sugar
solution in well F1, making sure that the electrodes do not touch one another.
Observe the brightness of the LED and record your results in Table 2.
Compare the brightness of the LED in water and in the sugar solution. Does the LED glow with the
same brightness in both the water and sugar solution?
12. Rinse and dry the electrodes thoroughly with the clean water and paper towel to ensure that none of
the sugar or sugar solution has remained on any part of the electrodes.
13. Repeat steps 9 to 12 with:
a. NaCl(s) in well E2 and the NaCl(aq) in F2.
b. CaCl2(s) in well E3 and the CaCl2(aq) in F3.
c. NH4Cl(s) in well E4 and the NH4Cl(aq) in F4.
Make sure that you use a clean microspatula for each solid . Be careful not to spill any of the solids
into other wells.
14. Disconnect the battery from the conductivity set up and remove the LED from the comboplate.
15. Use a clean propette to remove about one half of the sugar solution in well F1. Use another clean
propette to remove ½ of the NaCl(aq) solution in well F2. Repeat this step with the calcium chloride and
ammonium chloride solutions in wells F3 and F4. Remember to use a clean propette each time.
16. Place the comboplate in a warm place (such as a sunny window sill near an open window) for a few
hours, or leave overnight.
17. Check the comboplate once all of the water has evaporated from the wells. What do you see?
Rinse the comboplate and other apparatus thoroughly with clean water.

QUESTIONS:
Part 1: What Energy Changes are Associated with Dissolving a Solid in Water?
1. Prepare a table like Table 1 below. Record all of your temperature measurements in the table while you
are doing the experiment.
Table 1
Initial Temperature Final Temperature Temperature Change
SUBSTANCE (Ti) (Tf) after dissolving (ΔT)
/ °C / °C / °C
Distilled water
C12H22O11(s)
NaCl(s)
CaCl2(s)
NH4Cl(s)
2. Use the values in the Table to calculate the temperature change, ΔT, for the dissolving of each solid in
water. Record your answers in column 4 of Table 1.
Temperature Change (ΔT) = Tf - Ti
3. Use your ΔT values to answer the following questions?

a. Which substance/s showed a decrease in temperature when the solid was dissolved in water?
b. Which substance/s showed an increase in temperature when the solid was dissolved in water?
c. Which substance had the smallest temperature change when dissolved and which substance had the
largest temperature change?
d. Which solution/s released energy to the surroundings during dissolving? Explain your answer.
e. Which solution/s absorbed energy from the surroundings during dissolving? Explain your answer.
4. When the dissolving process results in a negative temperature change (i.e. the final temperature of the
solution is lower than the average initial temperature), we say that the process is endothermic because the
dissolving of the solid has caused energy to be absorbed from the surroundings. Which substance/s
has/have endothermic dissolution processes?
5. When the dissolving process results in a positive temperature change (i.e. the final temperature of the
solution is higher than the average initial temperature), we say that the process is exothermic because the
dissolving of the solid has caused energy to be released into the surroundings. Which substance/s
has/have dissolved with an exothermic change?
Part 2: Using Conductivity to Study the Dissolving of Various Solids

1. Prepare a table like Table 2 below. Record all of your observations in the table while you are doing the
experiment.
Table 2
LED GLOW: SOLUBILITY:
WELL SUBSTANCE
DULL or BRIGHT? GOOD/POOR/NONE?
F6 distilled water
E1 C12H22O11(s)
F1 C12H22O11(aq)
E2 NaCl(s)
F2 NaCl(aq)
E3 CaCl2(s)
F3 CaCl2(aq)
E4 NH4Cl(s)
F4 NH4Cl(aq)

2. From this activity, it can be seen that the distilled water you have used conducts a small current. Since
the tap or distilled water is used to dissolve the solid substances, some of the current reading observed
for each of the solutions is due to the water.
Why do you think the water alone causes the LED to glow i.e. why does it conduct a current?
3. Did each of the solids dissolve easily in water? Record your observations in column three of the table,
stating whether the solubility of the substance tested was good, poor (partially soluble) or none.
4. Which of the solids conducts electricity?
5. Which solutions tested conduct electricity?
6. Which solution/s do not conduct electricity? How do you know this?
7. Why do some solutions conduct electricity and some do not?
8. Why do the NaCl(aq), CaCl2(aq) and NH4Cl(aq) solutions conduct electricity whereas their crystals do
not?
9. Why do both the sugar crystals and the sugar solution fail to conduct an electric current?
10 Based on your observations of how easily the solids in this activity dissolve in water and your
conductivity results for each solution, do you think that conductivity is a reliable measure of the
solubility of a substance? Explain your answer.
11. Use your conductivity results as a guide to complete balanced reaction equations to represent the
dissolution process that has taken place in each well:
a. Well F1: C12H22O11(s) + H2O(l) = _______________________________
b. Well F2: NaCl(s) + H2O(l) = __________________________________
c. Well F3: CaCl2(s) + H2O(l) = __________________________________
d. Well F4: NH4Cl(s) + H2O(l) = __________________________________
12. Look carefully at the contents of the wells after you have left the comboplate for several hours to allow
the water to evaporate. What can you see in:
a. Well F1: ________________________________________________________________________
b. Well F2: ________________________________________________________________________
c. Well F3: ________________________________________________________________________
d. Well F4: ________________________________________________________________________
13. Do the solids in each well look the same as, or different to, the solids you started with?
14. What does the formation of the solids upon evaporation tell you about each of the reactions that have
taken place?
15. Use your temperature change results from Part 1 and your conductivity results from Part 2 to decide
which of the solids dissolved by means of a physical change, and which solids dissolved by means of a
chemical change.

ACTIVITY C18: TESTS FOR IONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION -
HALIDES, SULFATES AND CARBONATES
Part 1: Testing for the Presence of Halide Ions

Requirements
Apparatus:
• 1 x comboplate; • 5 x propettes
Chemicals:
The following solutions should be collected from the teacher:
 0.1 M sodium chloride solution (NaCl(aq));  0.1 M sodium bromide solution (NaBr(aq));
 0.1 M sodium iodide solution (NaI(aq))  0.1 M silver nitrate solution (AgNO3(aq));
 2.0 M nitric acid (HNO3(aq)) .
Other:
You will also need:
 A container for waste; • Tap water for cleaning • Paper towel
What to do:
this table to record all of your observations.
2. Make sure that all of the propettes are clean and dry. Fill one propette with sodium chloride solution
(NaCl(aq)), another with sodium bromide solution (NaBr(aq)) and a third propette with sodium iodide
solution (NaI(aq)).
3. Place 5 drops of NaCl(aq) into well A1, 5 drops of NaBr(aq) into well A2 and 5 drops of NaI(aq) into
well A3.
4. Fill another clean propette with the nitric acid (HNO3(aq)). Fill the last propette with silver nitrate
solution (AgNO3(aq)).
5. Add 2 drops of HNO3(aq) to each of the halide solutions in wells A1 to A3. Now add 3 drops of
AgNO3(aq) to each well.
6. Observe carefully what happens and record your observations in the table you have drawn.
Rinse the comboplate thoroughly with tap water and make sure that all solids have been washed
out of the small wells. Dry the wells before starting Part 2.
Ask your teacher what to do with the solutions in the propettes. Rinse all emptied propettes
thoroughly with clean tap water.

Part 2: Testing for the Presence of Sulfate and Carbonate Ions
Requirements
Apparatus:
• 1 x comboplate; • 4 x propettes
Chemicals:
The following solutions should be collected from the teacher:
 0.1 M sodium sulfate (Na2SO4(aq));  5.5 M hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq))
 0.5 M sodium hydrogencarbonate solution (NaHCO3(aq));  0.5 M barium chloride solution (BaCl2(aq))
Other:
You will also need:
 A container for waste • Tap water for rinsing • Paper towel
What to do:
1. Before you start with the experiment draw Table 2, as shown on the next page, into your workbooks.
You will use this table to record all of your observations.
2. Make sure that all of the propettes are clean and dry. Fill one propette with sodium sulfate solution
(Na2SO4(aq)), another with sodium hydrogencarbonate solution (NaHCO3(aq)) and a third with barium
chloride solution (BaCl2(aq)).
3. Place 5 drops of Na2SO4(aq) into well A1 and 5 drops of NaHCO3(aq) into well A2.
4. Add 3 drops of the BaCl2(aq) into each of wells A1 and A2.
5. Fill the final propette with hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq). Add 2 drops of this acid into wells A1 and A2.
Rinse the comboplate thoroughly with tap water and make sure that all solids have been washed
out of the small wells.
Ask your teacher what to do with the solutions in the propettes. Rinse all emptied propettes out
thoroughly with clean tap water.

QUESTIONS:
Part 1: Testing for the Presence of Halide Ions
experiment.
Table 1
Initial Appearance Final Appearance
Well Halide Solution (before adding (after adding Balanced Chemical Equation
AgNO3(aq)) AgNO3(aq))
A1
A2
A3
2. How can you tell that reactions have taken place in wells A1 to A3?
3. What name do we give to these kinds of reactions? Why?
4. In column 4 of your table, write a balanced chemical equation to represent each reaction that took place
between the halide solutions and silver nitrate solution in wells A1 to A3.
5. From your observations, how are you able to distinguish which halide is present in each solution once
you have added the silver nitrate?
6. Precipitation reactions in aqueous solution take place by ion combination. For the reaction in well A1,
which ions combine and which ions are spectators?
Part 2: Testing for the Presence of Sulfate and Carbonate Ions
experiment.
Table 2
Appearance before Appearance after What happens when
Well Solution Tested
adding BaCl2(aq) adding BaCl2(aq) 5.5 M HCl(aq) is added?
A1
A2
2. In which wells do you observe precipitates after adding the barium chloride solution?
3. Write the chemical formula/s for any precipitates formed in wells A1 and A2.
4. Does adding barium chloride solution alone serve as a test for sulfates and/or carbonates? Explain your
answer.
5. a. After adding HCl(aq), which well or wells contain precipitates?
b. Write the chemical formula/s for any precipitate/s still remaining after adding the HCl(aq).
6. Explain why one of the precipitates disappeared after HCl(aq) was added? Use a chemical equation to
support your answer.
7. Using your observations and the answers to the previous questions, complete the following chemical
equations showing what happened in wells A1 and A2 after adding barium chloride solution. Make sure
the equations are balanced:
a. Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq)  _______________________________________
b. NaHCO3(aq) + BaCl2(aq)  ____________________________________
8. In the above two reactions, which ions combine and which are spectators?

ACTIVITY C19: THE PREPARATION OF A CHROMATE SALT FROM ITS
SOLUBLE REAGENTS
Requirements
Apparatus:
• 1 x large sample vial; • 1 x small sample vial; • 1 x glass rod; • 1 x syringe;
• 1 x propette
Chemicals:
 0.5 M potassium chromate solution (K2CrO4(aq))
 0.5 M barium chloride solution (BaCl2(aq)
Other:
You will also need:
• Filter paper (diameter =  42 mm); • Waste container • Tap water • Distilled water
• Paper towel
What to do:
E. Preparing the Salt
1. Make sure the syringe is clean and dry. Fill the syringe with exactly 2.0 ml of the barium chloride
solution.
2. Add the barium chloride solution to the small vial.
3. Clean the syringe thoroughly by pulling it apart and rinsing to make sure that the plunger and the barrel
of the syringe do not have any barium chloride solution remaining on or in them. Dry the syringe.
4. Fill the clean, dry syringe with exactly 2.0 ml of the potassium chromate solution. Add this to the
barium chloride solution in the small vial. Record all of your observations.
5. Use the glass rod to gently stir the mixture in the small vial.
6. If the glass rod has any of the mixture on it after stirring, use a few drops of distilled water from a clean
propette to carefully rinse the glass rod over the small vial. Make sure that the rinsing falls into the small
vial.
7. Put the small vial to one side.
F. Filtering and Washing the Salt

1. Fold the piece of filter paper as shown in the diagram below. You should have a neat cone with even
edges when you have completed the folding.

2. Place the cone of filter paper into the mouth of the large sample vial. Wet
the filter paper with a few drops of distilled water so that the cone is
anchored in the mouth of the vial. There should not be any kinks in the filter
paper.
3. Carefully pour a small volume of the mixture from the small vial into the
cone of filter paper so that the level of the mixture is about ⅔ the height of
the cone.
Do not overfill the filter paper as this may result in some of the mixture flowing over the edge of
the vial and product will be lost. Keep the level of mixture in the filter paper below the mouth of
the large vial.
4. You should notice that drops of clear solution appear at the end of the filter paper cone and fall into the
large vial. As the level of the mixture in the filter paper decreases, add some more of the contents of the
small vial into the filter paper, making sure not to overfill the paper.
5. Repeat step 4 until all of the mixture has been added to the filter paper. What do you see in the filter
paper?
6. There will be some mixture remaining inside the small vial. Use distilled water to rinse the sides of the
small vial. Pour the rinsing carefully into the filter paper and allow this to filter.
7. Repeat step 6 so that all of the mixture is rinsed from the small vial into the filter paper.
8. Once all of the rinsing has filtered, add distilled water from the propette into the filter paper. This is
done to wash the precipitate in the filter paper. Allow the washing to filter completely.
9. Fold a piece of paper towel two or three times to create a thicker piece. Carefully remove the filter paper
from the mouth of the large vial and place it onto the piece of paper towel.
10. Leave the paper towel in a sheltered place so that the precipitate can dry. Try to keep it away from drafts
that may cause dust to cling to the precipitate.
11. Observe the salt once it has dried and record your observations.
Pour the contents of the large vial into a waste container. Rinse all apparatus. Put your salt into
a clean, dry vial for safekeeping or to hand to your teacher.
QUESTIONS:
1. What happens when you add the potassium chromate solution (K2CrO4(aq)) to the barium chloride
solution (BaCl2(aq)) in the small vial?
2. Why does a precipitate form in the vial?
3. Why do you need to rinse the glass rod after stirring and catch the rinsing in the small vial? (Similarly,
why is it necessary to rinse the small vial into the filter paper during filtration?)
4. When preparing the filter paper for filtration, why should you avoid unnecessary folds and kinks in the
paper?
5. What do you notice in the filter paper during filtration?
6. Why is it necessary to rinse the precipitate with filter paper at the end of the filtration procedure?
7. Describe your salt after it has dried.
8. What is the name of the salt you have prepared from the soluble potassium chromate and barium chloride
reagents?
9. Write a balanced chemical equation to represent the formation of the salt from potassium chromate and
barium chloride solutions.

ACTIVITY C20: IDENTIFYING DIFFERENT TYPES OF
CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION
Introduction
In this activity, you will carry out some chemical reactions and identify them as precipitation, acid-base, gas
forming or redox (electron transfer) reactions. Some reactions can be classified as more than one type. For
example, when you add hydrochloric acid to calcium carbonate powder (a base), you form carbon dioxide
which is seen as bubbles in the reaction mixture and which you can test with lime water. This reaction is both
acid-base and gas forming, but the most visible outcome of the reaction is the gas and so in the first instance
we may call it a gas-forming reaction. Similarly, in the reactions you will investigate here, you will first use
your observations to identify the reactions: if you see a solid forming, you know it is a precipitation reaction;
if you see bubbles or a coloured vapour or smell an odour, you know a gas has formed. If you test the
reaction with an indicator that shows neutralisation, you know the reaction is acid-base. Identification of
redox reactions is more challenging because we do not find indicators that we can use generally to help us in
the way we do for acid-base reactions. One way to identify a redox reaction is by observing whether an
element is used up to form a compound, or whether an element is formed during the reaction. Later on, you
will examine some of the reactions more closely and look at the charges on each atom/ion to identify
whether an electron transfer has taken place. You should revise what you have learned in class about charges
on ions, ion-exchange and electron transfer reactions before this activity.
Requirements
Apparatus:
• 1 x comboplate; • 6 x propettes • 5 x microspatulas • Universal Indicator paper
Chemicals:
Reaction A: • 5.5 M hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq));  sodium carbonate solid (Na2CO3.10H2O(s)).
Reaction B: • 0.1 M hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq));  0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH(aq));
• 0.04% bromothymol blue indicator solution.
Reaction C: • 0.1 M sodium bromide solution (NaBr(aq));  0.1 M silver nitrate solution (AgNO3(aq)).
Reaction D: • 1 M copper sulfate solution (CuSO4(aq));  iron metal powder (Fe(s)).
Reaction E: • magnesium powder (Mg(s))
Other:
You will also need:
 A container for waste • Tap water •Distilled water • Hot water • Paper towel
What to do:
Before you start with the experiment draw Table 1 (see Questions) into your workbooks. Turn your
paper onto its side and draw the table so that it fits on the whole page. There should be enough space
to write down all of your observations, as well as answer some questions about each reaction.
A The Reaction between Aqueous Sodium Carbonate and Hydrochloric Acid

1. Use the spoon end of a clean microspatula to place 1 level microspatula of solid sodium carbonate into
well F1 of the comboplate.
2. Add 25 drops of water to the sodium carbonate using a clean propette. Stir the solution thoroughly with
the narrow end of the microspatula until all of the solid has dissolved.

3. Fill another clean propette with 5.5 M hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq)). Add 1 drop of the acid to the sodium
carbonate solution (Na2CO3(aq)) in the well. Observe what happens.
4. Add another drop of acid to the well. Observe what happens.
5. Repeat step 4 another three times until you have added 5 drops of the acid (one at a time) to the
Na2CO3(aq). Observe what happens after adding each drop.
6. Write down all of your observations in detail in column 2 of Table 1.
7. What type of reaction is this? Look at the options in column 3 of Table 1 and use your observations to
decide which option to tick.
Put the hydrochloric acid aside and move on to Reaction B. Answer all remaining questions
when you have completed the other reactions.
B The Reaction between Hydrochloric Acid and Aqueous Sodium Hydroxide

1. Turn the comboplate around so that the small wells face you.
2. Find 3 propettes that look identical. Make sure that all of the propettes are clean and dry.
3. Fill one propette with distilled water, another with 0.1 M hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq)) and a third with
0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH(aq)).
4. Place 5 drops of distilled water into well A1, 5 drops of HCl(aq) into well A2 and 5 drops of NaOH(aq)
into well A3.
5. Fill another clean propette with bromothymol blue (BTB) indicator solution. Add one drop of indicator
solution to well A1. Stir with the narrow end of a clean
microspatula. BTB indicator acid/base/
colour neutral
 What is the colour of the distilled water? Is the water
acidic, basic or neutral? (Use the BTB indicator chart yellow acid
alongside to help you.) Write down all of your green/ blue-green neutral
observations in column 2 of Table 1.
blue/dark blue base
6. Add one drop of BTB solution to well A2. Stir the solution
with a clean microspatula.
 What is the colour of the solution in well A2? What can you deduce from this colour? (Use the BTB
indicator chart to help you.) Write down all of your observations in column 2 of Table 1.
7. Repeat step 6 with the solution in well A3. Record your observations in column 2 of Table 1.
8. Use the propette containing the sodium hydroxide solution to add one drop of NaOH(aq) to the HCl(aq)
in well A2.
 What do you notice as the NaOH(aq) drop falls into the HCl(aq) solution? Write your answer in
column 2 of Table 1.
9. Stir the solution in well A2 with a clean microspatula. Note any colour changes.
10. Add another drop of NaOH(aq) to well A2. Observe what happens as the drop enters the acid solution in
the well. Stir the solution with the microspatula.
11. Repeat step 10, adding one drop of NaOH(aq) at a time and stirring, until you see that the colour in well
A2 is the same as the colour in well A1. Record your observations in Column 2 of Table 1.
12. Now add 0.1 M HCl(aq) one drop at a time to the NaOH(aq) in well A3. Use a clean microspatula to stir
the solution after each drop added. Stop adding acid when the colour of the indicator in well A3 is the
same as the colour in well A1.
If the colour change in well A2 is from yellow to blue (instead of green) or the colour change in
well A3 is from blue to yellow (instead of green), do not worry about this. Think rather about
what the colour change is telling you.

By now you have used up all your clean propettes. Empty the contents of the used propettes into the
waste container. Rinse the propettes thoroughly with clean water and make sure that you get all the
water out of each propette before you start Reaction C.
C. The Reaction between Aqueous Sodium Bromide and Aqueous Silver Nitrate
1. Fill one clean, dry propette with 0.1 M sodium bromide solution (NaBr(aq)). Fill another clean propette
with 0.1 M silver nitrate solution (AgNO3(aq)).
2. Add 5 drops of NaBr(aq) to well A6, followed by 3 drops of AgNO3(aq). No stirring is required.
3. Write down what you observe in column 2 of Table 1.
4. Wait about 5 or 6 minutes, then hold the comboplate up to the light. Look at the well from the side and
also from underneath the comboplate. Record your observations in column 2 of Table 1.
6. Put the used propettes aside and move on to Reaction D.
D. The Reaction between a Copper Sulfate Solution and Iron Metal

1. Fill a clean, dry propette with 1 M copper sulfate solution (CuSO4(aq)). Add 10 drops of this solution
into wells A9 and A10.
2. Use the spoon end of a clean microspatula to add one level microspatula of iron powder (Fe(s)) into well
A10 and the empty well A11. Be careful not to spill any of the powder.
3. Stir the iron powder + copper sulfate mixture in well A10 using the narrow end of the microspatula.
4. Let the mixture stand for about 3 to 5 minutes. Hold the comboplate up to the light and observe the wells
from above and from the side.
5. How does the colour of the solution in well A10 compare with the copper sulfate solution in well A9?
Write your observations in column 2 of Table 1.
6. Are there any changes to the solid in well A10? How does the solid compare with the iron powder in
well A11? Record your answers in column 2 of Table 1.
8. Put the used propettes aside and move on to Reaction E.
E. The Reaction between Magnesium Metal and Water

1. Use the spoon end of a clean microspatula to place 3 level microspatulas of magnesium powder into well
C1. Be careful not to spill any of the powder.
2. Fill a clean propette with hot water.
Be careful when handling the propette containing hot water as the water squirts easily out of
the tip. Keep the propette pointed downwards at all times.
3. Add 10 drops of the hot water to the magnesium powder (Mg(s)) in well C1. Do not stir.
4. Wait a few seconds, then observe what happens by looking directly above the well.
5. Write down all of your observations in detail in column 2 of Table 1 for Reaction E.
6. Wait a few more minutes, observing all the time what is happening in the well. Record your observations
in Table 1.
7. Tear a piece of Universal Indicator paper in half. Dip the paper into the solution above the Mg(s) in the
well. What happens to the paper? Some of the dye from the paper will remain behind in the well. What
is the colour of the dye in the solution above the Mg(s)? What does this tell you? Record all of your
observations and answers in Table 1.
Rinse the comboplate thoroughly with tap water and make sure that all solids have been washed out of
the small wells. Ask your teacher what to do with any solutions remaining in the propettes. Rinse all
emptied propettes and other apparatus thoroughly with clean tap water.

QUESTIONS
1. Draw the table below into your workbook. Turn your book onto its side so that the long edge of the page
faces you (we call this landscape orientation). Draw the table so that it fits on the entire page. Make the
Observations column wide enough to write down all of your observations.
Note that this table will be assessed. You must complete the table in full.
Table 1
TYPE OF
OBSERVATIONS BALANCED
REACTION REASON/
REACTION (write down in detail CHEMICAL
(you can tick more EXPLANATION
all that you see) EQUATION
than 1 option)
A.sodium carbonate  Precipitation
+hydrochloric acid  Gas-forming
 Acid-base
 Redox
B.hydrochloric acid +  Precipitation
sodium hydroxide  Gas-forming
 Acid-base
 Redox
C.sodium bromide +  Precipitation
silver nitrate  Gas-forming
 Acid-base
 Redox
D.copper sulfate + iron  Precipitation
metal  Gas-forming
 Acid-base
 Redox
E.magnesium metal +
water  Precipitation
 Gas-forming
 Acid-base
 Redox
2. In column 4 of Table 1, write down a reason explaining your choice of type of reaction for reactions A to
E. Your reasons must be based on what you have observed.
3. In column 5 of Table 1, write a balanced chemical equation for each of the reactions A to E. You must
include descriptors: (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, (g) for gas and (aq) for aqueous solution.
4. Look carefully at the chemical equation you have written for Reaction D and answer the following
questions:
a. Write down the ionic equation for this reaction.
b. What is the charge on the copper ion in the CuSO4(aq) reactant ?
c. What is the charge on the copper atom in the product Cu(s) metal?
d. What do you notice about the charge on the iron atom in the reactant Fe(s) metal and the charge on
the iron ion in the FeSO4(aq) product?
e. Have any electrons been transferred in this reaction? Explain your answer.
5. The ionic equation for Reaction E is: Mg(s) + 2H2O(l)  Mg2+(aq)+ 2OH-(aq) + H2(g)
a. Has the charge on the Mg atom changed? Explain your answer.
b. What other changes in charges on atoms/ions can you identify in this reaction?
c. Have any electrons been transferred in this reaction? Explain your answer.

ACTIVITY C21: DETERMINATION OF THE WATER OF
CRYSTALLIZATION IN HYDRATED COPPER(II) SULFATE
The activity on water of crystallization is used to determine both the presence of and number of
moles of water in hydrated copper(II) sulfate per mole of copper sulfate.
When water is added to anhydrous copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4 , the blue colour emerges because
CuSO4. xH2O is formed. When CuSO4. xH2O is heated it will turn into anhydrous CuSO4 and this is
a reversible reaction. The substance that is playing a role of bringing about the colour change is
water.
Requirements
Apparatus:
 1 x Comboplate,  digital pocket scale (DPS)  2 x silicone tubes  combustion tube
 microburner,  microspatula,  2 x well lids (Lids 1 and 2)  a watch .
Chemicals:
 0,5 g hydrated copper(II) sulfate;
 methylated spirits for the microburner is also needed.
Hints:
If a mass of approximately 0,3 g of hydrated copper(II) sulfate is decomposed by heating until all of the
water of crystallization has been driven off, then a mass of approximately 0,1 g anhydrous copper(II) sulfate
will remain. This starting mass was chosen because it is suitable for the practical activity, due to limited
time, but large enough to create fairly accurate readings on a DPS.
Precautions:
Carry out the practical activity in a safe, well ventilated classroom.
Please remember the following precautions .

Since a microburner is being used with the combustion tube it is likely to get very hot. Therefore it is
important not to sit but stand at the desk in case anything falls off the desk that would otherwise land in
somebody's lap.
What to do:
1. Draw the Results Table shown on the next page into your book.
2. Measure the mass of an empty combustion tube using the DPS.
3. Transfer a small mass of blue, hydrated copper(II) sulfate into a combustion tube using the thin end of a
microspatula.
4. Measure the mass of the combustion tube with hydrated copper(II) sulfate.
5. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

6. Heat the combustion tube and contents over a microburner flame until the water of crystallization is
driven off. The blue colour of the hydrated compound should gradually fade to the greyish-white of
anhydrous copper(II) sulfate. A maximum of about 10 minutes should be required.
7. Allow the combustion tube and contents to cool. Thereafter remove the combustion tube from the
silicone tubes attached to the lids 1 and 2 on the comboplate onto the DPS.
8. Measure the mass of the combustion tube and contents.
Results table
Before heating Mass of an empty combustion tube/g
Mass of a combustion tube + hydrated salt/g
Mass of hydrated salt = Mass of a combustion tube + hydrated salt -
Mass of an empty combustion tube/g
After heating Mass of an empty combustion tube/g
Mass of a combustion tube + anhydrous salt/g
Mass of anhydrous salt = Mass of a combustion tube + anhydrous
salt - Mass of an empty combustion tube /g
Mass of water of crystallization = Mass of hydrated salt - Mass of
anhydrous salt /g
Questions
It is recommended that learners write down all of the questions and answers in their workbooks. If this is
done, then learners need to show all the steps that lead to their final answers.
1. Calculate the mole ratio of copper sulfate, CuSO4, to water, H2O using your experimental results from
the table above.
2. Write a balanced equation for the dehydration of hydrated copper sulfate.
3. Calculate the empirical formula of the hydrated salt if 0,22 g of blue hydrated copper(II) sulfate,
CuSO4.xH2O, (x unknown) was gently heated in a combustion tube until the mass remaining was 0,15 g.

CHEMICAL SYSTEMS
PAGE
RPA Activity C22 Analysis of Water Samples: pH, Different Ions and 62
Appearance
PPA Activity C23 PROJECT: Purification and Quality of Water 68

ACTIVITY C22: ANALYSIS OF WATER SAMPLES
- pH, DIFFERENT IONS AND APPEARANCE
Introduction
In this activity, you will carry out some tests on water samples for pH, and the presence of chlorides,
carbonates, nitrates and nitrites. You will also use a hand lens or microscope to look at the water samples to
observe their appearance. These tests are important because dissolved substances in water can affect the
quality of water in ecosystems. Fish and plants in aquatic systems can be affected by small changes in pH
and certain ions can be toxic to living organisms. Water that contains high concentrations of ions is also not
suitable for human consumption (i.e. not potable), and the more salty the water is the poorer its potability.
Requirements
Apparatus:
• 1 x comboplate; • 1 x 2 ml syringe • 6 x propettes • 3 x microspatulas •1 x large sample vial
• 2 or 3 small sample vials • 1 x pair forceps (tweezers); • 1 x microstand
• Universal Indicator Paper • Colour chart for indicator paper • cotton wool
Chemicals:
Chloride • 0.1 M sodium chloride solution (NaCl(aq));  0.1 M silver nitrate solution (AgNO3(aq))
Test: • 2.0 M nitric acid (HNO3(aq)).
Carbonate • 0.5 M sodium hydrogencarbonate solution  0.5 M barium chloride solution (BaCl2(aq));
Test: (NaHCO3(aq));
• 5.5 M hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq).
Nitrate & • Nitrate/Nitrite Test Strip + colour chart
Nitrite Test:
pH: • 0.04% bromothymol blue indicator solution
Other:
You will also need:
• Your own water sample collected from a local source (one per group)
• A container for waste • A plastic teaspoon • Tap water • Paper towel
• 1-2 teaspoons washed and dried fine sand (± 1 mm grain size). • A hand lens
• 1-2 teaspoons washed and dried coarse sand (maximum 5 mm grain size).
What to do:
A Preparing the Water Sample for Testing
1. Shake/stir your water sample. Pour enough of your water into a large sample vial to fill it ¾ full. Observe
the appearance and smell of the water, then read the questions below:
 Is the water sample clear and colourless (or only slightly coloured)?
If Yes, then move on to Part B. You do not need to filter the sample.
If No, then read on.
 Is the water sample clear, colourless or only slightly coloured, but with leaves and/or twigs and/or
other pieces of debris floating in the sample?

If Yes, then use the blue plastic tweezers (forceps) to remove the pieces of matter from the sample.
Once this has been done, you can move on to Part B without filtering the sample.
If No, then read on.
 Is the water dirty or muddy/murky or darkly coloured, smelly, with or without other matter floating
in the sample?
If Yes, you need to first remove any visible matter that is floating in the sample using the blue plastic
forceps. Once this has been done, use the filtration method described below to filter the water
sample before continuing with Part B.
Filtering the Water Sample – the Sand and Pebble Method
The method described here uses sand granules of different sizes to filter the water sample after
large pieces of debris have been removed. You do not have to use this method. If you have filter
paper and filter funnels you can use these to filter the water. Ask your teacher for the equipment.
1. Construct a sand filter in the 2 ml syringe as follows:

a. Remove the plunger from the syringe and put it to one side.
b. Use the comboplate and the microstand to support the syringe.
c. Put a small piece of cotton wool in the bottom of the syringe. The cotton wool should be pulled apart
so that you have a thin layer of cotton wool. If the layer is too thick, the filter won‟t work properly.
Use a pen or pencil and lightly tap the cotton wool into position.
d. Use the back end of the teaspoon to pour the coarse sand on top of the cotton wool, up to the 1,5 mℓ
mark. It doesn‟t matter if there are spaces between the grains of sand.
e. Pour the fine sand on top of the coarse sand to fill the syringe, leaving a space of approximately
1 mm at the top. You don‟t need to press in the sand tightly.
f. Put a waste container under the syringe filter. Clean the filter by slowly and carefully adding clean
drinking water into the syringe, using a propette. Throw away the water that has passed through the
filter.
2. Place a small sample vial under the nozzle of the syringe. You will use this to collect the filtered water as
it passes through the filter.
3. Whilst you have been preparing the syringe filter, some of the sediment in your water sample should
have settled. Use a clean propette to suck up some of the water from just below the liquid surface.
4. Add the water mixture to the filter in the syringe. Suck up some more of your water sample. Be careful
not to disturb the sediment. Add this to the filter as before.
5. Continue in this way until you have filtered approximately ¾ of the water sample.
6. Collect your filtered water in the small sample vial. When the sample vial is nearly full, exchange it with
another clean, small sample vial and collect a second vial of filtered water.
You can also use the sample vial from the microburner to collect water. Make sure that it is clean.
7. Keep all of the vials of filtered water and move on to Part B of the activity.
Clean the syringe out thoroughly and dry it because you will need it again for the pH test. Rinse all
other equipment used during filtration.
B Testing for the Presence of Carbonate Ions

In this experiment, you will first test a known carbonate sample (sodium hydrogencarbonate) so
that you can see exactly what happens when a carbonate is present in aqueous solution. You will
then test your water sample/s and compare the results with the known carbonate sample. Based on
your observations, you will conclude whether your sample contains carbonate ions.
1. Before you start, draw Table 1 (see Questions) into your workbooks. You will use this table to record all
observations made during the carbonate test.

2. Make sure that the comboplate and all of the propettes are clean. Fill one propette with sodium
hydrogencarbonate solution (NaHCO3(aq)) and another with barium chloride solution (BaCl2(aq)).
3. Place 5 drops of NaHCO3(aq) into well A1. Add 3 drops of the BaCl2(aq) to the same well.
4. Fill the final propette with hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq). Add 2 drops of this acid into well A1.
6. Repeat steps 3 to 5 in well A2, but this time use 5 drops of your water sample in place of the
NaHCO3(aq).
7. Record your results in Table 1 for the water sample.
Rinse all propettes out thoroughly with clean tap water. Remove as much water as possible by tapping
the tips of the propettes on paper towel and squirting out any water remaining in them.
C Testing for the Presence of Chloride Ions

In this experiment, you will first test a known chloride sample (sodium chloride) so that you can
see exactly what happens when a chloride is present in aqueous solution. You will then test your
water sample/s and compare the results with the known chloride sample. Based on your
observations, you will conclude whether your sample contains chloride ions.
1. Before you start, draw Table 2 (see Questions) into your workbooks. You will use this table to record all
observations made during the chloride test.
2. Make sure that all of the propettes are clean and dry. Fill one propette with sodium chloride solution
(NaCl(aq)), another with the nitric acid (HNO3(aq)) and a third propette with silver nitrate solution
(AgNO3(aq)).
3. Place 5 drops of NaCl(aq) into well A4. Add 2 drops of HNO3(aq) to the NaCl(aq). Now add 3 drops of
AgNO3(aq) to the well.
5. Repeat step 3 in well A5, but this time use 5 drops of your water sample in place of the NaCl(aq).
6. Record your results in Table 2 for the water sample.
Rinse all propettes out thoroughly with clean tap water.
Remove as much water as possible from each one before continuing with Part D.
D. Testing for the Presence of Nitrate and Nitrate Ions

This activity uses nitrate/nitrite test strips that you can buy from pet shops or fish stores. Each
group will receive one test strip per water sample. Do not waste the strips because they are
expensive. Follow the instructions given to you by your teacher. The procedure given below is for
one kind of test strip that is used to measure nitrate and nitrite concentration. Each supplier may
have a different set of instructions: Ask your teacher for the instructions which you need to use for your
particular test strip.
1. Before you start, draw Table 3 (see Questions) into your workbooks. You will use this table to record the
colours on the test strip and the concentrations of nitrate and nitrite ions in your water sample.
2. Use a clean propette to fill about ⅔ of well F1 with your water sample.
3. Dip the nitrate/nitrite test strip into the water sample for two seconds. Make sure that the entire lower end
of the strip is completely under the surface of the water so that the little test squares are properly covered
with water. You may need to bend the test strip slightly at the lower end.
If you have enough water sample available, pour the water into a small sample vial and dip the test strip
into the vial for two seconds so that it is properly covered.
4. Remove the strip from the water sample and wait for one minute.
5. You will see colours developing on the little nitrate and nitrite test squares. Compare these colours with
the colour chart provided with the strips.
6. Record the concentrations (in parts per million/ppm) of nitrate and nitrite ions in your water sample.

E Testing the pH of your Water Sample
This activity requires that you first test the pH of your water sample using the Universal Indicator
Paper in the Advanced Kit. If the colour of the indicator paper shows that the pH of the water has
a value in the range of 6.0 to 8.0, you should test the pH of your sample again using the
bromothymol blue (BTB) indicator solution. This will give you a more accurate pH measurement
for your sample.
1. Before you start, draw Table 4 (see Questions) into your workbooks. .
2. Remove one piece of the Universal Indicator Paper from the little book in the Advanced Kit. Cut or tear
the strip into 2 or 3 smaller pieces (depending on the number of water samples you want to test).
3. Use a clean propette to place 1 drop of your water sample onto one of the pieces of indicator paper.
4. Use the colour chart provided in the Advanced Kit to estimate the approximate pH value of your water
sample (you can record this as a pH range instead of a single pH value e.g. red = pH 1 - 4).
5. Record your results in Table 4 for Universal Indicator Paper.
6. If you have found that the colour of the indicator paper is yellow (pH 6); green (pH 7) or blue-green (pH
8) after testing your water sample, you need to carry out a more accurate test with bromothymol blue
indicator solution.
7. Make sure the syringe is clean and dry. Fill the syringe with 2 ml of your water sample.
8. Add the 2 ml of water to well F3. Use a clean propette to add three equal-sized drops of BTB indicator
solution to the sample. Stir the contents of the well with a clean microspatula.
9. Observe the colour of the indicator carefully and use the following chart to estimate the pH value of your
water sample using BTB indicator. Record the pH value in Table 4.
BTB indicator colour Approximate pH value BTB indicator colour Approximate pH value
yellow 6.0 Blue-green 7.2
yellow-green 6.2 Blue 7.4-7.6
Lime green 6.4 – 6.8 Dark Blue 7.8
Green 7.0
10. Repeat steps 8 and 9 in well F4. Work out an average pH value for your water sample and record this in
Table 4.
You do not need to test your sample with BTB indicator if the colour of the Universal Indicator Paper is
red, orange, blue, dark blue or purple.
Rinse the comboplate thoroughly with tap water and make sure that all solids have been
washed out of the small wells. Rinse all emptied propettes and other apparatus thoroughly with
clean tap water. Dry the large wells of the comboplate before Part F.
F Observing your Water Sample using a Hand Lens

1. Use a clean propette to add your water sample to a large well of the comboplate until it is nearly full.
2. Hold the hand lens over the well so that you have a good magnified view of the water sample.
3. Describe the appearance of your water sample.
If you had to filter your sample at the start of the activity, then fill another large well with the
unfiltered sample and look at it under the hand lens. Describe and compare both filtered and unfiltered
samples.
If you still have some time left, swap water samples with another group and repeat each of the tests with
a different water sample. Otherwise, rinse out the comboplate and all other apparatus with clean tap
water and answer the questions that follow.

QUESTIONS
Part B: Testing for the Presence of Carbonate Ions
1. Prepare a table like Table 1 below. Record all of your observations in the table for Part B.
Table 1
Appearance before Appearance after What happens when
Well Sample Tested
adding BaCl2(aq) adding BaCl2(aq) 5.5 M HCl(aq) is added?
A1 0.5 M NaHCO3(aq)
A2
2. Does your water sample/s contain carbonate ions? Explain your answer.
3. If water in the environment contains high concentrations of carbonate ions, where do you think these ions
have come from?
Part C: Testing for the Presence of Chloride Ions

1. Prepare a table like Table 2 below. Record all of your observations in the table for Part C.
Table 2
Initial Appearance Final Appearance

Well Sample Tested
(before adding AgNO3(aq)) (after adding AgNO3(aq))
A1 0.1 M NaCl(aq)
A2
2. Does your water sample/s contain chloride ions? Explain your answer.
3. If you observe a positive test for chloride ions, does your water sample contain a higher or lower
concentration than the NaCl(aq) test solution, or the same concentration of chloride ions as the NaCl(aq)
test solution? How do you know? (Hint: compare the precipitates in A1 and A2.)
4. Which water sample do you think would contain more chloride ions, a river water sample or a sea water
sample? Give a reason for your answer.
Part D: Testing for the Presence of Nitrate and Nitrite Ions

1. Prepare a table like Table 3 below. Record all of your observations in the table for Part C.
Table 3
Concentration of Concentration of
Colour of Nitrate Colour of Nitrite
Sample Tested Nitrate Ions in Nitrite Ions in
Test Square Test Square
Sample / ppm Sample / ppm
2. Drinking water which contains less than 10 ppm of nitrate ions is considered to be safe to drink. Ion
concentrations greater than this can cause illness in humans, especially babies. In terms of nitrate ion
concentration, would you say that your water sample could be safe for human use?
3. Nitrates are formed as part of the Nitrogen Cycle which takes place all the time in our environment. Two
ways in which nitrates can enter water are:
 when nitrifying bacteria in the soil break down ammonia into nitrates, and

 when fertilizers added to soil for plant growth run into streams and rivers or leach into underground
water.
Which one of these two do you think is more likely to cause water to turn the nitrate/nitrite test strip dark
pink, and contribute to high concentrations of nitrate ions in water that can make animals and humans
sick?. Why?
Part E: Testing the pH of your Water Sample

1. Prepare a table like Table 4 below. Record the pH value of your sample/s using Universal Indicator
paper. If the pH falls in the range of 6.0 – 8.0, test the sample with BTB indicator solution and fill in the
results in the columns provided.
Table 4
pH value with pH value with
Average pH value
Water Sample Universal Indicator Bromothymol Blue
using BTB indicator
Paper Indicator
Trial 1 Trial 2
1. ____________
2. ____________
2.
2. Based on3.your results, does your water sample have a high or low pH, or is the sample close to neutral?
3. Do you think your water sample would be safe to drink if it were tap water? Give a reason for your
answer.
4. There are many coal power stations in South Africa.
a. Do you think water bodies, like lakes and streams, close to these power stations have a high or low
pH? Explain your answer.
b. What do you think will be the impact of this pH on aquatic life in the water?
Part F: Observing your Water Sample using a Hand Lens

1. Describe in as much detail as possible the appearance of your water sample as viewed under a hand lens.
(If you had to filter your water sample at the start, look at both the unfiltered and filtered samples.)
SUMMARY TABLE
Copy and complete the following Summary Table describing your sample and showing all the results you
obtained for your sample.
Group Number
Date of water sample collection
Type of water (sea, dam, lake, pond, tap, etc.)
Describe where you found the water
Date the experiment was performed
Presence of carbonate ions  Yes  No (tick the correct option)
Presence of chloride ions  Yes  No (tick the correct option)
Concentration of nitrate ions / ppm
Concentration of nitrite ions / ppm
pH value
Describe the magnified appearance of the sample

PPA TEACHER’S NOTES
PRESCRIBED PRACTICAL ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY C23: PROJECT - PURIFICATION AND QUALITY OF WATER

Context in the CAPS Document:
CAPS, page 14
In Grade 10, ONE project is done per year as formal assessment either in Chemistry or in Physics or an
integrated Chemistry/Physics project (started in Term 1 and assessed in Term 3). Any ONE of the
recommended projects can be done or any ONE of the experiments can be done as a practical investigation
or any other topic of choice can be used as a project. It is recommended that the topic is given to the learners
early in the first term so that learners can start the project. The final assessment of the project is done and
recorded in the third term.
Assessment of the project
CAPS, page 145.
A project will entail one of the following:

i. Making of a poster (see recommended topics for Grade 10)
Recommended topics for Grade 10 posters:
Physics Topics: Wave energy or Tsunamis or Solar Energy or Aurora Borealis
Chemistry Topics: The discovery of radioactivity or The purpose and applications of atmospheric
chemistry or Chromatography
ii. Construction of a device, e.g. electric motor
iii. Building a physical model in order to solve a challenge you have identified, using concepts in the
FET Physical Sciences curriculum
iv. Practical investigation
Note: the assessment tools used, specifying the assessment criteria for each task, will be dictated by the
nature of the task and the focus of assessment. Assessment tools could be one or a combination of rubrics,
checklist, observation schedules and memoranda.
The weighting of the project in Term 3 is 20 marks out of a total of 30 marks for the term. It therefore
contributes 20% to the Assessment Task total.
Context of the Chemistry project: Purification and Quality of Water

The project in Term 3 is preceded by „Reactions in aqueous solution‟ – Chemical Change Grade 10. The
topic includes interactions and effects of ions in aqueous solutions, electrolytes and extent of ionization,
precipitation reactions and other chemical reaction types in aqueous solutions. In Term 4, there is a link
between the project and Chemical Systems Grade 10 - The Hydrosphere.
Skills addressed in the project:

CAPS, p 158
i) Poster:
 Planning –the poster layout should be logical and visually balanced.
 Observation – e.g. in chromatography, the necessary observations should be reported.
 Gathering of information – a poster should reflect that information from a number of sources was
gathered and portrayed as a coherent whole.
 Comprehension – the poster should clearly reflect that the information is understood and was used
appropriately.
 Communicating results and conclusions – even if the poster reports on information that was gathered,
and not on an investigation, there should be clear conclusions or recommendations.

ii) Construction of a device
 Planning –the device should be planned and sketches made before any construction takes place.
 Observation – during the construction and trialling stages observations should be noted and used to
inform changes in design.
 Gathering of information – information from a number of sources should be consulted to design a device.
 Comprehension – the device should show clearly that the underlying scientific principles are understood
and applied correctly.
 Synthesizing – if a novel design is used, synthesis from familiar designs to a new design should be
evident.
 Generalizing – if the device fulfils a function successfully, generalizations could be done to list other
possible applications
 Hypothesizing – when the device is testing a hypothesis, a clear link between the action of the device and
the hypothesis should be shown.
 Communicating results and conclusions – construction of a successful device should be accompanied by
a written report giving results, conclusions, challenges experienced and possible shortcomings and
improvements of the device.
iii) Building a physical model

 Planning –the model should be planned and sketches made before any building takes place.
 Gathering of information – information from a number of sources should be consulted to design the
model.
 Comprehension – the model should show clearly that the underlying scientific principles are understood
and applied correctly.
 Synthesizing – if a novel model is built, synthesis from familiar models to a new model should be
evident.
 Generalizing – if the model solves the perceived challenge in understanding of an aspect of the Physical
Sciences curriculum successfully, generalizations could be done to suggest other models
 Communicating results and conclusions – building of a suitable model should be accompanied by a
written report giving results, conclusions, challenges experienced and possible shortcomings and
improvements of the model.
iv) Practical investigation

 Planning –the investigation should be planned with a clear link to the hypothesis being investigated and
available equipment.
 Observation and measurement – a practical investigation should lead to recordable observations and /or
quantitative measurements.
 Gathering of information – if the practical investigation is new, information from a number of sources
may be consulted to select an appropriate set of experimental conditions.
 Comprehension – the practical investigation should show clearly that the underlying scientific principles
are understood, applied correctly and reported on in a suitable format.
 Synthesizing – if a novel investigation is used, synthesis from familiar experiments to a new set of
experimental conditions should be evident.
 Hypothesizing – the link between the results of the practical investigation and the hypothesis should be
shown clearly.
 Communicating results and conclusions – undertaking a practical investigation should be accompanied
by a written report giving the hypothesis, the variables, the experimental method, the observations and
measurements, results in the form of graphs if applicable, conclusions, challenges experienced and
possible shortcomings and improvements of the practical investigation.

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE PROJECT: WATER PURIFICATION AND QUALITY
Poster
 Schematic diagram of a municipal water treatment plant
 Summary to show different types of impurities and international standards for tap water
 What does it mean if drinking water has „Blue Drop‟ status?
 Pictorial collage of different water sources and water pollution.
Construction of a device
 Constructing a filter to remove solid materials from untreated water
 Constructing a filter/disinfection combination to remove both solid materials and micro-organisms from
untreated water.
 Constructing a water-softening device to remove undesirable ions from solution.
Building a physical model

 A model showing pure water vs. water containing impurities
 A model showing the composition of tap water.
Practical investigation
Investigative questions*
 How much salt is there in different types of water?
 Can solar energy be used effectively to purify water?
 Is the pH of natural water the same as that of tap water?
 How much disinfectant is needed to purify a natural water sample?
Hypotheses*
 Borehole water will contain more salt than tap water.
 Solar energy can effectively be used to purify water.
 The pH of natural water will vary considerably from one place to another, whereas the pH of tap water
will be similar for different towns.
 Household bleach is an efficient disinfectant to provide safe drinking water.
* The investigative questions and hypotheses can be addressed by four activities in the Global Water
Experiment, International Year of Chemistry, 2011. Details on www.radmaste.org.za

ASSESSMENT OF THE PROJECT: WATER PURIFICATION AND QUALITY
i) Poster, e.g. a poster on the international standards for drinking water.

A poster is suitable for visual learners. These learners learn best from visual material and are also able to
depict their understanding best by using visual images. The assessment should make provision for
learners‟ creativity and the visual impact of the poster, with assessing scientific content as well as logical
flow of the information at the same time. Learners who submit posters for the project should not see the
poster as an „easy‟ option, but should spend a comparable amount of time on their efforts.
EXAMPLE OF ASSESSING A POSTER.

(Adapted from Judges Scoring Sheet – National Science Expo)
Term 1: Learner should choose topic and one alternative topic 5 marks
Term 2: Learner should submit the following for final topic chosen:
Summary of information that will appear on the poster 10 marks
Preliminary sketch of poster 10 marks
Preliminary list of references 5 marks
Teacher to provide guidelines for improvement of poster
Term 3: Final assessment of poster 20 marks
Levels
0 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0
Satisfactory,
Assessment Criteria Not done, but
Fair, only Extensive,
Poor, very minor good
not considerable
weak improvements quality
present improvements
needed project.
needed
Poster summarizes topic
Includes background, need for information,
Poster is well organised
There is a logical flow of information, i.e.
centre to sides, top to bottom or left to right
Evidence of scientific content
Clear links of information on poster and
scientific principles
Use of graphs
Title, scales on axes, labels on axes, shapes of
data appropriate
Use of tables
Headings, descriptors of columns appropriate,
data ordered in logical sequence
Poster is bright and eye catching
The poster makes an impact and captures the
attention – good use of colour and contrast
Written language on poster
Legible, scientific, suitable headings, spelling
Other authentic material displayed
Can include brochures, photographs, etc.
References
Should be given concisely and correctly
Acknowledgements
Assistance by organisations, persons.

ii) Construction of a device, e.g. constructing a water-softening filter to remove undesirable ions
from solution.
This type of project is suitable for learners who learn by manipulating objects. They learn better from
seeing water softening taking place in a filter they have assembled than they would from a poster
depicting the same topic. They enjoy solving challenges that involve „getting things to work‟ and
assessment of this type of project should take this into account.
It is essential however, that the learner also submits a written record of the construction process, not just
the final product.
EXAMPLE OF ASSESSING A WATER SOFTENING FILTER.
Term 2: Learner should submit the following for final topic/device chosen:
Outline of aim, e.g. to construct a filter to remove ions from solution 2 marks
Summary of scientific principles used in the filter 10 marks
Preliminary sketch of filter 2 marks
List of references 3 marks
Prototype construction and costing of filter 8 marks
Teacher to provide guidelines for improvement of device/filter
Term 3: Final assessment of water-softening filter 20 marks
Levels
0 1 2 3 4
Satisfactory,
Assessment Criteria Not done, but
Poor, very minor good
not considerable
weak improvements quality
present improvements
needed project.
needed
Filter achieves aim
Clear illustration that the concentration of
ions decreases when the solution passes
through the filter
Filter construction
The filter is well-constructed and sufficiently
robust to be used in a demonstration run
Clear links of information listed in summary
and operation of filter
Evidence of problem solving
There should be improvement/development
between prototype and final product
Journal - Written language NO YES
Legible, scientific, suitable headings, spelling
Journal - Record of construction NO YES
Progression from prototype to final product
Journal - Other material displayed
Can include photographs of process, trial NO YES
results, costing and invoices, etc.
Journal –References and
acknowledgements NO YES

iii) Building a physical model, e.g. a model showing pure water vs. water containing impurities.
This type of project is suitable for visual learners who also learn by manipulating objects. They learn
better from seeing a model than they learn from a paragraph of text. They might not have the necessary
problem solving skills to attempt constructing a working device, but their manipulative skills will
encourage them to build a model rather than design a poster. The aspect of model building is important to
the learner and assessment of this type of project should take this into account. It is essential however,
that the learner also submits a written record of the modelling process, not just the final product.
EXAMPLE OF ASSESSING A MODEL DEPICTING PURE AND IMPURE WATER.
Term 2: Learner should submit the following for final topic/model chosen:
Summary of scientific principles depicted in the model 10 marks
Preliminary sketch of model 5 marks
List of required modelling materials, suitable key and cost/source 5 marks
List of references 5 marks
Teacher to provide guidelines for improvement of model
Term 3: Final assessment of model showing pure and impure water 20 marks
Levels
0 1 2 3 4
Satisfactory,
Assessment Criteria but
Not done, not Poor, very minor good
considerable
present weak improvements quality
improvements
needed project.
needed
Clear links of information listed in
summary and appearance of model
Model construction
The model is well-constructed,
modelling materials are used
consistently and the model is suitable to
be used in a demonstration
Model is bright and eye catching
The model makes an impact and
captures the attention – good use of
colour and contrast
Major Minor
Good quality
Journal improvements improvements
work
needed needed
Written language
Legible, scientific, suitable headings,
spelling
Record of construction
Progression from prototype to final
product
Other material displayed
Can include photographs of process,
trial results, costing and invoices, etc.
References, acknowledgements

iv) Practical investigation, e.g. investigating the hypothesis that borehole water will contain
more salt than tap water.
This type of project is suitable for learners that are capable of using the scientific method to plan an
investigation, identify and control experimental variables and record a suitable quantifiable
measurement. The teacher will have to judge whether the learners are capable enough to devise their own
method, or whether one or two suitable methods for the investigation will be provided and learners will
be allowed to use a method from the options provided or a method of their own choice. Choice of method
should not greatly affect the assessment. Learners should have the necessary problem solving and
manipulative skills to obtain accurate, reproducible results to prove their hypothesis. The practical aspect
of doing the investigation is important to the learner and assessment of this type of project should take
this into account. It is essential however, that the learner also submits a written report of the
investigation.
EXAMPLE OF ASSESSING AN INVESTIGATION OF THE HYPOTHESIS THAT

BOREHOLE WATER WILL CONTAIN MORE SALT THAN TAP WATER.
Term 1: Learner should choose hypothesis/investigative question for the 5 marks

practical investigation
Term 2: Learner should submit the following for final topic/device chosen:
Summary of scientific principles in the hypothesis, e.g. evaporation, 10 marks
salinity, gravimetric determination of salt content, etc.
Clear description of how hypothesis will be tested (method) 5 marks
Discussion of variables, e.g. the independent variable (type of water); 5 marks
dependent variable (mass of salt after evaporation) and controlled
variables (volume of water, time of evaporation, etc).
List of required equipment 5 marks
Teacher to provide guidelines for improvement of investigation
Term 3: Final assessment of practical investigation to test the hypothesis that 20 marks
borehole water will contain more salt than tap water (see pp 87, 88)
The teacher should adapt the final assessment to suit classroom conditions. If only a few learners have opted
to do a practical investigation, the teacher should insist that the practical investigation is done at school,
under teacher supervision/observation and learners can be assessed individually. If a considerable number
of learners have chosen this option, equipment requirements might necessitate learners working in a number
of sessions with group work also being assessed. Only in exceptional circumstances should learners be
allowed to undertake the practical investigation at home.

Area Criteria Example Activities listed against
which to assess criterion
Set 1. Use syringe to transfer 2ml of tap
up/handling water to petri dish
of apparatus: 2. Use second syringe to transfer 2 ml
of borehole water to second petri
1. Start of
dish
experiment
3. Place both petri dishes in area to
(3 marks)
maximise evaporation.
Mark 1 step correct: 1 mark
allocation 2 steps correct: 2 marks
3 steps correct: 3 marks
Tidy up: 1. Disposes of litter in trash can
PROCEDURAL ASSESSMENT (10 MARKS)
2. Petri dishes are washed and dried

3. Syringes are rinsed
2. End of
4. All equipment returned to place of
experiment
issue
(2 marks)
5. Any spilled water is dried up
Mark At least 3 activities: 1 mark
allocation 4 - 5 activities: 2 marks
1. Find mass of both clean, empty
petri dishes.
2. Find mass of both petri dishes after
2 ml of each type of water has been
3. Correct added to a dish
measurements 3. Find mass of petri dish +
(3 marks) crystallized salt after evaporation is
complete
3 steps correct: 3 marks
1. Mass readings recorded on scrap
paper
2. Mass readings recorded on
4. Recording of improvised table
results 3. Mass reading recorded on
(2 marks) previously prepared table.
Mark Step 1: 0 marks
allocation Step 2: 1 mark
Step 3: 2 marks

Area Criteria Example Activities listed against
which to assess criterion
Required: 1. Table heading
Evidence of 2. Column headings
use of a table 3. Logical sequence of results
to summarize
1. Recording of
information
results
of
(2 marks)
measurements
made
allocation 2 - 3 steps correct: 2 marks
Format of 1. Interpretation of results given in
REPORTING ASSESSMENT (10 MARKS)
interpretation written paragraph

2. Results reported graphically
a. Graph: types of water on X -
axis
2. Interpretation b. Graph: mass of salt on Y-axis
of results c. Graph: scale on Y-axis correct
(4 marks) d. Graph: labels on axes
e. Graph: title for graph
Mark Written paragraph: 2 marks
allocation Graph: 1 - 2 criteria, 2 marks
Graph: 3 criteria, 3 marks
Graph: 4 – 5 criteria, 4 marks
1. Comparison of salt content in tap
and borehole water.
3. Conclusions 2. Linking of conclusions to testing of
(2 marks) hypothesis.
1. Linking of salt content of tap water
to international standards for tap
water.
4. Application of
2. Linking of salt content of borehole
results
water to geological composition of
(2 marks)
rocks in area.
Mark Step 1: 1 mark
allocation Step 2: 2 marks

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RADMASTE

A Learner Guide for Grade 10 Physical Sciences

RADMASTE Centre, Wits School of Education,

MATTER AND MATERIALS 4

PP Activity C23 PROJECT: Purification and Quality of Water 68

RPA RPA = RECOMMENDED PRACTICAL ACTIVITY

Activity C7 The Electrolysis of Water 17

Activity C8 Particles and Formulae 19

Activity C9 Molecules and Formulae 21

2. How would you describe the mixtures in (1) – as homogeneous or heterogeneous?

RADMASTE LEARNER GUIDE: PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES FOR CAPS GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY 5

Collect from your teacher:

Procedure for the experiment

D. Answer the following questions in your book:

RADMASTE LEARNER GUIDE: PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES FOR CAPS GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY 6

Pure Substances: Elements and Compounds

Pure Substances: Elements and Compounds

ACTIVITY 2 (FET or GET stencil)

RADMASTE LEARNER GUIDE: PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES FOR CAPS GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY 7

Collect from your teacher:

• a sheet of filter paper

Procedure for the experiment

Filter paper Filter paper standing

Small sample vial

Line of coloured ink Line of coloured ink

3. Insert the small sample vial in well F1 of the comboplate.

RADMASTE LEARNER GUIDE: PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES FOR CAPS GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY 8

Pour the contents of the vial into a waste container.

RADMASTE LEARNER GUIDE: PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES FOR CAPS GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY 9

Make sure that your group has the following:

Collect from your teacher:

Procedure for the experiment

RADMASTE LEARNER GUIDE: PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES FOR CAPS GRADE 10 CHEMISTRY 10

Piece of candle wax Aluminium

CLEAN THE TEST MATERIALS WELL BEFORE PROCEEDING WITH PART C

Part C –testing the magnetic properties of materials

Answer the following questions in your book

Rinse all chemistry apparatus with clean water.

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From the Advanced Microchemistry kit:

Collect from your teacher:

Instructions for a heating curve:

Instructions for a cooling curve:

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Answer the following questions in your book

2. What is the name of the substance? How do you know?

Rinse all apparatus with clean water.

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You will also need: Tap water and paper towel.

Dip the glass rod in well

 Darken the room if possible.

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1. What elements could each of the fireworks have in them?

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Apparatus: From the Microchemistry Kit:

Chemicals: Sodium sulphate decahydrate, Tap water.

Tap water containing Na2SO4.10H2O

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