ENVIRONMENT AND

ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES

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An Introduction to Environment and Environmental
Studies:

Today, human society is standing at a cross road and

searching for the better alternatives for sustainable future
earth. That is why there is a necessity that every individual
should have awareness and knowledge about the earth‟s
environmental resources, human-environment relationship
and issues emerging out of human-environment relationship.
This block has made an attempt to establish the importance of
symbiotic relationship and the need for sustainable
development. This block consists of three units. Unit 1
introduces concept of environment and nature and importance
of environmental studies. Unit 2 discusses about the concept,
features, types and functions of ecosystem and Unit 3
describes about major ecosystems
on the earth.
Natural Resources:

This block discusses about natural resources that provide the

base for human sustenance and development by providing
ecosystem services. There has been substantial decline and
degradation of natural resources over the years. As a result of
which, there has been a negative impact on ecosystem
services. Therefore, there is a need
for sustainable natural resource management. This block
consists of four units. Unit 4 deals with land and water
resources while Unit 5 discuses about forest resources. In all
these units, resources are discussed in terms of distribution,
availability, utilisation, causes of degradation and need for
and methods of conservation.

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 Environmental Issues and Concerns:

This block consists of four units related to various

environmental issues confronted by humans at different levels
- local to global. Unit 8 titled Biodiversity: Threats and
Concerns focused on causes of bio-diversity loss and
measures for biodiversity conservation. Unit 9
„„Environmental Pollution and Hazards‟‟discussed about the
phenomenon of pollution in air, water and soil, their sources
and their
effects. Apart from these, noise, radiations and thermal
pollution have also been discussed. Unit 10 titled Waste
Management discussed about the waste and various ways of
waste disposal system which have minimum harm to the
environment. Unit 11 titled Global
Environmental Issues discussed the causes and effects of
phenomena namely, global warming, acid rain, ozone
depletion and some of the measures taken to deal with these
issues.

CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENT

Each and every living organism has a specific surrounding or

medium with which it continuously interacts, derives its
sustenance and to which it is fully adapted. This surrounding
is the „natural environment‟. The word „natural environment‟
brings to mind broad aspects of landscape, such as soil, water,
desert or mountains which can be more exactly described in
terms of physical or abiotic influences such as differences in
moisture, temperature, texture of soil, and air quality. It also
includes the biological or biotic influences in the form of
microbes and animals. Thus, environment is defined as, “the

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sum total of living and non-living components; influences
and events surrounding an organism”.
Let us begin by asking what is environment? Environment is
derived from French word environ which means to encircle or
surround while ment means auctioning, i.e., environment is
the interaction between organism and the nature. For humans,
there are several kinds of environment such as home
environment, business environment, political environment and
so on. But we are going to discuss only about natural
environment: air, water, land, plants, animals and other
organisms. Any individual in nature interacts with its
environment, influences it and in turn is influenced by it. Thus
environment is the sum total of air, water and land
interrelationship among themselves and also with the human
beings, plants, animals and other organisms. The most
significant attribute of the effect of environment on life
of an organism is the interaction of environmental elements.
These abiotic and biotic factors are dynamic in nature and
interact with each other in every moment of life. No organism
can live alone without interacting with other organisms, so
each organism has other organisms as a part of its
environment. The biotic environment consists of microscopic
organisms called planktons as well as aquatic plants and
animals and decomposers. The plants are of different kinds
such as floating, submerged and partly submerged plants, and
trees growing around the edge of the pond. The animals
consist of insects, worms, molluscs, tadpoles, frogs, birds and
various kinds of fishes.The decomposers are the saprotrophs
like bacteria and fungi.

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 Our Environment
COMPONENTS AND TYPES OF ENVIRONMENT

After discussing about the concept of environment. In this

section, we will discuss about components, types and
significance of environment.
Components of Environment
Broadly the environment comprises of abiotic (non-living)
and biotic (living) components. Light Plants Precipitation
Animals including humans, parasites and micro Humidity
andWater organisms Temperature Decomposers Atmospheric
gases Seasonal changes Topography The physical components
set the condition for the survival of the biotic components,
which in turn take care of the maintenance of the
environment. Linkages among components of the
environment are pathways for the flow of energy and cycling
of materials. For example, green plants obtain essential
resources from the physical realm – water and minerals from
the soil, carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and light energy
from the sun, and manufacture their food. Animals depend on
plants and other animals for their source of food. We, the
human being, in turn harvest the land and the seas for our
food; and obtain minerals and fuel from the Earth‟s crust. We
will learn more about these later in this course.
Types of Environment:-
Recall the definition of the environment, and consider a fish
living in a natural pond which we have already discussed in
the previous section. Its external environment will be the
water in the pond which it primarily inhabits. The water
would contain nutriaents, oxygen and other organisms that the
fish requires to sustain its life. As opposed to the external
environment, the body cavity within the fish provides an
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internal environment quite separate from the outside
environment. The body surface act as an exchange barrier
between the internal and the external environment of the fish.
The internal environment is relatively stable as compared to
the external environment. However, illness and injury or even
environment stress can upset it. But when
the cause of the disturbance is removed, the internal
environment comes back to its original condition. The pond
which the fish inhabits is its natural environment. The
abiotic factors of the pond, like light, temperature, depth,
nutrients, and dissolved gases will provide the life supporting
chemical and physical factors for the fish. The other living
organisms inhabiting the pond, like bacteria, insects, worms,
molluscs, tadpoles, frogs and aquatic vegetation could be food
for the fish. Examples of such natural environments on land
include forests, grasslands, savannah and deserts. So far we
have discussed only the natural environment but there are
several components of environment which are created by
humans, like crop fields, cities and industrial spaces .These
are places made artificially by humans through planned
manipulation. For Natural Environment Oceans,
lakes/ponds, rivers, forest, grasslands, deserts etc. Human-
modified
Environment Orchards, plantations, sanctuaries, parks, etc.
Human-made Environment Industries, cities, towns, crop
fields, artificial lakes, dams, etc.
Significance of the Environment for Life
Whatever type of environment organisms inhabit, they all
need life supporting elements for their survival. These include
air that they breathe, food and water they take in, and shelter
either as natural (like caves and tree holes) or as artificial
dwellings (like houses). Environment is the only source that
provides these life supporting elements. We make use of the
land for cultivating crops. Soil provides nutrients needed for
the growth of plants. The landform determines the soil types
found in any one area and soil itself varies from place to
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place. Some soils are rich in nutrients and other are lacking in
them. The soils lacking nutrients need the addition of
fertilizers.Climate and short term weather changes are
characterized mainly by wind, temperature, pressure and
rainfall and are determined by the properties of the
atmosphere. Air in the atmosphere provides living organisms
with oxygen, without which survival of the most of the living
organisms will be threatened.

HUMAN- ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP

As we know from the previous section that all living beings

are dependent upon their immediate surroundings for their
sustenance and survival. There are two distinct situations
observed if we trace the history of human civilization. The
first situation is that human being adjusted or adapted to
theprevailing environmental conditions. Those who could not
adapt or adjust perished. Similar situations can be observed
amongst plants and animals also. This approach is best
expressed as „sustainable development‟ which we will discuss
in detail in the next section. But now, let us consider the
various approaches to human-environment relationship i.e.
determinism, possibilism and environmentalism.
Determinism: This concept was developed by German
Geographer
Friedrich Ratzel, which was further expanded by Ellsworth
Huntington. This approach is based on the concept of „nature
controls human‟ or „earth made human‟. This is also known as
environmental determinism. According to this approach,
human being is largely influenced by nature. In fact, the
determinism states that human being is subordinate to natural
environment because all aspects of human life such as
physical (health and well-being), social, economic, political,
ethical and aesthetic not only depend on but are dominantly
controlled by the physical environment.

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Possibilism: This term was coined by the French historian,
Lucien Febvre. Possibilism approach in the study of human-
environment relationship is anoffshoot of the criticism of
environmental determinism. The evolution of such human-
environment relationship was influenced by the advancement
of science and technology. Possibilism indicates that the
physical environment is passive and human being is the active
agent at liberty to choose between wide ranges of
environmental possibilities. According to this apporach, the
pattern of human activity is the result of the initiative and
mobility of human being operating within the natural
framework. However, it was agreed upon by the possibilists
that humans lack the abilities to fully
tame the nature and is not always victorious over it. As a
result of the above, some scientists and academics vouched
for „cooperation with nature‟ or „mutual interaction‟ between
human being and environment.
Environmentalism or Ecological Approach:
This approach is based upon the basic principle of ecology,
which is the study of mutual interaction between organisms
and physical environment on the one hand, and the interaction
among the organisms on the other in a given ecosystem. This
approach describes human being as an integral part of nature
or environment. Human being as the most skilled and
intelligent has a unique role to play in maintaining a natural
environment as healthy and productive as it should be. This
approach emphasizes on wise and restrained use of
natural resources and application of appropriate
environmental management programmes, policies and
strategies keeping in view certain basic principles of ecology
so that already depleted natural resources are replenished, and
health and productivity of the nature is restored. The
ecological approach is best reflected in the concept of
sustainable development which we will discuss in the
following section.

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CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABILITY AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT

The concept of Sustainable Development was formally

defined in the report titled “Our Common Future”. This report
was an outcome of deliberation of a group constituted by
World Commission on Environment and Development
(WCED) and chaired by the then Norwegian Prime Minister
Gro Harlem Brundtlandt. Brundtlandt Commission defined
sustainable development as the development that involves
“…meeting the need of present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs.” This definition of sustainable development
initiated a lot of
debate. The scientists were of the opinion that the term „need‟
and „development‟ has not been defined properly in the report.
Need can not be generalized universally. It varies from place
to place and person to person. Similarly, development was
also not properly defined. The report explains development as
something people do to improve their lives. Therefore, it
becomes amenable to varied interpretations. Amore precise
definition with clearly spelt-out goals remains elusive.
Herman Daly, an ecological economist, referred to sustainable
development as an “oxymoron”. Do you know what an
Oxymoron is? Oxymoron is a figure of speech that combines
two usually contradictory terms into a compressed paradox
(e.g. bitter sweet, pretty ugly). The definition of
„development‟ is not precise enough to make it more in
favour of nature conservation than on building roads,
factories, infrastructure etc. The Oxford dictionary meaning of
development is “a stage or advancement”. On the other
hand, “sustainability” is the capacity to endure. The word
“sustainability” is derived from the latin “sustinere” (tenere =
to hold; sus= up). Dictionaries provide more than ten
meanings for sustain, the main ones being to “maintain”,
“support”, or “endure”. Further more, as has been pointed out
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by Michael Redclift the sustainability discussion has
gradually, over the years, moved almost imperceptibly away
from “human needs” to “human rights”. Therefore,
Sustainability refers to a process which can be continued
indefinitely without depleting the resource base on which it
depends. Therefore, it is the practical goal towards which our
interaction with the natural world should be directed. The
guiding principles of sustainability cut across ecological,
economic, social and cultural dimensions.
The discipline of economics is mainly concerned with growth,
efficiency and the optimum use of resources. On the other
hand, sociologists mainly focus on humanneeds and on
concepts like equity, empowerment and social cohesion.
Ecologists show their greatest concern for preserving natural
systems, for living within the carrying capacity of the
environment, and for dealing efficiently with pollution. Today
this sectarian approach to development adopted by the above
mentioned disciplines have been rejected. Now, it has been
argued that sustainable development will be achieved where
the concerns of these three groups are addressed in a holistic
manner, as shown in Fig. 1.3.
A technological transition from pollution-intensive
economic production to environment friendly processes.
Apolitical/sociological transition
Acommunity transition
Priority Areas for Achieving Sustainable Development
1. Slow Down Population Growth: This is essential for
addressing all the other priority areas.
2. Reduce Poverty, Inequality and Third World Debt:
Improving health, longevity and literacy, increasing
employment etc. This is important for curbing the loss of
species, the extent of land degradation and water pollution.
3. Make Agriculture Sustainable: This includes reducing
soil erosion and decreasing the use of harmful agricultural
practices. This is important for curbing the loss of
biodiversity, land degradation and pollution.
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4. Protect Forests and other Habitats: This includes
reforestation and afforestation of wastelands, protection of
other living resources, control greenhouse gases and ozone
layer depletion. This is important for reducing air pollution,
land degradation, depletion of energy and minerals
5. Make Water and Energy Use Sustainable: This includes
improved energy efficiency, conserving energy and
developing renewable energy resources. This is important for
reducing air pollution, land degradation, depletion of energy
and minerals.
6. Make Water Use Sustainable: This includes improving
the efficiency of water use and protecting water quality. This
is important for curbing waterpollution and depletion and land
degradation.
7. Reduce Waste Generation: This includes improving
production
processes, waste treatment and recycling processes. This is
important
for reducing air and water pollution and energy, mineral and
water
depletion.
Box 1.1: Sustainable Development Goals
1. No Poverty
2. ZeroHunger
3. Good Health andWellbeing
4. Quality Education
5. Gender Equality
6. CleanWater and Sanitation
7. Affordable and Clean Energy
8. DecentWork and Economic Growth
9. Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
10. Reduced Inequalities
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities
12. Responsible Consumption and Production
13 Climate Action
14. Life BelowWater
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15. Life on Land
16. Peace, Justice and Strong Institution
17. Partnership for the Goals.

India is rich in biodiversity which provides various resources

for people. Only about 1.7 million living organisms have been
described and named globally. Still many more remain to be
identified and described. Attempts are made to conserve them
in ex-situ(outside their natural habitat) and in-situ(in their
natural habitat situations). You will learn about in-situand ex-
situ conservation in Unit 8.Destruction of habitats, over-use of
energy resources and environmental pollution has been found
to be responsible for the loss of a large number of life-forms.
It is feared that a large proportion of life on earthmay get
wiped out in the near future.
IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of
protection and conservation of environment. At present, due
to our aggressive consumerist lifestyle and carbon intensive
industrial development we have created a large number of
environment issues both in terms of magnitude, intensity and
complexity at local, regional and global level. We shall study
about these issues and suggestive measures for mitigation in
the Environment Studies. Letus discuss major environmental
as issues in the following paragraphs:
1. Environmental issues are of international importance:
It has now been well recognised that environment issues like
global warming, climate change, ozone layer depletion, acid
rain, marine pollution and loss of biodiversity are not merely
national issues but are global issues and hence must be tackled
with international efforts and cooperation.
2. Emergence of problems in the wake of modernisation
and development: Development in the modern period has
given birth to industrialisation, urbanization, modern
transportationsystems, Agriculture, Housing etc. When the
West developed, it did so perhaps in ignorance of the
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environmental impact of its activities. Evidently such a path is
neither practicable nor desirable. The developing world now
faces the challenge of developing without environmental
degradation.
3. Explosive increase in population: World census reflects
that one in every seven persons in this planet lives in
India.Evidently with 16 per cent of the world‟s population and
only 2.4 per cent of its land area,there is a heavy pressure on
the natural resources including land. This emphasizes on the
need for efficient management of natural resources for the
benefits of all.
4. Need for an alternative solution: It is essential, especially
fordeveloping countries to find alternative paths to
developmental goal. Such a goal would need to be distinct
from the developed world in the manner that would conserve
natural resources and avoid wasteful consumption.
5. Need for wise planning of development: Resources
withdrawal,
processing and use of theproducts have all to be synchronised
with the
ecological cycles in any plan of development. Our actions
should be
planned for the sustenance of the environment and
development.
2.2.2 Ecosystem Features
Ecosystems have both structural and functional features some
of which I have studied in Unit 1, and others which I will
study in this unit. I will learn about some other aspects in the
forthcoming units. The ecosystem features are as follows:
I. Structural Features
The Structural aspect of the ecosystem refers to all the
elements that make up an ecosystem – the individuals and
communities of plants and animals and the non-living factors
present in the ecosystem. The structural components include:
A. Abiotic components (Non-living Components):

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i) Inorganic compounds – carbon, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
water.
ii) Organic compounds – proteins, carbohydrates, lipids,
which link the
abiotic to biotic components.
iii) Climatic regimes – temperature, moisture, light and
topography
B. Biotic Components (Living Components):
i) Producers – plants
ii) Consumers – primary, secondary, tertiary.
iii) Decomposers – saprotrophs
II. Functional Features
Functional aspects refer to all the processes and interactions
performed
by the organisms in an ecosystem and include:
i) Energy cycles
ii) Food chains
iii) Diversity – interlinks between organisms
iv) Nutrient cycles – biogeochemical cycles
v) Succession
Size of an Ecosystem
Ecosystems may vary in size from the smallest puddle of
water or a terrestrial habitat, to a landscape or large forest, a
biome, or even the entire global biosphere or ecosphere .
Largest Ecosystem: Biosphere
Before we explain the functioning of the components of the
ecosystem, let us first discuss the largest ecosystem, namely,
“the biosphere”. Biosphere, also called ecosphere, is that part,
of the earth, water and atmosphere in which many smaller
ecosystems exist and operate. The three main subdivisions of
the biosphere are: (1) lithosphere (land); (2) hydrosphere
(water); (3) atmosphere .

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 Ecosystems
Energy derived from food thus, also flows through the trophic
levels: from producers to subsequent trophic levels (Fig. 2.5).
This energy always flows from lower (producer) to higher
(herbivore, carnivore etc.) trophic levels. It never flows in the
reverse direction. Furthermore there is a loss of some energy
in the form of unusable heat at each trophic level so that the
energy level decreases from the first trophic level upwards. As
a result there are usually four or five trophic levels and seldom
more than six as beyond that very little energy is left to
support any organism.
1 Food Chain
You now know from the previous section that organisms in
the ecosystem are related through feeding or trophic levels,
that is one organism becomes food for the other. The transfer
of food energy from one trophic level to another trophic level
in an ecosystem by the repeated process of eating and being
eaten is known as food chain. The food chain can thus be
defined as a linear sequence of links of organisms in which
an organism becomes food for the next organism
.2 Types of Food Chains
In nature, three main types of food chains have been
distinguished:
Each link in the food chain can also be called a trophic level.
i) Grazing Food Chain: In this type of food chain the
primary consumers, are herbivores and use the plant or plant
part as their food. This food chain begins from green plants.
: A grazing food chain designated as follows: Grass
grasshopper frog snake eagle.
ii) Detritus Food Chain: This type of food chain starts from
dead organic matter of decaying and metabolic wastes of
animals and plant bodies called detritus to the micro-
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organisms which are primary detritus feeding organism called
detrivores or decomposer then to secondary detritus feeders
and finally to herbivore and then to predators. The energy
contained in detritus, serves as a source of energy in this food
chain.
iii) Parasitic Food Chain: This type of food chain starts with
green plants, then goes to the plant or the herbivores on which
the parasitic organisms feed. This parasitic food chain ends
with parasitic organisms which unlike predators do not kill the
host.
Aparasitic food chain designated as follows-
zebra nematode bacteria.
In nature the food chains are interconnected at various points
and together take the form of a food web. this reason,
ecosystems are “open systems” needing a net inflow of energy
from the sun to continue over time. Without the sun, the
biosphere of our Earth would shortly run out of energy and
collapse. This is because producers which as you are aware
are autotrophs use the solar energy of the sun along with
nutrients and convert them into food materials which are
stored within their bodies. All the food materials or nutrients
that we or other animals consume are obtained directly or
indirectly from such producers. As a result there is a
continuous flow of energy from the sun through various
organisms and then to outer space: The trapping and flow of
energy also involves the circulation of nutrients which include
basic inorganic elements such as, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen, as well as sodium, calcium, and potassium,
which occur in small amounts. In addition, compounds such
as; water,
carbonates, phosphates and a few others also form part of
living organisms. For an ecosystem to function, it is essential
that there is a continuous flow of energy and cycling of
nutrients.

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 NUTRIENT CYCLES

By now, I must be well aware that the living world depends

upon the flow of energy and the circulation of nutrients
through ecosystem. Both influence theabundance of
organisms, the metabolic rate at which they live, and the
complexity of the ecosystem. You have already studied that
energy isultimately lost as heat forever in terms of the
usefulness of the system. On the other way hand, nutrients of
food matter are never lost or used up, instead they can be
recycled again and again indefinitely. Nutrients that are
needed by organisms in large amounts are called
macronutrients, while those which are needed in minute
amount or traces, are called micronutrients Among more than
100 chemicals that occur in nature about 40 are present in
living organisms. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
phosphorus in the form of elements and compounds make up
97% of the mass of our bodies and are more than 95% of the
mass of all living organisms. In addition to these, 15 to 25
other elements are needed in some form for the survival and
good health of plants and animals. These elements or mineral
nutrients are always in circulation moving from non-living to
living and then back to the non-living components of the
ecosystem in more or less a circular fashion. This is known as
biogeochemical cycling. There are two basic types of cycles,
depending on the nature of the reservoir:
i) Gaseous Cycle – where the reservoir is the atmosphere or
the hydrosphere and
ii) Sedimentary Cycle – where the reservoir is the earth‟s
crust. Sun is the ultimate source of all energy, which caters to
the need of our ecosystems. It has been observed that 30% of
the total solar radiation entering our atmosphere is reflected
by the earth - atmosphere system. The remaining 70%of the
radiation is absorbed by the earth‟s atmosphere. Of this 19%is
absorbed directly by the atmosphere and the rest by the earth.
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A nutrient cycle may also be referred to as a perfect or
imperfect cycle. A perfect nutrient cycle is one in which
nutrients are replaced as fast as they are utilised. Most
gaseous cycles are generally considered as perfectcycles. In
contrastsedimentary cycles are considered relatively
imperfect, as some nutrients are lost from the cycle and get
locked into sediments and so become unavailable for
immediate cycling.
1 Gaseous Cycles
Let us first study some of the most important gaseous cycles;
namely – water, carbon and nitrogen
Water Cycle (Hydrologic) – water is one of the most
important substances for life. On an average, water constitutes
70% of the body weight of an organism. It is one of the
important ecological factors that determines the structure and
function of the ecosystem. Cycling of all other elements is
also dependent upon water as it provides a means for their
transportation during the various steps, and it also serves as a
solvent medium for their uptake by organisms. Water covers
about 75% of the earth‟s surface, occurring in lakes, rivers
and
oceans. The oceans alone contain 97% of all the water on
earth. Much of the remainder is frozen in the polar ice and
glaciers. Less than 1% water is present in the form of fresh
water in rivers, lakes, and aquifers. Yet this relatively
negligible portion of the planet‟s water is crucially
important to all forms of terrestrial and aquatic life. There
is also underground supply of water. Soils near the surface
also serve as reservoir for enormous quantities of water.
Water moves in the Earth‟s hydrologic cycle by connecting
ocean, land, and atmosphere. The water from the oceans move
to the atmosphere by the process of evaporation. From the
atmosphere the water moves to oceans and land by
precipitation in the form of rain or snow. From land, the rain
and melted snow water are transported either by run off from
streams and rivers and subsurface ground water into the
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oceans, and/or by evaporation from land and transpiration
(evaporation of water from plant leaves.) by plants to the
atmosphere again. This cycle is driven by solar energy in
which about one third of all solar energy is dissipated on
cycling is about 10 1020 g of water, that is nearly 0.004%
of the total. This amount of water is all the time moving in the
cycle. The rest of the earth‟s water as you know is already
bound in cold storage (in the form of glaciers and ice).
The Carbon Cycle
Carbon is a minor constituent of the atmosphere as compared
to oxygen and nitrogen. However, as you are well aware
carbon is the element that anchors all organic substances from
coal and oil to DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid: the compound
that carries genetic information). Without carbon life could
not exist as it is vital for the production of carbohydrates
(organic matter) through photosynthesis by plants that use the
inorganic carbon dioxide and water in the presence of solar
energy and in this process release oxygen in the atmosphere.
Carbon is a building block of all living organisms. It is a
component of proteins that are the building block of life and
lipids that form the plasma membrane of all plants and
animals. Carbon is also a part of the ocean, air, and even
rocks. Because the Earth is a dynamic place, carbon does not
stay still and is on the move. The carbon in the carbon cycle
may be either „organic‟ or „inorganic‟. The majority of the
inorganic carbon exists as carbon dioxide, carbonate and
hydrogen carbonate. The carbon found in organic compounds
is included in both the abiotic and biotic parts of the
ecosystem and is found in living or dead organisms, fossil
fuels, small deposits in
a) Atmospheric carbon is fixed by plants in their biomass
and gets transferred plants to the animals feeding on
them, and so further moves up the food chain.
Respiration, digestion, and metabolism of plants and
animals result in some transfer of carbon back to the
atmosphere. Some carbon also moves to the lithosphere
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when these living organism die or when wood and leaves
decay or when animals excrete. Some of the living beings
buried millons of years ago have been converted into fossil
fuel. Mining and burning of fossil fuels cause this carbon
to move from the lithosphere to the atmosphere. Some of
this atmospheric carbon gets dissolved in the ocean and
thus, completes the cyele; b) A generalized global carbon
cycle in which estimated volumes are given in Gigatonnes
of CO2 (a gigaton is equal to one billion metric tons).
rocks, dissolved in water or dispersed in the atmosphere.
There is a continuous two-way flow of carbon between the
organic and inorganic forms whereby there is a continuous
exchange of carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and
organisms on one hand, and between the atmosphere and the
sea, on the other. The carbon cycle is based on carbon dioxide
gas (CO2). In terrestrial ecosystems, CO2 is removed from
the atmosphere, and in aquatic ecosystems CO2 it is removed
from water. The oceans contain about 50 times more CO2
than the atmosphere and act as a major carbon-storage sink
and so play a crucial role in the globalcarbon cycle. Marine
species remove some carbon dioxide during photosynthesis.
Carbon from the atmospheric pool moves to green plants, and
then to animals and finally, from them directly to the
atmosphere by process of respiration at various trophic levels
in the food chain, or to bacteria, fungi and other micro-
organisms that return it to atmosphere through decomposition
of excretory wastes and bodies of organisms when they die.
Carbon cycle regulates atmospheric CO2 level to 0.032%
despitephotosynthetic uptake. In the normal course carbon is
returned to the environment about as fast as it is removed. The
carbon cycle ensures that the CO2in the atmosphere is present
at acceptable levels. This in turn moderates the temperature
for life to exist. If the carbon cycle removes too much carbon,
the atmosphere will become cool and if too much carbon
isadded to the atmosphere, the atmosphere will get warmer.

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Global Carbon Cycle
Some carbon however enters a long term cycle referred to as
„„Global Carbon cycle‟‟ in which carbon accumulates in the
form of organic matter in the peaty layers of bogs and
moorlands or as insoluble carbonates (for example the
insoluble calcium carbonate ((CaCO3) of various sea shells)
in bottom sediments of aquatic systems. This sedimentary
carbon eventually turns into sedimentary rocks such as lime
stone and dolomite. In deep oceans such carbon can remain
buried for millions of years till geological movement may lift
these rocks above sea level. These rocks may be exposed to
erosion, releasing their carbon dioxide, carbonates and
bicarbonates into streams and rivers. Hard water has usually
flowed through lime stone at some point, picking up
carbonates which they accumulate as „fur‟ in kettles when the
water is boiled. Fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and
natural gas are also part of the carbon cycle which may release
their carbon compounds after several years. These fossil fuels
are organic compounds that were buried before they could be
decomposed and were subsequently transformed by time and
geological processes into solid orliquid hydrocarbon fuels.
When fossil fuels are burned the carbon stored in them is
released back into the atmosphere as CO2 (2.10 b). The
current global cycle shows an increased concentration of CO2
in the atmosphere. The resulting climate change phenomenon
is at the forefront of the environmental problems faced by the
world at present.
The Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is an essential constituent of protein which is a

building block of all living tissue.
It constitutes nearly 16% by weight of all the proteins.
There is an inexhaustible supply of nitrogen in the atmosphere
but the elemental form cannot be used directly by most of the
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living organisms. Nitrogen needs to be „fixed‟, that is,
converted to ammonia, nitrites or nitrates, before it can be
taken up by plants. Nitrogen fixation on earth is accomplished
in three different ways: (i) by certain free-living bacteria and
bluegreen algae (e.g. Anabaena, Spirulina), and symbiotic
bacteria (e.g. Rhizobium); (ii) by human being using industrial
processes (fertilizer factories) and (iii) to a limited extent by
atmospheric phenomena such as thunder and lighting.

Sedimentary Cycles

Phosphorus, calcium and magnesium circulate by means of

the sedimentary cycle. Sulphur is to some extent intermediate,
since two of its compounds hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and
sulphur dioxide (SO2), add a gaseouscomponent to its
normally sedimentary cycle. The element involved in the
sedimentary cycle normally does not cycle through the
atmosphere but follows a basic pattern of flow through
erosion, sedimentation, mountain building, volcanic activity
and biological transport through the excreta of marine birds.
The sulphur cycle is a good example for illustrating the
linkage between air, water and the earth‟s crust, and hence, a
brief account of this cycle is given.
Sulphur Cycle

The sulphur cycle is mostly sedimentary except for a short

gaseous phase. The large sulphur reservoir, as mentioned
before, is in the soil and sediments where it is locked in
organic (coal, oil and peat) and inorganic (pyrite rock and
sulphur rock) deposits in the form of sulphates, sulphides and
organic sulphur. It is released by weathering of rocks,
erosional runoff and decomposition by bacteria and fungi of
organic matter and is carried to terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems in salt solution. Sulphur is found in gaseous forms
like hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide in small quantities
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in the atmosphere, which is thus a small reservoir. Sulphur
enters the atmosphere from several sources like volcanic
eruptions, combustion of fossil fuels, from surface of ocean
and from gases released by decomposition. Atmospheric
hydrogen sulphide also gets oxidised into sulphur dioxide
(SO2). Atmospheric SO2 is carried back to the earth after
being dissolved in rainwater as weak sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
Uptake of sulphur by plants is in the form of sulphates (SO4 -
2) which are incorporated into sulphur bearing amino acids in
the proteins of autotroph tissues through a series of metabolic
processes. The sulphur then passes into the grazing food
chain. Sulphur bound in living organism is carried back to the
soil, to the bottom of ponds and lakes and seas through
excretion and decomposition of dead organic material.
Underaerobic(in presence of oxygen) conditions fungi like
Aspergillus and Neurospora and under anaerobic
conditions(without oxygen) bacteria like Escherichia and
Proteus are largely responsible for the decomposition of
proteins. The symbiotic bacteria capable of fixing atmospheric
nitrogen live in the root nodules of leguminous plants like
beans, peas, alfalfa etc. In agricultural ecosystem legumes of
approximately 200 species are the preeminent nitrogen fixers.
In non-agricultural systems some 12,000 species ranging from
cyanobacteria to nodule-bearing plants, are responsible for
nitrogen fixation.
Types of Ecological Succession
Ecological changes are fairly predictable and orderly. Within
an ecological community, the species composition will change
over time as some species become more prominent while
others may fade out of existence. As the community develops
over time, vegetation grows taller, and the community
becomes more established. This final stage of succession is
quite stable and the community in this is called the climax
community. Ecological succession includes (1) primary and
(2) secondary succession
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Primary Succession
Primary succession is initiated when a new area that has never
previously supported an ecological community is colonized
by plants and animals. This could be on newly exposed rock
surfaces from landslides or lava flows. Primary succession
thus, occurs where no community exists before, such as rocky
outcropping, newly formed deltas, sand dunes, emerging
volcanic islands and lava flows. An example, which can be
used as a model showing development of primary succession,
is the invasion and colonisation of bare rock as on a recently
created volcanic island. Primary succession first begins by the
entry of lichens which can invade and colonise bare rocks,
once they enter by various methods of dispersal. Lichens get a
foot hold on the bare rocks by means of their tenacious, water-
seeking fungal component and form the first community, very
appropriately often called the pioneer community.. Lichens
are soil builders, producing weak acids that very gradually
erode the rock surface.
Secondary Succession
Secondary succession occurs when a community in an area is
drastically disturbed leading to its destruction which results in
a new community moving into that area. Secondary
succession is more common than primary succession and is
often the result of natural disasters such as fires, floods, and
winds, as well as human interference such as logging and tree-
cutting. In secondary succession the basic features are similar
to those of primary succession, but the seres occur at a more
rapid pace. This is because the soil is already formed and
available. Secondary succession is said to occur when the
surface is completely or largely denuded of vegetation but has
already been influenced by living organisms and has an
organic component. In such areas seeds, spores and plant
propagates, such as rhizomes may be present in the ground
and thus influence the succession.
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 Major Ecosystems
FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Now let us see as to what a forest is. The word forest is
derived from the Latin word „foris‟ meaning outside, the
reference being to village boundary fence that must have
included all uncultivated and uninhabited land. Today a forest
is any land managed for the diverse purpose of forestry,
whether covered with trees, shrubs and climbers or not. The
forest ecosystem includes a complex assemblage of different
kinds of biotic communities. The nature of soil,climate and
local topography determine the distribution of trees and their
abundance in the forest vegetation. Characteristics of different
types of forests are described below:
Types of forests :-
i) Coniferous forest:
Cold regions with high rainfall and strongly seasonal climates
with long winters and fairly short summers are characterised
by boreal coniferous forest which is transcontinental. These
forests are characterised by evergreen plant species such as
spruce. (Picea glauca), fir (Abies balsamea) and pine trees
(Pinus roxburghii / Pinus strobes) and by animals such as the
lynx, wolf, bear, red fox, porcupine, squirrel, and amphibians
like tree frogs and pond frogs. The litter resultant from conifer
needles is broken down very slowly and is not particularly
rich in nutrients. These soils are acidic and are mineral
deficient. The productivity and community stability of boreal
forests are lower than those of any other ecosystem.
ii) Temperate deciduous forest:
The temperate forests are characterized by a moderate climate
and broad-leafed deciduous trees, which shed their leaves in
winter and grow new foliage in the spring. These forests are
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characteristic of North America, Europe, Eastern Asia
(including China and Japan), Chile and part of Australia with
a cold winter and an annual rainfall of 75-150 cm. The
precipitation may be fairly uniform throughout year. Trees are
quite tall about 40-50 m in height and their leaves are thin and
broad. The predominant genera of this biome are maple
(Acer), beech (Fagus), oak (Quercus), hickory (Carya),
basswood (Tilia), chestnut (Castanea), and cottonwood
(Populus). In Himalayas, the temperate vegetation includes
pines, cedars (Cedrus), fir and juniper trees along with
rhododendrons and willow (Salix). The term taiga is applied
to the northern range of coniferous forests.
iii) Temperate evergreen forest:
Many parts of the world have a mediterranian type of climate
which is characterised by warm, dry summers and cool, moist
winters. These are commonly inhabited by low evergreen
trees having needle-like or broad leaves. These include
hemlock, yew and maple .Shrubs may range up to 3-4m in
height. The
characteristic animals of temperate evergreen woodland
chaparral are
mule, deer, brush rabbit, wood rat, chipmunk and lizard.
iv) Temperate rain forest:
The temperate rain forests are colder than any other rainforest
and exhibit a marked seasonality with regard to temperature
and rainfall. Rainfall is high, but fog may be very heavy
which may actually represent a more important source of
water than rainfall itself. The diversity of plant and animals is
much low as compared to their warmer counterparts.
v) Tropical rain forest:
Tropical rain forests occur near the equator, and are among
the most diverse communities on the earth. Both temperature
and humidity remain high and more or less uniform. The
annual rainfall exceeds 200 cm and is generally distributed
throughout the year. The common vertebrates of tropical rain
forests are the arboreal amphibian Rhacophorus malabaricus,
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aquatic reptiles, chameleons, agamids, geckos, many species
of snakes and birds, and a variety of mammal such as leopard,
jungle cats, ant-eaters, giant flying squirrels, monkeys and
sloths.
vi) Tropical seasonal forest:
Tropical seasonal forests occur in regions where total annual
rainfall is very high but segregated into pronounced wet and
dry periods. In exceedingly wet tropical seasonal forests,
commonly known as monsoon forests, the annual
precipitation may be several times that of the tropical
rainforests. Teak is often a major large tree in the best known
tropical seasonal forests of India (central India) and South
East Asia. Bamboo is also an important climax shrub in these
areas.
vii) Subtropical rain forest:
In regions of fairly high rainfall but less temperature
difference between winter and summer, broad-leaved
evergreen subtropical forest is found. The vegetation includes
mahogany, palms, oaks, magnolias and tamarind, all laden
with epiphytes (of Pineapple and orchid families), ferns, vines
and strangler fig. (Ficus aureus). Animal life of subtropical
forest is very similar to that of tropical rainforests.
Importance of Forest

For humans, forests have been a source of multiple products,

services and recreation, and basis of the development of
culture and civilisation. Apart from The flora of tropical rain
forest is highly diversified: a sq. km area may contain 300
different species of trees - a diversity unparallel in any other
ecosystem. The extremely dense vegetation of the tropical rain
forests is vertically stratified with tall trees often covered with
vines, creepers, lianas, epiphytic orchids and bromeliads.
Under the tall trees there is a continuous evergreen carpet, the
canopy layer, some 25 to 35 metres tall. The lowest layer is an

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understory of trees, shrubs, herbs, ferns and palms, all of
which become dense where there is a break in the canopy.

Forest Conservation
Urbanization, expansion of agriculture and extraction of
timber pose serious threats to forest worldwide. Certain forest
conservation and management processes have to be employed
in the forests to maintain them. To get the desired quality of
timber or pulp for paper industry, monoculture forests of fast
growing trees such as poplars, certain conifers and eucalyptus
have been cultivated by human. Existing forests are strongly
manipulated in order toincrease their yield of desired benefits.
It includes weeding (the elimination of species which might
compete with the seedlings of the desired species), thinning
(eradication of individuals of the same species) and brashing
(removal of leafless lower branches especially in conifers).
Forest Management also includes the controlling of forest fire.

GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM

The grassland ecosystem is found where rainfall is about 25-

75 cm per year, not enough to support a forest, but more than
that of a true desert. Typical grasslands are vegetation
formations that are generally found in temperate climates. The
grass layer is sparse and consists mainly of annual grass
species. The major difference between steppes and savannas is
that all the forage in the steppe is provided only during the
brief wet season whereas in the savannas forage is largely
from grasses that not only grow during the wet season but also
have a smaller amount of regrowth in the dry season. In arid
to semi-arid tracts, active growth of vegetation is triggered
each year by the advent of the monsoon during June or early
July. The biomass increases to its peak value around
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September to October. Fruiting is completed byNovember and
subsequently the plants dry up. In subtropical parts of India
which receive winter rains, there is usually a second flux of
growth in December and January.

Economic Importance
India with just 2.4 per cent of the total land area of the world
supports more than half of the buffaloes, 15 per cent of cattle,
15 per cent of goats and 4 percent of sheep. The livestock
wealth plays a crucial, role in Indian life. It is a major source
of fuel, draught power, nutrition and raw material for village
industries Grassland ecosystems are important to maintain
many domesticated and wild herbivores such as horse, mule,
ass, cow, pig, sheep, goat, buffalo, camel, deer and zebra
which provide food, milk, wool, hide or transportation to
humans. Overgrazing has harmful ecological effects. The
mulch cover of the soil is reduced, microclimate becomes
drier and the place is readily invaded by xerophytic plants.
Due to absence of humus cover, mineral soil surface is
heavily trampled when wetness produces puddling of the
surface layer, which in turn reduces the infiltration of water
into the soil and accelerates its run off.

DESERT ECOSYSTEM

Deserts are formed in regions with less than 25 cm of annual

rainfall, or sometimes in hot regions where there is more
rainfall, but unevenly distributed In the central and eastern
parts of Rajasthan, where the rainfall is about 500 mm per
year and the dry season is of six to eight months, dry savanna
grazing ecosystems havedeveloped. The light shade cast by
the sparse population of trees like Prosopis cineraria favours
the growth of the grasses which in the best-wateredareas can
reach up to a height of 100 to 120 cm.
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Case study: Indian Desert
The Indian desert is one of the most heavily populated desert
regions of the world. According to 2011 census, population
densities vary from 361 in Jhunjhunu to 17 persons/km2 in
Jaisalmer district. The settlement patterns are entirely compact
or entirely spread.Villages are both with compact settlements
and spread homesteads (dhanis). Rural people live in hamlets,
small villages and dhanis or homesteads. The desert society
has multitude of caste and sub-castes. By and large villages
where some powerful local chieftains resided and constructed
fortresses, developed into towns, which became local trade
centres. The settled population in villages is mostly agro-
pastoral. About threefourth of total workers in desert are
engaged in cultivation and as agricultural labour. Animal
husbandry is followed as supplementary occupation. Total
livestock population recorded an increase of 9.8 million
during 1956 to 1981. During 1972-1983 livestock population
increased by more than 42 per cent. The enormous increase in
human and livestock population has been depleting the natural
resources at rapid rate.
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
Global waters cover about three-quarters of the earth‟s
surface, either as fresh water where salt content is less than
0.5 per cent or as saline water where the salt content is more
than 3.5 per cent, or as brackish water where salt content is
intermediate between fresh water and saline water. Because of
their salt content estuaries and oceans bear different kinds of
organisms .It is on this basis, that aquatic ecosystems are
categorised into: (i) Fresh water ecosystems- lakes, ponds,
swamps, pools, springs, streams, and rivers;(ii) Marine
ecosystems - shallow seas and open ocean; (iii) Brackish
water ecosystems- estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove swamps
and forests.

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 Aquatic Organisms
The organisms in the aquatic ecosystem are unevenly
distributed but can be classified on the basis of their life form
or location into five groups as .The five groups are given as
under:
i) Neuston: These are unattached organisms which live at the
air-water interface such as floating plants and several types of
animals
. Some spend most of their lives on top of the air-water
interface, such as water striders, while other spend most of
their time just beneath the air-water interface and obtain most
of their food within the water, e.g.,
beetles and back-swimmers.
ii) Periphyton: These are organisms which remain attached
or clinging to stems and leaves of rooted plants or substances
emerging above the bottom . Usually sessile algae and their
associated group of animals fall in this group.
iii) Plankton: This group includes both microscopic plants,
chiefly algae (phytoplanktons) and animals, primarily
crustaceans and protozoans (zooplanktons) found in all
aquatic ecosystems, except certain swift moving water. The
locomotory power of the planktons is limited so that their
distribution is controlled largely by currents in the aquatic
ecosystems. Most phytoplanktons and zooplanktons are
capable, however, of at least some movement.
iv) Nekton: This group contains animals which are
swimmers. The nektons are relatively large and powerful as
they have to overcome the water currents . The animals range
in size from the swimming
insects, which may be only about 2 mm long, to the largest
animals that have lived on earth, namely the blue whale.
v) Benthos: The benthos or the benthic organisms are those
found living in or on the bottom or benthic region of the water
mass .They exhibit a variety of adaptations to the environment
since the bottom is a more heterogeneous habitat than either
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the open water or the surface. Benthos includes crabs, lobsters
and sponges.
Freshwater Ecosystem
Fresh water ecosystem depends on the terrestrial ecosystems
for large quantities of organic and inorganic matter which are
constantly added into them by the communities growing on
nearby land. The fresh water ecosystems can be conveniently
divided into two main divisions: i) Lentic (from „lenis‟, calm)
or standing or basin series ecosystems. Examples of this
division are lakes, pools, ponds, swamps and marshes.

Lakes, Impoundments and Wetlands

Lentic ecosystems include all those systems which have a
static body ofwater. Lakes impoundments and wetlands are
all lentic ecosystems. Let us see how they differ from each
other.
Lakes: Most lakes occur in regions which have recently been
subjected to geological changes, say within the past 20,000
years. However, a few lakes, such as lake Baikal in Russia
and Lake Tanganyanitia in Africa are ancient and are
estimated to have originated twenty million years ago.
Case Study: Loktak Lake
Loktak Lake is situated 38 km south of Imphal city, the
capital of Manipur State. The lake covers an area of about 286
sq. km .Main water body of the lake is surrounded by shallow
water, which stagnates over a marsh/swamp land. The
characteristic feature of the Loktak Lake is the presence of
floating islands known as Phumdis. These are heterogeneous
masses of soil vegetation and organic matter, which occur in
all sizes from a few centimeters to about 2.5 m. They occupy
about two-third of the surface area of the lake. Some lakes are
formed in crater depressions of extinct volcanoes and are
called crater lakes. Lakes may also arise by landslides

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blocking off streams and valley. Lakes are not evenly
distributed on the earthbut are grouped in
certain regions called „lake districts‟
Wetlands: Wetlands are permanently or periodically water
covered areas They can be defined as submerged or saturated
lands either
artificially created or natural, and either periodically or
permanently covered up to a depth of six metres by water
which may be fresh, brackish or saline. The wetlands may be
classified into two categories: I. Inland wetlands occur when
inland is surrounded by land and containfresh water, e.g. bogs
and swamps. II. Coastal wetlands occur near the coast and
contain saline or brackish waters, e.g. mangrove swamps,
mangrove forests.

Case Study: Threats to wetlands in Assam

Almost 40% of all wetlands in Assam are under threat. A
survey conducted by the Assam Remote Sensing Application
Center (ARSAC), Guwahati, and the Space Applications
Centre, Ahmedabad has revealed that 1367 out of 3513
wetlands in Assam are under severe threat due to the invasion
of aquatic weeds and several developmental activities. The
wetlands of Assam form the greatest potential source of
income for the state in terms of fisheries and tourism. Though
the wetlands of Assam have the capacity of producing 5,000
t/ha/yr of fish, around 20,000 t of fish has to be imported to
meet local demand. This is primarily due to poor wetland
management.
Lotic Ecosystems – Rivers
The lotic or flowing water habitats include rivers, streams and
brooks. The most outstanding features of such habitat is the
continuously flowing waterwhich moulds the characteristics
of the water bed and influences the distribution of organisms
within. The two most important features are:

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1) Rivers are open or heterotrophic systems, whereas lakes are
closed or self contained systems except for some gains or
losses from inflowing or outflowing streams;
2) Nutrients in a lake may be used several times, whereas in
rivers, at any point, plants and animals must avail of
temporarily available nutrients.
Biota of Rivers
The biota of both the rapidly flowing and the slowly flowing
sections of the river are very distinct. Let us study the biota
characteristic of river.
a) Animals: In the exposed rock surface habitats only those
organisms are found which have efficient mechanisms for
staying in one place. These include fresh water limpet, larvae
or water penny (riffle beetles), fresh water sponges and caddis
flies. The microhabitat formed in the spaces between rock
fragments is slightly sheltered.
Marine Ecosystems
A marine ecosystem is the largest and most stable system on
the earth and is of great ecological significance. The sea water
is salty with an average 3.5%. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is 27%
of the salt while rest other important minerals are calcium,
potassium and magnesium. An important factor in limiting the
production and distribution of marine life is light.
Temperature remains almost constant in ocean ranging from
2ºC in polar region to 32ºC or more in tropics. The marine
habitat is distinguishable into two different zones:(1) Benthic
zone – which forms the basin or floor of the ocean, regardless
of depth; (2) Pelagic zone – which represents the free water
zone, filling the basin Biota of Oceans Life in the sea is not
particularly abundant, though the diversity of organisms is
high. Almost every major group of animals and every major
group of algaeoccur somewhere in the oceans, with the
exception of vascular plants and insects. On the basis of
depth-wise differences in life forms, the expanse of marine
ecosystems has been divided into littoral, neritic, pelagic and

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benthic zones. Let us now read about biota of each one of
these.
i) Biota of Littoral Zone: This zone is the shore region of the
marine ecosystems and is subject to violence of waves and
tides, fluctuation of water level and variability of temperature,
light, salinity and moisture. In common language supra littoral
zone is termed as a beach. There are few species of plants
present in this zone. Common animals found here are snails,
clams, barnacles, crustaceans,annelids, sea anemones and sea
urchin. The animals here exhibit zonation with respect to
tides. Animals more resistant to desiccation usually occurring
at higher levels than those that are less resistant.
ii) Biota of the Neritic Oceanic Zone: This relatively
shallow, coastal zone is rich in species and high in
productivity owing to factors such as penetration of light to
considerable depths and high concentrations of nutrients. The
most productive phytoplanktons are the dinoflagellates and
diatoms, though red, brown and green algae attached to the
bottom in the shallow regions may be significant. The
zooplanktons are usually similar to those of the pelagic zone
though some purely open-sea species are replaced by neritic
species. Almost all commercial species of fish as well as
whales, seals, seaotters, sea snakes and large squids are found
here. Fishes are numerous and include several shark species as
well as sea trout and salmon. A wide variety of animals
among which are clams, shrimps, snails, lobsters, crabs, sea
cucumber, starfish, brittle stars, anemones, sponges, bryozoa,
annelids and foraminifera and exhibits more diversity than
those of the deeper waters.
iii) Biota of Pelagic Zone: Pelagic region constitutes 90 per
cent of the total ocean surface and is less rich in species and
numbers of organisms than the two regions discussed before.
The most abundant pelagic phytoplanktons are still the
dinoflagellates and diatoms which are the chief photosynthetic
feeders, others are carnivores. Sea cucumbers and sea urchins

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crawl on the floor eating detritus and bacteria and serve as
food for the carnivorous brittle stars and crabs.
iv) Biota of Benthic Zone : It forms the floor of the ocean.
Organisms here are hetrotrophic Rooted animals are sea lilies,
sea fan, sponges etc. Snails and clams remain embedded in
mud while starfish, sea cucumbers and sea urchins move on
its surface.
Estuaries
All the rivers and lakes ultimately drain into the sea.
However, many rivers develop a highly specialized zone
before joining the proper sea. This zone is called estuary. An
estuary is a transitional zone between rivers and sea
representing unique ecological features and biotic
communities. Estuaries are the most productive ecosystems of
the world. In India, estuaries can be seen in plenty along the
coast of Kerala or in Sunder bans.
Features of Estuaries
The most dominant feature of the estuarine environment is the
fluctuation in salinity. Though salinity gradient exists
sometime in an estuary but the pattern of gradient varies
seasonally, with the topography, with the tides and with the
amount of fresh water.
Biota of Estuaries
The estuarine community is a mixture of three components:
Marine, Fresh water and Brackish water, but overall estuarine
diversity is still lower than that of the river or marine
community. Thus, the great productivity of estuaries is built
on a narrow base. The plants of the estuary are of four basic
types: (i) Phytoplankton; (ii) marginal marsh vegetation; (iii)
mud-flat algae; (iv) epiphytic plants growing on the marginal
marsh vegetation. Diatoms and filamentous blue-green algae
found in high number are the sites of intense photosynthesis.
Oysters, crabs and some sea shrimps are also found.

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