Chapter V

ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION, PHYLOGENY AND ORGANIZATION

LEANING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

a. identify the hierarchical classification of animals;

b. describe the evolutionary relationships of animals;
c. enumerate the patterns of organization; and
d. distinguish the higher animal taxonomy.

Keywords: Taxonomy, Systematics, Biodiversity, Phylogeny, Cladistics, Cladogram, Clade, Taxon

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

There are at least five million species on Earth, and some scientists believe there could be double that
number. A species is a group of animals that are more like each other than they are like any other group
of animals. They can breed with each other but not with members of other species. A way of sorting
through all those species is to organize them by similar properties, or characteristics. This process is
called classification. The following is a list of properties for each group of animals.

Introduction to Animal Phylogeny

Biologists strive to understand the evolutionary history and relationships of members of the animal
kingdom, and all of life, for that matter. The study of phylogeny aims to determine the evolutionary
relationships between phyla. Currently, most biologists divide the animal kingdom into 35 to 40 phyla.
Scientists develop phylogenetic trees, which serve as hypotheses about which species have evolved from
which ancestors

Recall that until recently, only morphological characteristics and the fossil record were used to determine
phylogenetic relationships among animals. Scientific understanding of the distinctions and hierarchies
between anatomical characteristics provided much of this knowledge. Used alone, however, this
information can be misleading. Morphological characteristics may evolve multiple times, and
independently, through evolutionary history. Analogous characteristics may appear similar between
animals, but their underlying evolution may be very different. With the advancement of molecular
technologies, modern phylogenetics is now informed by genetic and molecular analyses, in addition to
traditional morphological and fossil data. With a growing understanding of genetics, the animal
evolutionary tree has changed substantially and continues to change as new DNA and RNA analyses are
performed on additional animal species.

Classifying Animals

Scientists have developed a classification scheme that categorizes all members of the animal kingdom,
although there are exceptions to most “rules” governing animal classification (Figure 1). Animals are
primarily classified according to morphological and developmental characteristics, such as a body plan.
One of the most prominent features of the body plan of true animals is that they are morphologically
symmetrical. This means that their distribution of body parts is balanced along an axis. Additional
characteristics include the number of tissue layers formed during development, the presence or absence
of an internal body cavity, and other features of embryological development, such as the origin of the
mouth and anus.

True animals are divided into those with radial versus bilateral symmetry. Generally, the simpler and often
non-motile animals display radial symmetry. Animals with radial symmetry are also generally characterized
by the development of two embryological germ layers, the endoderm and ectoderm, whereas animals
with bilateral symmetry are generally characterized by the development of a third embryological germ
layer, the mesoderm. Animals with three germ layers, called triploblasts, are further characterized by the
presence or absence of an internal body cavity called a coelom. The presence of a coelom affords many
advantages, and animals with a coelom may be termed true coelomates or pseudocoelomates,
depending on which tissue gives rise to the coelom. Coelomates are further divided into one of two
groups called protostomes and deuterostomes, based on a number of developmental characteristics,
including differences in zygote cleavage and method of coelom formation.

Figure 1. The phylogenetic tree of animals is based on morphological, fossil, and genetic evidence.

Constructing an Animal Phylogenetic Tree

The current understanding of evolutionary relationships between animal, or Metazoa, phyla begins with
the distinction between “true” animals with true differentiated tissues, called Eumetazoa, and animal phyla
that do not have true differentiated tissues (such as the sponges), called Parazoa. Both Parazoa and
Eumetazoa evolved from a common ancestral organism that resembles the modern-day protists called
choanoflagellates. These protist cells strongly resemble the sponge choanocyte cells today (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Cells of the protist choanoflagellate resemble sponge choanocyte cells. Beating of choanocyte
flagella draws water through the sponge so that nutrients can be extracted and waste removed.

Eumetazoa are subdivided into radially symmetrical animals and bilaterally symmetrical animals, and are
thus classified into clade Bilateria or Radiata, respectively. As mentioned earlier, the cnidarians and
ctenophores are animal phyla with true radial symmetry. All other Eumetazoa are members of the Bilateria
clade. The bilaterally symmetrical animals are further divided into deuterostomes (including chordates and
echinoderms) and two distinct clades of protostomes (including ecdysozoans and lophotrochozoans)
(Figure 3). Ecdysozoa includes nematodes and arthropods; they are so named for a commonly found
characteristic among the group: exoskeletal molting (termed ecdysis). Lophotrochozoa is named for two
structural features, each common to certain phyla within the clade. Some lophotrochozoan phyla are
characterized by a larval stage called trochophore larvae, and other phyla are characterized by the
presence of a feeding structure called a lophophore.

Figure 3. Animals that molt their exoskeletons, such as these (a) Madagascar hissing cockroaches, are in
the clade Ecdysozoa. (b) Phoronids are in the clade Lophotrochozoa. The tentacles are part of a feeding
structure called a lophophore.

Modern Revisions of Phylogeny

The phylogenetic groupings are continually being debated and refined by evolutionary biologists. Each
year, new evidence emerges that further alters the relationships described by a phylogenetic tree diagram.
Nucleic acid and protein analyses have greatly informed the modern phylogenetic animal tree. These data
come from a variety of molecular sources, such as mitochondrial DNA, nuclear DNA, ribosomal RNA
(rRNA), and certain cellular proteins. Many evolutionary relationships in the modern tree have only recently
been determined due to molecular evidence. For example, a previously classified group of animals called
lophophorates, which included brachiopods and bryozoans, were long-thought to be primitive
deuterostomes. Extensive molecular analysis using rRNA data found these animals to be protostomes,
more closely related to annelids and mollusks. This discovery allowed for the distinction of the protostome
clade, the lophotrochozoans. Molecular data have also shed light on some differences within the
lophotrochozoan group, and some scientists believe that the phyla Platyhelminthes and Rotifera within
this group should actually belong to their own group of protostomes termed Platyzoa.

Molecular research similar to the discoveries that brought about the distinction of the lophotrochozoan
clade has also revealed a dramatic rearrangement of the relationships between mollusks, annelids,
arthropods, and nematodes, and a new ecdysozoan clade was formed. Due to morphological similarities
in their segmented body types, annelids and arthropods were once thought to be closely related.
However, molecular evidence has revealed that arthropods are actually more closely related to
nematodes, now comprising the ecdysozoan clade, and annelids are more closely related to mollusks,
brachiopods, and other phyla in the lophotrochozoan clade. These two clades now make up the
protostomes.

Another change to former phylogenetic groupings because of molecular analyses includes the emergence
of an entirely new phylum of worm called Acoelomorpha. These acoel flatworms were long thought to
belong to the phylum Platyhelminthes because of their similar “flatworm” morphology. However,
molecular analyses revealed this to be a false relationship and originally suggested that acoels
represented living species of some of the earliest divergent bilaterians. More recent research into the
acoelomorphs has called this hypothesis into question and suggested a closer relationship with
deuterostomes. The placement of this new phylum remains disputed, but scientists agree that with
sufficient molecular data, their true phylogeny will be determined.

ACTIVITY

Part 1.
Direction: Fill in the table 1.
Table 1.
Animal Lives where? Type of Skin? Method of breathing Method of
(Land/Sea/Air) Reproduction
Cow Land Hide with short lungs Live babies
fur
Bear
Fish
Bird
Whale
Earthworm
Frog
Snake
Part 2.
Direction: In the space provided below using the same set of animals in table 1, write the TAXONOMIC
HEIRARCHY of each starting from the broadest down to the narrowest rank or taxon.
ENRICHMENT QUESTIONS

1. List in order, from most inclusive to least inclusive, the principal categories (taxa) in Linnaean
classification as currently applied to animals.
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________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Explain why the system for naming species that originated with Linnaeus is “binomial.”
________________________________________________________________________________________
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3. How are taxonomic characters recognized? How are such characters used to construct a cladogram?
________________________________________________________________________________________
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4. How do monophyletic, paraphyletic, and polyphyletic taxa differ? How do these differences affect the
validity of such taxa for both evolutionary and cladistic taxonomies?
________________________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________________________________

5. What is the difference between a cladogram and a phylogenetic tree? Given a cladogram for a group
of species, what additional interpretation is needed to obtain a phylogenetic tree?
________________________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________________________________

6. How would cladists and evolutionary taxonomists differ in their interpretations of the statement that
humans evolved from apes, which evolved from monkeys?
________________________________________________________________________________________
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7. What are the five kingdoms distinguished by Whittaker?
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REFERENCE

Internet:
https://www.mpalalive.org/classroom/lesson/animal-classification
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/groups-of-protists/
https://thepiquelab.com/blog/the-ultimate-guide-to-tackle-animal-classification-questions/

Book:
Miller and Harley, (2010). Zoology, 10th Edition. The McGraw Hill Publication, Boston, MA

Chapter VI
ANIMAL-LIKE PROTISTS

LEANING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

a. enumerate the characteristics of protozoans; and

b. describe and differentiate the different animal-like protists.

Keywords: Protozoa, Pellicle, Cilia, Flagella, Pseudopod, Spore

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
What's like an animal, but not an animal?

An animal-like protist, or a protozoa. These protists have the ability to move, usually with some sort of
cilia or flagella, and must obtain their energy from other sources. But obviously, they are much simpler
than animals.

Animal-Like Protists: Protozoa

Animal-like protists are commonly called protozoa (singular, protozoan). Most protozoa consist of a single
cell. They are animal-like because they are heterotrophs, and are capable of moving. Although protozoa
are not animals, they are thought to be the ancestors of animals.

Ecology of Protozoa

Protozoa generally feed by engulfing and digesting other organisms. As consumers, they have various
roles in food chains and webs. Some are predators. They prey upon other single-celled organisms, such
as bacteria. In fact, protozoa predators keep many bacterial populations under control. Other protozoa
are herbivores. They graze on algae. Still others are decomposers. They consume dead organic matter.
There are also parasitic protozoa that live in or on living hosts. For example, the protozoan that causes
malaria lives inside a human host. Protozoa are also important food sources for many larger organisms,
including insectsand worms.

Classification of Protozoa

Protozoa can be classified on the basis of how they move. Protozoa move in three different ways. Only
sporozoa cannot move. Note that this classification is based only on differences in movement. It does
not represent phylogenetic relationships.

The Protozoa is often divided into 4 phyla : Amoebalike protists, flagellates, ciliates, and spore-forming
protists

1. Amoeblike Protists

A. It is a soft, jellylike protozoan.

B. They are found in fresh and salt water, in soil, and in animals.
C. They are highly structured.
D. They have contractile vacuoles to get rid of excess water.

2. Flagellates

A. They use flagella to move.

B. Some of them live in water. Others are parasites that can cause
disease.
C. These flagellate parasites are called Giardia lamblias. It lives in the
digestive tracts of humans.
D. If hikers drink water that is infected with this they can get diarrhea
and severe stomach cramps.
3. Ciliates

A. These are the most complex protozoa.

B. They have hundreds of tiny hairlike structures known as cilia.
C. Cilia can beat up to 60 times a second.
D. Ciliates use the cilia to sweep food through the water toward them.

4. Spore-forming protists

A. These are all parasites that absorb nutrients from their hosts.
B. They do not have a cilia or flagella, so they cannot move on their
own.
C. Plasmodium vivax is a spore-forming protists, that causes malaria.
D. Malaria is a serious disease.
E. Malaria is carried by mosquitoes.

ENRICHMENT QUESTIONS

1. How are protozoa similar to animals?

________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What roles do protozoa play in food chains and webs?

________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

REFERENCE

Internet:
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_Introductory_Biolo
gy_(CK-12)/08%3A_Protists_and_Fungi/8.04%3A_Protozoa

Book:
Miller and Harley, (2010). Zoology, 10th Edition. The McGraw Hill Publication, Boston, MA

Chapter VII
MULTI-CELLULAR AND TISSUE LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

LEANING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

a. describe and differentiate the different phyla under the multi-cellular and tissue levels of
organization.

Keywords: Multicellular, diploblast, budding, coelom

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Origins of Multicellularity
Why become multicellular?Division of labor, specialized cells with specific functions. Two Hypotheses:
Colonial Hypothesis – a dividing protist remained together. Syncytial Hypothesis – formation of plasma
membranes in a protist may have produced a small, multicellular organism.

Porifera, Cnidaria, and Ctenophora are the most primitive clade of metazoans. They distinguish
themselves from the other metazoans by their lack of bilateral symmetry. Inside their clade, each phylum
is clearly distinguished by its general features. Porifera have a cellular, rather than tissular, level of
organization, without any true nervous or muscular cells. For this reason, they were generally considered
to be a separate subkingdom of Parazoa. However, this point of view has not been confirmed by recent
phylogenetic analyses. Cnidaria and Ctenophora are lumped together because of their radial
organization (Radiata), and were also joined together in the taxon Coelenterata. At present, they are
divided in two different phyla on the basis of the more advanced organization of Ctenophora, and on
the basis of molecular data. A remarkable relationship between Porifera and Ctenophora has been
shown with molecular evidence.

Phylum Porifera

Phylum Porifera are the lowest multicellular animals belonging to the kingdom Animalia.
The word “Porifera” mainly refers to the pore bearers or pore bearing species. Based on the
embryological studies, sponges are prooved as animals and are classified into a separate Phylum in the
animals
This phylum includes about 5000 species. Poriferans are pore-bearing first multicellular animals. The
pores are known as Ostia.
The poriferans have a spongy appearance and are therefore called sponges. They are attached to the
substratum and do not move. They have the ability to absorb and withhold fluids.
They were initially regarded as plants due to the green colour and their symbiotic relationship with algae.
Later, their life cycle and feeding system were discovered and they were included in the animal
kingdom.

Characteristics of Phylum Porifera

Some of the important characteristics of phylum Porifera are mentioned below.
➢ The cells of Poriferans are loosely organized.
➢ They are mostly found in marine water. Only a
few are found in freshwater.
➢ They are either radially symmetrical or
asymmetrical.
➢ Their body is usually cylindrical.
➢ The scleroblast secretes spicules while
spongin fibres are secreted by spongioblasts.
➢ They have no organs in their body.
➢ They depict cellular grade of organization.
➢ The body is comprised of numerous pores
known as Ostia and osculum.
➢ The central cavity is called spongocoel or
atrium which open outside through the
osculum.
➢ They reproduce asexually by budding, and
fragmentation.
➢ The nutrition is holozoic.
➢ They have neurosensory cells but are devoid of any specific nervous system.
➢ They have the power to regenerate the lost parts.
➢ The development is indirect and the cleavage is holoblastic.
➢ The exchange of respiratory gases and nitrogenous wastes occur by the process of diffusion.
Phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata)

Phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata) belongs to the Animal kingdom found usually attached to the rocks at
the bottom of the sea. They are multicellular and can be found in colonies or solitarily. These are the
simplest group of invertebrate animals.
Characteristics of Coelenterata
➢ These are mostly aquatic animals.
➢ The mouth is surrounded by short and thin
tentacles.
➢ They exhibit tissue level organization.
➢ They are diploblastic, i.e., the body is made up
of two layers of cells- One layer makes up the
cells outside the body (ectoderm), and the other
forms the inner lining of the body (endoderm).
➢ They have cavities in their body.
➢ The body is radially symmetrical.
➢ The digestion is both intracellular and
extracellular.
➢ The nervous system and the circulatory system is
absent.
➢ The excrete and respire through simple diffusion.
➢ They reproduce asexually through budding.
Sexual reproduction is seen in a few
Coelenterates.
➢ Eg., Hydra, Rhizostoma, Xenia, etc.

Phylum Ctenophora

Characteristics of Ctenophora
➢ These include marine radially symmetrical, diploblastic.
➢ They have 8 rows of comb plates, used for locomotion.
➢ Digestion is both extracellular and intracellular.
➢ Reproduction is exclusively sexual and involves a larval
stage.

ACTIVITY

Direction: Make a table that differentiates the three (3) phyla based on the following characteristics:
habitat, habit, symmetry, germ layers, level of organization, appendages, body wall, locomotion, and
reproduction.
ENRICHMENT QUESTIONS

1. Why are Coelenterates called Cnidarians?

________________________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Why are coelenterates diploblastic

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________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Are ctenophores harmful to humans?

________________________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________________________________

4. What are the economic importance of the three phyla?

________________________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________________________________

5. What are the ecological importance of the three phyla?

________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

REFERENCE

Internet:
https://byjus.com/biology/
https://biologyboom.com/chapter-3-multicellular-tissue-level-organization/

Book:
Miller and Harley, (2010). Zoology, 10th Edition. The McGraw Hill Publication, Boston, MA
 Chapter VIII
THE TRIPLOBLASTIC, ACOELOMATE BODY PLAN

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

a. characterize phylum Platyhelminthes, Nemertea and Gastrotricha.

Keywords: Triploblastic, acoelomate, osmoregulation, hermaphrodite, parthogenesis, proboscis

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Triploblastic Acoelomate Body Plan

Members of the phyla Platyhelminthes, Nemertea and Gastrotricha show following advance characters:

1. They are first bilaterally symmetrical animals. Therefore, they are more Complex than the cnidarians.
2. All these animals are triploblastic.
3. They are acoelomate (without a coelom).
4. They are classified into three phyla:

Phylum Platyhelminthes
Phylum Platyhelminthes belongs to kingdom Animalia. This phylum includes 13,000 species. The
organisms are also known as flatworms. These are acoelomates and they include many free-living and
parasitic life forms.
Members of this phylum range in size from a single-celled organism to around 2-3 feet long.

Characteristics
 ➢ They are triploblastic, acoelomate, and bilaterally
symmetrical.
➢ They may be free-living or parasites.
➢ The body has a soft covering with or without cilia.
➢ Their body is dorsoventrally flattened without any
segments and appears like a leaf.
➢ They are devoid of the anus and circulatory system but
has a mouth.
➢ They respire by simple diffusion through the body surface.
➢ They have an organ system level of organization.
➢ They do not have a digestive tract.
➢ The space between the body wall and organs is filled with
connective tissue parenchyma which helps in transporting
the food material.
➢ They are hermaphrodites, i.e., both male and female organs are present in the same body.
➢ They reproduce sexually by fusion of gametes and asexually by regeneration by fission and
regeneration. Fertilization is internal.
➢ The life cycle is complicated with one or more larval stages.
➢ They possess the quality of regeneration.
➢ The flame cells help in excretion and osmoregulation.
➢ The nervous system comprises the brain and two longitudinal nerve cords arranged in a ladder-
like fashion.

Unique Characteristics of Platyhelminthes

Some of the characteristics that distinguish the organisms belonging to phylum Platyhelminthes from
others are:
• Presence of flame cells.
• Ladder-like nervous system.
• Presence of parenchyma in the body cavity.
• Self-fertilization

Phylum Nemertea

There are nine hundred species of nemerteans. They are elongate, flattened worms. They are found in
marine mud and sand. They have a long proboscis. Therefore, nemerteans are commonly called proboscis
worms. Adult worms range in size from a few millimeters to several centimeters in length. Most nemerteans
are pale yellow, orange, green or red.

Characteristics
➢ They are triploblastic. acoelomate. bilaterally
symmetrical unsegmented worms.
➢ They possess a ciliated epidermis containing mucous
glands
➢ They have complete digestive tract with an anus
➢ Excretory structures are protonephridia.
➢ Nervous system is composed of cerebral ganglion,
longitudinal nerve cords, and transverse commissures.
➢ They have closed circulatory system.
➢ Body musculature forms two or three layers.

Phylum Gastrotricha

Gastrotrichs are small 0.5mm to 4mm in length, generally colourless worms that are related to both
nematodes and tubellarian flatworms. They are free living in aquatic environments, either marine or
freshwater and feed on a variety of living and dead organic matter, anything small enough to be swept
into their mouths by the 4 tufts of beating cilia on the head. They have very short lives, from 3 to 21 days
and are not terribly important economically though as with all living things they are part of the food and
predator webs of other aquatic organisms. They have from 2 to 250 adhesive tubes on the lower sides of
their bodies which help them to temporarily attach themselves to vegetation or other submerged surfaces.
There are about 400 species known to science.

Characteristics
➢ Bilaterally symmetrical, and vermiform.
➢ Body has more than two cell layers, tissues and
organs.
➢ Body contains no internal cavity.
➢ Body possesses a through gut with a subterminal
anus.
➢ Body covered in a cuticle bearing numerous
scales, spines or hooks.
➢ Has a nervous system with ganglia.
➢ Has no circulatory system (no blood system)
➢ Reproduction sexual and hermaphroditic, or
parthenogenetic.
➢ Feed on bacteria, fungi and protists.
➢ All live in aquatic environments.

ACTIVITY

Direction: List down 5 examples of species each belonging to Phylum Platyhelminthes, Phylum Nemertia,
and Phylum Gastrotricha.

__________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________

ENRICHMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the advantage of having a triploblastic acoelomate body plan?

________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What is the difference between the 3 Phyla in terms of digestion, excretion and reproduction?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

REFERENCE

Internet:
https://biologyboom.com/chapter-4-the-triploblastic-acoelomate-body-plan/

Book:
Miller and Harley, (2010). Zoology, 10th Edition. The McGraw Hill Publication, Boston, MA

Chapter IX
THE PSEUDOCOELOMATE BODY PLAN: ASCHELMINTHS

LEANING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

a. identify the distinguishing features of aschelminths.

Keywords: Pseudocoelomate, gonochoristic, cephalization, dioecious

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Aschelminths include a group of Phyla that share one common feature: the pseudocoelom, a body cavity
not entirely lines by mesoderm. Therefore, no muscular or connective tissues are associated with the gut
tract, no mesodermal sheet covers the inner surface of the body wall, and no membranes suspend organs
within the body cavity; embryologically derived from the blastocoele of the embryo. This includes phyla
Nematoda, Rotifera, Kinorhyncha, Acanthocephala, Gastrotricha, Nematomorpha, and others. They are a
very diverse group, distantly related.

Body cavities are advantageous because they:

1. Provide more room for organ development

2. Provide more surface area for diffusion of gases, nutrients, and wastes into and out of organs
3. Provides area for storage
4. Often act as hydrostatic skeletons
5. Provide a vehicle for eliminating wastes and reproductive products from the body
6. Facilitate increased body size

Phylum Rotifera

The rotifers are a microscopic (about 100 µm to 30 mm) group of mostly aquatic organisms that get their
name from the corona, a rotating, wheel-like structure that is covered with cilia at their anterior end
(Figure 1). Although their taxonomy is currently in flux, one treatment places the rotifers in three classes:
Bdelloidea, Monogononta, and Seisonidea. The classification of the group is currently under revision,
however, as more phylogenetic evidence becomes available. It is possible that the “spiny headed worms”
currently in phylum Acanthocephala will be incorporated into this group in the future.

Characteristics of the Phylum Rotifera:

➢ Phylum Rotifera are microscopic animals, mainly found in freshwater, rarely in marine or parasitic.
➢ Body wall of Phylum Rotifera generally lacks a cuticle and thickened into stiff plates or lorica into
which the head may retreat.
➢ Anterior end with a ciliated organ called corona helps in swimming and feeding.
 ➢ Posterior foot of Phylum Rotifera has two toes; foot with cement glands.
➢ Cuticle secreted within epidermis and never moulted.
➢ Digestive system with a highly muscular pharynx called mastax lined internally with cuticle and
within mastax is a rigid structure or jaws called trophi used for grasping and grinding the prey.
➢ Pseudocoelomate animals.
➢ Eutelic condition is seen in Phylum Rotifera.
➢ Excretory organs are protonephridia with flame cells. The protonephridia function in
osmoregulation.
➢ Nervous system includes cerebral ganglion with longitudinal nerve cords.
➢ Sexes in Phylum Rotifera are separate (gonochoristic).

Phylum Kinorhyncha

The Kinorhyncha are a smallish phylum (100 species) of marine worms. They are recognised by the 5 or
6 rings of recurved spines on their heads and the segmented appearance of their bodies. The
segmented nature of their bodies is a reflection of the rings of cuticular plates that surround the the
body, it is not homologous with the segmentation of Annelid worms or Arthropods. They live in the
marine mud or in the interstitial spaces of marine sand. They are found in the intertidal zone to the
depths of several thousand metres.

Characteristics of Kinorhyncha:

➢ Bilaterally symmetrical, and vermiform.

➢ Body has more than two cell layers, tissues and organs.
➢ Body cavity is a pseudocoel.
➢ Body possesses a through gut with an anus.
➢ Body possesses in a cuticle and longitudinal muscles.
➢ Has a nervous system with an anterior nerve ring and a double
nerve chord.
➢ Has no circulatory system (no blood system)
➢ Reproduction normally sexual and gonochoristic.
➢ Feed on diatoms and organic detritus.
➢ All live in marine environments.

Phylum Nematoda
Nematodes are the most speciose phylum after the arthropods, they occur in nearly every habitat
including as parasites in all sorts of plants and animals, (they don't like dry places however). One
species is known that can live in old vinegar (Turbatrix aceti)and another that as only been found in
German beer mats. Though only about 80 000 species have been described some scientists estimate
there may be as many as a million species all told. They can occur in very dense numbers in the soil and
rotting vegetation, as many as 90 000 have been found in a single rotting apple, while millions occur in
the top 3cm (1 inch) of a square metre of good quality soil. While there are a huge number of free living
Nematodes there are also a large number of parasitic species, many of which cause diseases to man
and other animals as well as to plants, nearly every living organism has been found to be parasitised by
one species of nematode or another. Most nematodes are reasonably small, they range in size from 100
micrometres in length (1/10th of a mm or 1/250th of an in) to the female Giant Nematode Dioctophyme
renale which may be up to 1 metre, or 3 ft long.

Characteristics of Nematoda:

➢ Bilaterally symmetrical, and vermiform.

➢ Body has more than two cell layers, tissues and
organs.
➢ Body cavity is a pseudocoel, body fluid under high
pressure.
➢ Body possesses a through gut with a subterminal
anus.
➢ Body covered in a complex cuticle.
➢ Has a nervous system with pharyngeal nerve ring.
➢ Has no circulatory system (no blood system)
➢ Reproduction normally sexual and gonochoristic.
➢ Feed on just about everything.
➢ Live just about everywhere, many species are endoparasites.

Phylum Nematomorpha

The nematomorpha are relatively long thin worms (1 to 3 mm diametre and 10cm or 4 in to 1m or 3 ft in
length), they are a smallish phylum with about 240 known species. They are called Horsehair Worms,
because they used to be found in horse watering troughs and they look like the hairs from a horses tail.
Thus before the advent of modern science it was believed they arose spontaneously from hairs from
horses tails that fell into the water.

Characteristics of Nematomorpha:

➢ Bilaterally symmetrical, and vermiform.

➢ Body has more than two cell layers, tissues and
organs.
➢ Body monomeric with a pseudocoelomic cavity.
➢ Body possesses a through gut which is normally
non-functional.
➢ Body possesses in a cuticle and longitudinal
muscles.
➢ Has a intra-epidermal nervous system with an
anterior nerve ring.
➢ Has no circulatory system (no blood system)
➢ Reproduction normally sexual and gonochoristic.
➢ Adults non-feeding, larvae endoparasitic.
➢ Aquatic or moist soils, mostly fresh-water.
Phylum Acanthocephala

Acanthocephala is a medium sized phylum (1 000 species) of usually small and always parasitic (in the
guts of vertebrates) worms. Over 1 000 have been found in the gut of a single seal. Most are less than
25mm or 1 inch long, though some species may attain a length of nearly a metre, 3 feet. They get their
name from their proboscis which possesses several rings of backwardly curving spines which they use to
attach themselves to the walls of their hosts digestive system. This proboscis can be retracted within the
body wall by muscular contraction, but it is extended again by hydraulic pressure.

Characteristics of Acanthocephala:

➢ Bilaterally symmetrical and vermiform.

➢ Body has more than two cell layers, tissues and
organs.
➢ Body cavity is a pseudocoelom.
➢ Body possesses no digestive system.
➢ Body covered by a syncitial epidermis with a few
giant nuclei.
➢ Has a nervous system with a ganglion and paired
nerves.
➢ Has no circulatory or respiratory organs.
➢ Reproduction sexual and gonochoristic, with
vivparous embryos.
➢ Adults parasitic on vertebrates.
➢ Larvae live in insects and crustaceans.

Phylum Loricifera

First discovered in 1983, by Reinhardt Kristensen, these minute (less than 3mm long) animals are still
relatively unknown.

They live in the interstitial marine shell-gravel at depths of between 15 and 480 metres. Though they are
believed to be cosmopolitan aspect of the coastal marine fauna, little is yet known of their distribution
genus Nanaloricus has been identified from the shores of France, USA (Carolina and Florida) and the
Azores. The only other currently named genus is Pliciloricus.

Characteristics of Loricifera:

➢ Bilaterally symmetrical.
➢ Body has more than two cell layers and includes tissues and
organs.
➢ Has a body cavity, and a straight through gut.
➢ Body has three distinct regions, a head a neck and a
trunk.
➢ Has one pair of gonads = gonochoristic.
➢ Has a well developed nervous system with a brain and
nerve ganglia.
➢ Has a distinct larval stage.
➢ Lives in marine environments

Phylum Priapulida
The Priapulida, or Priapula are a small phylum (about 16 species known to scientists) of normally small
worm like animals. They range in length from 0.5 mm for species of Tubuluchus to around 200 mm for
species of Priapulus. They occur in most seas, both tropical and polar, at a variety of depths, from shallow
coastal waters to as far down as 7,200 metres. The name Priapulida refers to the fact that the scientists
who first named them thought they looked like a human penis, however they look more like some species
of cacti and it would not be unreasonable to use the term Cactus Worms as their common name. All
known species are marine and benthic (meaning they live in or on the sea floor).

Characteristics of Priapula:
➢ Bilaterally symmetrical, and vermiform.
➢ Body has more than two cell layers, tissues and
organs.
➢ Body cavity is a true coelom.
➢ Body possesses a through gut with an anus.
➢ Body in two sections, a prosoma and a trunk.
➢ Has a nervous system with an anterior nerve ring
and a ganglionated nerve chord.
➢ Has no circulatory but blood corpuscles exist in
the coelomic fluid.
➢ Reproduction sexual and gonochoristic.
➢ Feed on other marine worms.
➢ All live in marine environments.

ENRICHMENT QUESTIONS
1. How is bilateral symmetry different from radial symmetry
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2. Distinguish between a host and an intermediate host.
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3. Describe the several adaptations of parasitic flatworms to their external environment.
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4. Contrast the digestive systems of free-living and parasitic flatworms.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Pseudocoel means “false body cavity”. Why is this term applied to the body cavity of rotifers?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

REFERENCE

Internet:
https://quizlet.com/149084746/zoology-lab-the-pseudocoelomate-body-plan-aschelminths-flash-cards/
https://www.earthlife.net/

Book:
Miller and Harley, (2010). Zoology, 10th Edition. The McGraw Hill Publication, Boston, MA
 Chapter X
THE MOLLUSKS

LEANING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

a. examine the differences and similarities of the different classes of phylum Mollusca.

Keywords: Coelomates, monoecious, nephridia, siphon

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
After the Arthropods, the Molluscs are the most successful of the animal phyla in terms of numbers of
species. There are about 110,000 species known to science most of which are marine. They occupy a
vast range of habitats however both aquatic and terrestrial, from the arctic seas to small tropical
streams and from valleys to mountainsides 7,000 metres high, there are a few adapted to live in deserts
and some are parasitic. They also exhibit an enormous range in size, from species which
are almost microscopic to the largest of all invertebrates the giant squid which can
weighs 270 kg and measures up to 12 metres long in the body, with tentacles as much
as another 50 metres in length. Many species are common and many more a beautiful.
Most species secrete a shell of some sort, these shells are long lasting and have been
collected by human beings for thousands of years, some of these shells, and the pearls which come
from oysters, which are also molluscs may be among the earliest forms of money.

Most molluscs are marine. Molluscs are very ancient organisms believed to have evolved
from a flatworm like ancestor during the Precambrium about 650 million years ago.
Because many species secrete a shell of some sort the fossil record is good.
Different classes of molluscs have been predominant in the past and the Ammonites
represent a group of Cephalopods which were extremely abundant for millions of years
before they became extinct. There close relatives the Nautiloid cephalopods were also
once very successful but are now only represented in the world by one species, Nautilus.

Molluscs, because of their ease of capture, edibility and beauty have long been
important to mankind. Molluscs of many sorts are eaten by humans Abilone, Clams,
Cockles, Muscles, Octopus, Oysters, Periwinkles, Scallops, Snails, Squid, Whelks,
Winkles and many more are all molluscs and all make there contribution to the human
diet. Mankind has been deliberately culturing molluscs as food for a long time and the earliest known
records of someone farming molluscs for food come from Rome where one Sergius Orata bred oysters.

Characteristics of Mollusca:

➢ Bilaterally symmetrical.
➢ Body has more than two cell layers, tissues and organs.
➢ Body without cavity.
➢ Body possesses a through gut with mouth and anus.
➢ Body monomeric and highly variable in form, may possess a dorsal or lateral shells of protein and
calcareous spicules.
➢ Has a nervous system with a circum-oesophagal ring, ganglia and paired nerve chords.
➢ Has an open circulatory system with a heart and an aorta.
➢ Has gaseous exchange organs called ctenidial gills.
➢ Has a pair of kidneys.
➢ Reproduction normally sexual and gonochoristic.
➢ Feed a wide range of material.
➢ Live in most environments.
ACTIVITY

Direction: Make a table that differentiates Gastropods, Bivalves, and Cephalopods.

ENRICHMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain what causes the growth ridges found on the shells of bivalves
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________________________________________________________________________________________
2. List some structures that distinguish bivalves from other molluscan classes.
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________________________________________________________________________________________

3. What characteristics distinguish slugs from nudibranchs?

________________________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Is it possible that some of the monsters reported by ancient mariners were giant squid or octopi?
Search the Internet before giving and explaining your answer.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

REFERENCE

Internet:
https://byjus.com/biology/
https://www.earthlife.net/inverts/mollusca.html

Book:
Miller and Harley, (2010). Zoology, 10th Edition. The McGraw Hill Publication, Boston, MA

Chapter XI
ANNELIDA: THE METAMERIC BODY FORM

LEANING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

a. define metamerism;
b. describe annelid structure and functions; and
c. differentiate the species members of Phylum Annelida.
Keywords: Metamerism, protostomes, segmentation

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

The Annelida are a medium sized phylum of more than 9,000 species of worms. Most species prefer
aquatic environments, but there are also a number of well know terrestrial species. Only a few species of
annelids are commonly known to human beings, these include the delightful Rain, Dew or Earthworms
that work so hard to make our soils healthy, the Ragworms and Lugworms used by marine fishermen and
the much smaller Tubifex or Red worms used by aquarists to feed their fish. In many countries people are
still familiar with Medicinal leeches, and people who live closer to nature are naturally more familiar with
a much wider range of Annelids than those who live in cities.

Despite the amazing and delicate beauty of polychaetes such as the Fan Worms, and the huge (really
beyond estimation) economic debt owed by mankind to the Oligochaete Earthworms for their work in soil
creation and maintenance many people still fail to appreciate their true wonder and beauty.

The earthworms, of which there are many species, are exceedingly important in soil creation, particularly
in temperate areas. Without them, agriculture and perhaps the whole of human society as we know it
would never have evolved. Like so much of the unnoticed invertebrate world earthworms are essential to
our very existence. In marine environments the numerous species of Polychaetes play a fundamentally
important role in the maintenance of food chains and the whole ecological balance of the seas, thus
supporting the seemingly endless stocks of fish we like to eat.

One of the strangest ways that humans relate to Annelids is in the hobby of 'Worm Charming'. This
involves enticing earthworms from their holes (catching them), originally it was a means of acquiring
worms for bait, but now-a-days it is a sport. The world record as far as I know is held by Tom
Shufflebotham who charmed 511 worms from their underground hideouts from an area of 3 square metres
in only 30 minutes during the 1980 Annual Worm Charming Championships held in Cheshire UK. The rules
specify that the worms must be brought to the surface without using refreshment, stimulation, drugs or
digging. Tom used a method called twanging which involves sticking a 4-pronged pitchfork into the
ground and twanging it.

Annelids range in size from the Giant Earthworms, of which Michrochaetus rappi (Michrochaetus
michrochaetus) is the largest, this magnificent animal has an average length of 1.36 m (54 ins) and a
record breaking specimen has been recorded that measured 6.7 metres (22 ft) in length, it was 2cm (0.8
ins) in diametre. Larger worms have been reported but not scientifically proven. The smallest Annelid
known to science is Chaetogaster annandalai which is full grown at 0.5 mm (0.02 ins).

Characteristics of Annelida:

➢ Bilaterally symmetrical and vermiform.

➢ Body has more than two cell layers, tissues and organs.
 ➢ Body cavity is a true coelom, often divided by internal septa.
➢ Body possesses a through gut with mouth and anus.
➢ Body possesses 3 separate sections, a prosomium, a trunk and a pygidium.]
➢ Has a nervous system with an anterior nerve ring, ganglia and a ventral nerve chord.
➢ Has a true closed circulatory system.
➢ Has no true respiratory organs.
➢ Reproduction normally sexual and gonochoristic or hermaphoditic.
➢ Feed a wide range of material.
➢ Live in most environments.

ACTIVITY

Direction: Indicate the differences between protostomes and deuterostomes.

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________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
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ENRICHMENT QUESTIONS

1. What happens to the coelom as each phyla of protostomes evolve?

________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Briefly describe the life cycle of an earthworm.

________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Define segmentation and indicate how the annelids and your body exhibit this phenomenon.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

REFERENCE

Internet:
https://byjus.com/biology/
https://www.earthlife.net/inverts/mollusca.html

Book:
Miller and Harley, (2010). Zoology, 10th Edition. The McGraw Hill Publication, Boston, MA

Chapter XII
THE ARTHROPODS: BLUEPRINT FOR SUCCESS

LEANING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

a. characterize arthropods belonging to the different subphyla; and

b. enumerate representative species of arthropods.

Keywords: jointed-legged, chitin, exoskeleton, hemolymph, metamorphosis

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Among the living animals of the world Crabs and Prawns, Woodlice, Spiders, Scorpions, Insects,
Millipedes and Centipedes are all Arthropods, linked together by the possession of a hard jointed
exoskeleton, a through-gut and jointed limbs.
Arthropods are currently thought to have evolved from Annelids. Both groups have the same sort of
central nervous system, a similar circulatory system along with metameric segmentation and
tagmatization

The phylum Arthropoda is huge in terms of both numbers of species and in terms of numbers of
individuals. They have diversified to live in every habitat imaginable, from the tropics to the poles, from
the bottom of the oceans to the tops of mountains, both underground and inside other animals and plants,
where ever you look Arthropods are ubiquitous. Most of the invertebrates you encounter during your life
will be Arthropods, in fact if you only noticed them you would realise that most of the living things you
encounter in your life are Arthropods. With an amazing 1 million named species (and estimates of total
species numbers rising to 30 million) the Arthropods represent over 80% of the Animal Kingdom and
probably at least half of all living organisms.

Arthropods are amazingly diverse in form and function and in many cases fundamental characteristics
have been secondarily lost, either completely or are only visible in embryonic form, hence the suite of '(in
most cases)' in the list above. Most of these problems are generated by the Crustacea whose variability
is incredible.

Because of their huge numbers, and the density at which they occur in many habitats, on land, in the soil,
in fresh water and in the sea, arthropods are of immense importance to the ecology of the whole planet.
It is true to say that without them complicated multicellular life on this planet would simply collapse and
probably disappear all together. Their economic importance to mankind is also beyond measure, they are
important in nutrient recycling in both aquatic and terrestrial environments, comprising the key workers in
most ecologies. They supply food directly for huge numbers of Amphibians, Fish, Birds and Mammals and
Reptiles and indirectly for more still. As insects their value as pollinators of flowering plants and therefore
as preservers of floral diversity is incalculable, while there contribution to modern biological and
ecological research is equally extensive.

Characteristics of the Arthropoda:

➢ Bilaterally symmetrical (in most cases).

➢ Body has more than two cell layers, tissues and organs.
➢ Body cavity a true coelom.
➢ Most possesses a through straight gut with an anus (in most cases).
➢ Body possesses 3 to 400+ pairs of jointed legs.
➢ Body possesses an external skeleton (in most cases).
➢ Body is divided in 2 or 3 sections.
➢ Nervous system includes a brain and ganglia.
➢ Possesses a respiratory system in the form of tracheae and spiracles (in most cases).
➢ Possesses a open or lacunnar circulatory system with a simple heart, one or more arteries, and
no veins, (in most cases).
➢ Reproduction normally sexual and gonochoristic, but can be parthenogenetic.
➢ Feed on everything.
➢ Live everywhere.
Subphylum Hexapods

The name Hexapoda denotes the presence of six legs (three pairs) in these animals as differentiated from
the number of pairs present in other arthropods. Hexapods are characterized by the presence of a head,
thorax, and abdomen, constituting three tagma. The thorax bears the wings as well as six legs in three
pairs. Many of the common insects we encounter on a daily basis—including ants, cockroaches,
butterflies, and flies—are examples of Hexapoda.

Amongst the hexapods, the insects are the largest class in terms of species diversity as well as biomass
in terrestrial habitats. Typically, the head bears one pair of sensory antennae, mandibles as mouthparts,
a pair of compound eyes, and some ocelli (simple eyes) along with numerous sensory hairs. The thorax
bears three pairs of legs (one pair per segment) and two pairs of wings, with one pair each on the second
and third thoracic segments. The abdomen usually has eleven segments and bears reproductive
apertures. Hexapoda includes insects that are winged (like fruit flies) and wingless (like fleas).
Subphylum Myriapods

Subphylum Myriapoda includes arthropods with numerous legs. Although the name is hyperbolic in
suggesting that myriad legs are present in these invertebrates, the number of legs may vary from 10 to
750. This subphylum includes 13,000 species; the most commonly found examples are millipedes and
centipedes. All myriapods are terrestrial animals and prefer a humid environment.

Myriapods are typically found in moist soils, decaying biological material, and leaf litter. Subphylum
Myriapoda is divided into four classes:
Chilopoda, Symphyla, Diplopoda, and
Pauropoda. Centipedes like Scutigera
coleoptrata are classified as chilopods.
These animals bear one pair of legs per
segment, mandibles as mouthparts, and are
somewhat dorsoventrally flattened. The
legs in the first segment are modified to
form forcipules (poison claws) that deliver
poison to prey like spiders and
cockroaches, as these animals are all
predatory. Millipedes bear two pairs of legs
per diplosegment, a feature that results
from embryonic fusion of adjacent pairs of
body segments, are usually rounder in
cross-section, and are herbivores or
detritivores. Millipedes have visibly more
numbers of legs as compared to
centipedes, although they do not bear a
thousand legs.
Subphylum Crustacea

Crustaceans are the most dominant aquatic arthropods, since the total number of marine crustacean
species stands at 67,000, but there are also freshwater and terrestrial crustacean species. Krill, shrimp,
lobsters, crabs, and crayfish are examples of crustaceans. Terrestrial species like the wood lice
(Armadillidium spp.) (also called pill bugs, rolly pollies, potato bugs, or isopods) are also crustaceans,
although the number of non-aquatic species in this subphylum is relatively low.

The (a) crab and (b) shrimp krill are both crustaceans. (credit a: modification of work by William Warby;
credit b: modification of work by Jon Sullivan)

Crustaceans possess two pairs of antennae, mandibles as mouthparts, and biramous (“two branched”)
appendages, which means that their legs are formed in two parts, as distinct from the uniramous (“one
branched”) myriapods and hexapods

Subphylum Chelicerata

The chelicerae (first set of appendages) are well developed in the scorpion. (credit: Kevin Walsh)

This subphylum includes animals such as spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs, and sea spiders. This
subphylum is predominantly terrestrial, although some marine species also exist. An estimated 77,000
species are included in subphylum Chelicerata. Chelicerates are found in almost all habitats.

The body of chelicerates may be divided into two parts: prosoma and opisthosoma, which are basically
the equivalents of cephalothorax (usually smaller) and abdomen (usually larger). A “head” tagmum is not
usually discernible.

The phylum derives its name from the first pair of appendages: the chelicerae ,which are specialized, claw-
like or fang-like mouthparts. These animals do not possess antennae. The second pair of appendages is
known as pedipalps. In some species, like sea spiders, an additional pair of appendages, called ovigers,
is present between the chelicerae and pedipalps.
The trapdoor spider, like all spiders, is a member of the subphylum Chelicerata. (credit: Marshal Hedin)

Chelicerae are mostly used for feeding, but in spiders, these are often modified into fangs that inject
venom into their prey before feeding. Members of this subphylum have an open circulatory system with a
heart that pumps blood into the hemocoel. Aquatic species have gills, whereas terrestrial species have
either trachea or book lungs for gaseous exchange.

Most chelicerates ingest food using a preoral cavity formed by the chelicerae and pedipalps. Some
chelicerates may secrete digestive enzymes to pre-digest food before ingesting it. Parasitic chelicerates
like ticks and mites have evolved blood-sucking apparatuses.

The nervous system in chelicerates consists of a brain and two ventral nerve cords. These animals use
external fertilization as well as internal fertilization strategies for reproduction, depending upon the species
and its habitat. Parental care for the young ranges from absolutely none to relatively prolonged care.

ACTIVITY

Direction: Give the function of each of the following structure present in Arthopods: Antenna, Mandible,
Maxilla, Swimmerets

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________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

ENRICHMENT QUESTIONS

1. Define sexual dimorphism, describe it in the crayfish, and list two other animals that exhibit this
phenomenon.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

2. How has flight been at least partly responsible for the success of the insects?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

3. List several difference between insects and spiders

 ________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

REFERENCE

Internet:
https://byjus.com/biology/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/subphylums-of-arthropoda/

Book:
Miller and Harley, (2010). Zoology, 10th Edition. The McGraw Hill Publication, Boston, MA

Chapter XIII
THE ECHINODERMS AND INVERTEBRATE CHORDATES

LEANING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

a. characterize the classes under phylum Echinodermata and invertebrate chordates.

Keywords: dermal endoskeleton, water-vascular system, notochord, pharyngeal gill slits, nerve cord,
invertebrate

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Phylum Echinodermata

The Echinodermata are Feather Stars, Starfish, Sea Urchins, Brittle Stars, Sea Cucumbers, Sand Dollars
and Sea Lilies. As you can see from this list they are a morphologically very diverse group, at first it may
not be obvious how they are all related, but despite their various forms they do all possess the
characteristics outlined above. They are an ancient and very successful phylum of invertebrates with
around 6,000 living members. They are one of the best known and most loved groups of invertebrates.
They are popular as symbols because of their unique shapes and beautiful colours. They are also one of
the most evolutionarily advanced phyla, yet they are totally unique in many ways. They have evolved many
morphological and physiological characteristics that set them apart from all the other phyla, and although
much research has been done on them, we are still a long way from really understanding them well. The
echinoderms are, to express it simply, wonderfully attractive both aesthetically and intellectually.

Characteristics of Echinodermata:
➢ Possess 5-rayed symmetry, mostly radial, sometimes bilateral.
➢ Body has more than two cell layers, tissues and organs.
➢ Body cavity a true coelom.
➢ Most possesses a through gut with an anus.
➢ Body shape highly variable, but with no head.
➢ Nervous system includes a circum-oesophageal ring.
➢ Has a poorly defined open circulatory system.
➢ Possesses a water vascular system, which hydraulically operates the tube feet or feeding
tentacles.
➢ Without excretory organs.
➢ Normally possesses a subepidermal system of calcareous plates
➢ Reproduction normally sexual and gonochoristic.Feeds on fine particles in the water, detritus or
other animals.
➢ All live marine environments.

Invertebrate Chordates

The phylum Chordata is a strange phylum in that it contains three subphyla, two of which contain
invertebrates while the third contains all the animals we are most familiar with, the vertebrates.

The Chordata is a fairly large and successful phylum with over 50,000 species ranging in size from a about
4 millimetres (less than 0.25 inches)to over 33.50 m or 110ft in length. It includes such improbable animals
as sea squirts and salps practically along side fishes and mammals. As a phylum it is extraordinarily diverse
both in its methods of reproduction, its lifestyles and its distribution, chordates can be found all across
the planet.
There are four main differences between members of the phylum Chordata and all the other phyla of the
animal kingdom. These are: 1) All chordates possess, at some stage of their development, a hollow dorsal
nerve tube. This is normally seen as the spinal column and the attached brain, in the two invertebrate
subphyla it is only present during the embryonic development of the animal. 2) The presence, again at
some stage of the animals life of an internal, flexible rod-like axial skeletal structure known as a notochord.
This lies below the nerve tube and above the animals gut. In the Vertebrata this is replaced during early
embryological development by the vertebrae which enclose and protect the nerve tube. 3) All chordates
possess, at some stage of their development, gill slits or pharyngeal clefts. In the primarily terrestrial
vertebrates these are lost during embryological development. 4) All chordates possess at some time in
their lives a post anal tail, i.e. an elongation of the body beyond the end of the digestive tract. As with the
other three characteristics this is only evident during embryological development in some groups.

Characteristics of the invertebrate Chordata:

➢ Bilaterally symmetrical.
➢ Body has more than two cell layers, tissues and organs.
➢ Body cavity a true coelom.
➢ Most possesses a through gut with a non-terminal anus.
➢ Body monomeric with no head or jaws.
➢ Possess at some stage of their life a hollow dorsal nerve tube.
➢ Possess at some stage of their life a dorsal cartilaginous rod called a notochord.
➢ Possess at some stage of their life gill slits in the parangeal region.
➢ Has a partially open circulatory system.
➢ Without excretory organs.
➢ Reproduction normally sexual and gonochoristic.
➢ Feed on a variety of organic materials.
➢ All live marine environments.

ENRICHMENT QUESTIONS

1. Describe the various structures on the aboral “spiny skin” of a sea star and discuss their functions.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

2. List the structures in the water-vascular system of a sea star.

________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
3. List the four major characteristics of chordates.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Why are sea squirts and lancelets referred to as invertebrates chordates?

________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

REFERENCE

Internet:
https://byjus.com/biology/
https://www.earthlife.net/inverts/chordata.html

Book:
Miller and Harley, (2010). Zoology, 10th Edition. The McGraw Hill Publication, Boston, MA

Chapter XIV
THE VERTEBRATES

LEANING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

b. Characterize vertebrates and introduce the classes under this subphylum.

Keywords: vertebrate, vertebral column, cranium, vein, viviparous, endothermic, ectothermic

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Most chordates are vertebrates and the subphylum itself comprises over 50,000 species of animals.
Vertebrates are the animals most people think of when they think of the word 'animal'. Fish, Amphibians,
Reptiles, birds and Mammals are all vertebrates. In comparison with the invertebrates most vertebrates
are large and complex organisms whose structure is built up of numerous tissues and organs. After a brief
introduction the those morphological characteristics that make the vertebrates distinct each of the 8
classes of vertebrates will be treated separately.

The vertebrates are separated from the rest of the chordates by a number of characteristics. The most
important of these is possession of a set of vertebrae, hollow structures which combine to make the spinal
column. These are either made of cartilage or of bone and cartilage combined. This surrounds and
protects the central nerve cord and replaces the notochord as an axial support for muscles. The anterior
(front) end of the nerve cord is enlarged into a brain which typically consists of five vesicles. This brain in
turn is normally encased in a protective structure called the cranium.

The vertebrate integument (skin) is normally comprised of two sections; the outer epidermis which is
secreted by the ectoderm and an inner endodermis which is secreted by the mesoderm.

Vertebrates normally have a closed circulatory system (veins and arteries) with a heart of 2,3, or 4
chambers. They also have a well developed coelom which contains the viscera. The metabolic waste
excretory system is is comprised of paired kidneys, not nephridia or protonephridia as found in most
invertebrates. Finally most, if not all vertebrates have an endocrine system, a complicated nervous system,
separate sexes and a complete digestive system with well developed associated glands such as the liver
and pancreas ventral to the spinal column and with a separate mouth and anus.

The Subphylum Vertebrata

Class Common Name
Myxini Hagfish (Fish)
Cephalspidomorphi Lampreys (Fish)
Chondrichthyes Sharks and Rays etc.(Fish)
Osteichthyes Trout and Salmon etc.(Fish)
Amphibia Amphibians
Reptilia Snakes, Turtles etc.
Aves Birds
 Mammalia Cats, Cows and People

ACTIVITY

1. List the basic characteristics of vertebrates.

ENRICHMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is an ammocoete? What is its possible significance to the evolution of vertebrates?

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2. Explain how the adaptations of cartilaginous fishes make them better predators.
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3. Describe amniotic egg. What is its evolutionary significance?

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4. List unique characteristics of mammals.

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5. Describe the evolution of the heart in the vertebrates.

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REFERENCE

Internet:
https://byjus.com/biology/
https://www.earthlife.net/inverts/vertebrata.html
Book:
Miller and Harley, (2010). Zoology, 10th Edition. The McGraw Hill Publication, Boston, MA

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