I.

GENERAL INFLUENCES
NEEDS OF MAN
1. PHYSICAL NEEDS
a. Self-preservation-Food, shelter, clothing-basic add to this basic needs: power, water, transportation, ecological balance,
education, sports, medical, livelihood
b. Reproduction-for the population to increase and continue in existence.

SHELTER-is something that covers, protects, or defends as a roof that shields one from the elements and changes.
The modern man's shelter shall have:
1. Necessities-warm, dry house with glazed doors, windows, sanitation and permanency.
2. Conveniences- rooms shall be arranged economically. Circulations are studied according to functions, such as the kitchen for
food preparation, bedroom for sleep and bathroom for cleanliness.
3. Comforts - this must contain the labor-saving devices which provide heat, ventilation,

2. EMOTIONAL NEEDS
The emotional reactions of man have to do with the instincts stirred by the forces of religion and art and with the desire to
indulge in recreation. Art in its broadest interpretation assumes the various familiar forms painting, sculpture, music,
literature.

3. INTELLECTUAL NEEDS
Education, science and government, demand a proper architectural setting. Intellect or reason alone may erect a utilitarian
building; emotion will endow it with beauty and interest.

II. INFLUENCES OF NATURE

A. CLIMATE EFFECT ON ARCHITECTURE
WARMER CLIMATES- The buildings may be more flamboyant in their conception and usually a closer relation exists between the
works of man and nature where vegetation is more luxuriant, more attention is paid to the color and texture of surface
treatment. Plain wall areas give an opportunity for contrast with the colors of the foliage.
COLDER CLIMATES- The architecture is more severe and the designer depend less upon the landscape tor final effect. Colors
are usually more subdued.
2. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
3. PROTECTIVE ELEMENTS
The roof protects the interior from the elements of climate like typhoon, heat of the sun, etc.
In the Past
WARMER CLIMATE
The roofs are usually rather flat and colorful, as in the rich red and brown tile roof of Italy.
COLDER CLIMATES
The roofs become steeper and less colorful. The necessity of shedding the rain and snow makes the greater pitch to the roofs
more practical.

Modern Developments-However, with new inventions and innovations, steel and concrete construction, insulation, and
modern drainage make almost any kind of utilitarian roof possible. The roof may be flat even in cold countries and invisible
from the ground. The roof has now become a terrace, and the accompanying fresh air and sunshine contribute to the health of
a nation.

4. CIRCULATORY ELEMENTS
Windows- permit the entrance of light and circulation of air
Doors, Stairs, corridor-circulation of human traffic and
materials

5. DECORATIVE ELEMENTS

Color is a decorative element which in warm countries

assumes an importance rivaling that of carvings. Plain
wall surfaces in white or light pastel tones, with their
various textures catch the sunlight and allow an
interesting play of shadows from projecting roots and
adjoining trees. Colored tiles are also conspicuous in
the architecture in the Mediterranean countries.

B. TOPOGRAPHY- the general terrain or contour of the surface of the entire country. If the country is small and the
topography is uniform, there tends to be a similarity of character in the architecture. It may be nationalistic and may
assume traits common to the entire area
MOUNTAIN REGIONS-In a setting of rocks and cliffs with violent changes in the direction of the contour of the site, the
building should appear to grow out of its surroundings. The buildings should be 'informal'. The floor levels of the major parts
should follow as far as is convenient, the slope of the ground. If it crowns an eminence, its steep roofs with vertical effects may
serve as a fitting termination to a commanding height.

LEVEL COUNTRY-While an unsymmetrical or informal plan is possible on such a site. 'Formal' or balanced scheme is more
satisfactory.

C. MATERIALS
The gifts of nature for the structures of man are limestone, marble, pine and mahogany, etc. (timber) clay for brick and ore for
metals. In the past, certain materials have had a local use and have influenced the development of an indigenous architecture
since there was lack of methods of conveyance. However, they have changed as new contacts were made and as new
developments came into existence. Ideas were borrowed, commerce and industry grew and now modern transportation has
made building materials international in distribution and use.

III. INFLUENCE OF MAN

1. SOCIAL CONDITIONS
A. PERIOD
B. MAN’S PERSONALITY
C. MAN’S INTEREST

THE VISIBLE STRUCTURE

By enclosing space, volume or mass is created. If this space has no relation to the activities of man, there exist only the simple
geometric forms of the cube, the pyramid or the sphere.
If the surfaces of these volumes and the enclosed interiors are treated so that the forms are related to human needs, then they
may be regarded as architecture. Visible structure is composed of form and surface as follows:

1. FORM-2 dimensional, is the primary

identifying characteristic of a volume, it is
determined by the shapes and interrelationships
of the planes that describe the boundaries of
the volume.
MASS (horizontal/vertical) or volume or
evidence of the 3 dimension
Volume has three dimensions: length, width
and depth.
VISUAL PROPERTIES OF FORM
• DIRECTION-vertical or horizontal axis of the mass
A. SHAPE - geometric qualities, the principal identifying characteristic of form; shape results from the specific configuration of a
form's surfaces and edges.
PRIMARY SHAPE- CIRCLE, TRIANGLE and SQUARE
PLATONIC SOLIDS- SPHERE, CYLINDER, CONE, PYRAMID and CUBE
B. SIZE- The real dimensions of form, its length, width and depth; while these dimensions determine the proportions of a form, its
scale is determined by its size relative to other forms in its context
C. COLOR Since our perception of a plane's shape is distorted in perspective, we see the true shape of a plane only when we view if
frontally. The real dimensions of form, its length, width and depth; while these dimensions determine the proportions of a form,
its scale are determined by its size relative to other forms in its context. The hue, intensity, and total value of a form's surface;
color is the attribute that most clearly distinguishes a form from its environment. It also affects the visual weight of a form.
D. TEXTURE The surface characteristic of a form; texture affects both tactile and light-reflective qualities of a form's surfaces.

E. POSITION- A form's location relative to its environment or visual field.

F. ORIENTATION
A form's position relative to the ground plane or the compass points to the
person viewing the form.
The cardinal points NESW have since remote times been given prime
importance among the factors determining the structure of the world. The word
orientation comes from "orient" the direction of sunrise. Christian churches were
always oriented by the altar towards the East. The East as the origin of light is
also the source of life. The west as the place of the setting sun is filled with all
the terrors of the earth.

G. VISUAL INERTIA- The degree of concentration and stability of a form; the visual inertia of a form depends on its geometry as
well as its orientation relative to the ground plane and our line of sight.
• All of these visual properties of form are in reality affected by the conditions under which we view them:
1. our perspective or angle of view
2. our distance from the form
3. lighting conditions
4. the visual field surrounding the form

THE TRANSFORMATION OF FORM

1. DIMENSIONAL TRANSFORMATION-A form can be transformed by altering one or more of its dimensions and still retain its
family identity. A cube for example, can be transformed into other prismatic forms by altering its height, width, or length. It can be
compressed into a planar form, or stretched into a linear one.
2. SUBTRACTIVE TRANSFORMATION
A form can be transformed by subtracting a
portion of its volume. Depending on the
extent of the subtractive process, the form
can retain its initial identity, or be
transformed into a form of another family.
For example, a cube can retain its identity as
a cube even though a portion of it is
removed, or be transformed slowly into a
polyhedron approximating a sphere.

3. ADDITIVE TRANSFORMATION-A form can be transformed by the addition of elements to its volume. The nature of the
additive process will determine whether the identity of the initial form is retained or altered.

FOUR BASIC possibilities for two forms to group together are:

FIVE DIAGRAMS
1. 1. CENTRALIZED FORMS- Consist of a number of secondary forms clustered about
dominant, central, parent forms. Centralized forms require the visual dominance of a
geometrically regular, centrally located form, such as the sphere, cylinder or polyhedron.
Because of their centrality, these forms share the self-centering properties of the point and
circle.

They are ideal as freestanding structures, isolated within their context, dominating a point
in space, or occupying .the center of a defined field. They can embody sacred or honorific
places, or commemorate significant persons or events.

2. LINEAR FORMS-- Consist of forms arranged sequentially in a row.

A linear form can result from a
proportional change in a form's
dimensions, or the arrangement of a
series of forms along a line. In the latter
case, the series of forms may be
repetitive, or they may be dissimilar in
nature and organized by a separate and
distinct element such as a wall or path.
3. RADIAL FORMS-Are compositions of linear forms that extend out ward from central forms in a radial manner.

It combines the aspects of centrality and linearity

into a single composition.

The core is either the symbolic or functional

center of the ·organization. Its central position
can be articulated with a visually dominant form,
or it can merge with and become subservient to the radiating arms.
The radiating arms, having properties similar to those of linear forms, give a radial form its extroverted nature. They can reach-
out and relate or attach themselves to specific features of their site. They can expose their long surfaces to desirable conditions
of sun, wind, view, or space.

Radial forms can grow into a network where several centers are linked by linear forms.

5. GRID FORMS- Are modular forms whose relationships are regulated by three-dimensional grids.
A grid may be defined as two or more intersecting sets of regularly spaced parallel lines. It generates a geometric pattern of
regularly spaced points (where the grid line intersect) and regularly shaped fields.

The most common grid is based on the geometry of the square. Because of the equality of its dimensions its bilateral
symmetry, a square grid is essentially neutral, non-hierarchical, and non-directional. It can be used to break the scale of a
surface down into measurable units and give it an even texture. It can be used to wrap several surfaces of a form and unify
them with its repetitive and pervasive geometry.
The square grid, when projected into the third dimension, generates a spatial network of reference points and lines, within this
modular frame work, any number of forms and spaces can be visually organized.

2. SURFACE-Architectural surface are· Areas of materials which enclose a building and are of secondary importance to the
masses which they create. But in order that a building may be wholly satisfactory in its appeal, the necessary attention must be
given to the Treatment and articulation of the exterior. The surfaces of a structure must have texture, tone, and color.
AREA - surface with two dimensions as in a facade of a building
• TEXTURE= surface treatment identified with materials whether rough or smooth

• TONE - light and shade caused by openings, projections

TONE- Is a variety in the use of the gradations from black to white. Tone comes from the change of impressions carried to the
eye as a result of the juxtaposition of dark and light areas.

JUXTA POSITION-To put side by side or close together to pose for a painting or picture taking, to put in position.
• COLOR - inherent or applied color caused by spectrum hues

COLOR
The relationship between color and the character of a building results from the combining of warm and cool colors in the proper
amounts. The warm colors, the reds and the yellows, tend to advance toward the observer (usually for wide rooms) the
cool colors. The blues and the greens, appear to recede, showing infinity, immensity of space (usually for small compact
rooms)

Also the more neutral colors should be used for the larger areas, reserving for the more brilliant accents those bright colors
which overpower the composition unless sparingly used. The visual weight of a plane can be increased or decreased by
manipulating the tonal blue of its surface color.

PSYCHOLOGY OF COLORS

COLOR USAGE . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. .. . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . .. .. .. . . . . . Varies according to location

1. RESIDENTIAL
Colors used within the home must be tolerated by the whole family. If members of a family have tastes
which differ widely, they may be satisfied by selecting the colors of their own rooms.
The plan of living of a household group should be studied before any color selections are made. Someone
engaged in a business which uses a great deal of energy should have a retreat at home-a room with a
quietly harmonious color scheme. A person whose day is spent in a monotonous business, on the other
hand, will probably enjoy color contrasts and bright colors at home.

2. COMMERCIAL
The commercial institution is a home away from home for many people, and the inclination to introduce
some of the principles used in residential work is always present. But all the colors in such an installation
must relate to each other and to a central scheme. And personal choice which conflicts with the
appearance of the general scheme cannot be tolerated.

There are a number of reasons for such color control the main one being that there is usually a certain
amount of circulation of personnel; and everyone may have different color opinions.

In most cases the walls of the lobby of a commercial building should be stimulating and
exciting, and the corridors should be neutral, so that when the doors of the offices are open,
harmony will be apparent. Individual offices may vary in color, texture and materials, but they must have
a basic similarity.

The main objectives in determining the color scheme of a commercial installation are to provide colors
which are rich, definite, and harmonious which will be easy to live with, and which will
contribute to the efficiency and well-being of all who tenant the building. Colors should be
subtle; for example, no brash greens or blues should be used unless compensating colors are used with
them. Where offices are located upon an uninteresting interior court, the colors of such offices should be
''sunny" and brilliant.

3. INDUSTRIAL
The kind of artificial light must be taken into consideration in the design of industrial interiors.
It will depend, to a large extent, upon the type of operation performed. It is equally important that the
proper kind of light be used to avoid shadows and glare. For ease of seeing, it is generally wise to
keep the wall color darker than the machines or work benches. If the space is small, the walls
can be warm in color (yellow, orange, etc.)
5. EDUCATIONAL
Very young children prefer strong colors, but when they grow older, their taste becomes more
sophisticated and subtle. In most contemporary schools almost anything that can be colored is
treated in a bright and brilliant way. Corridor walls, for instance, are sometimes yellow; rooms
facing cool north light are given warm tones, and those facing warm south light are given
cool tones. The front wall of each classroom is often painted darker than the other walls of
the room. Every effort should be made to select a color that will be of approximately the same value as
the color of the chalkboard so as to minimize eye fatigue.
If colors are pastels, bright accents are employed for furniture and accessories- say bright blue, yellow,
Chinese red, or blue green. Doors and trim are usually darker than the walls in which they are located,
and painted doors can be given variation and additional interest by the use of various colors.

However, while a stimulating atmosphere is desirable in a teaching situation, care should be exercised to
prevent overstimulation, which may produce restlessness, tension and fatigue.

I. CONTRAST -variety
II. PROPORTION- relationships
Relative Proportion -deals with the relationship between the parts of an object and the whole e)(ample
ratro between the diameter of a Classical column and its height or the relation of the panels of the door
and the whole door.

Absolute - deals with the relationship between the different parts of an object or the whole to the various
parts. Example: ratio between the sizes of windows and the blank walls, proportion of a cabinet or
appliance to the room.

Ill. SCALE - size, magnitude

Two types of Scale:
1. GENERIC SCALE-the size of a building element relative to other forms in its context; (three windows
indicate three stories, the small window indicate a small room inside).
2. HUMAN SCALE-the size of a building element or space relative to the dimensions and proportional of
the human body.
 IV. BALANCE equilibrium

There are three {3) types of BALANCE in the study of composition.

1. SYMMETRICAL BALANCE- monumental effect
a. Centralized

b. Formal
c. Radial

2. UNSYMMETRICAL BALANCE - informal

3. GRAVITATIONAL BALANCE-picturesqueness of surroundings.

V. RHYTHM -repetition
TWO KINDS OF RHYTHM
1. UNACCENTED RHYTHM -if equally spaced windows are introduced on the unbroken wall, then regular repetition is present.
2. ACCENTED RHYTHM -if the openings or details are arranged in such a manner that some are more important than others,
then the eye grasps the significance of this relationship and pauses longer in contemplating the larger elements.

Rhythm may be one of the following:

a. Rhythmic use of color - movement of the eye across a painting from spot to spot of similar color.
b. Rhythmic use of line-repetition of a similar type of line in a piece of sculpture.
c. Rhythm of motion-the movement of dancers.
d. Rhythm of direction -continuity of a series of arches forming an arcade.

VI. UNITY and HIERARCHY -harmony

The principle of HIERARCHY implies that in most architectural compositions, real differences exist among their forms and
spaces. These differences reflect in a sense, the degree of importance of these forms and spaces, and the functional, formal,
and symbolic roles they play in their organization. The value
system by which their relative importance is measured will, of
course, depend on the specific situation, the needs and desires
of the users and the decisions of the designer. The values
expressed may be individual or collective, personal or cultural.
COMPETITION-When elements compete with each other for
the place of importance. There is competition. This causes
'DUALITY' or the presence of two strong conflicting personalities or
masses resulting in discord and redundancy. The towers appear
attenuated and unstable. The shared element is too weak to
counteract the overturning force acting on the towers.
CONFUSION- Another kind of competition where dissimilarity is too pronounced. There is no harmonious treatment and
dissimilarities in architectural elements such as door, windows are combined. There is no definite architectural character and no
central theme.

VII. CHARACTER-expressiveness
Character in architecture is derived from three (3) types. They are characters from:
1. FUNCTION, use of the building.
Examples:
a. Museum-must have galleries with ample wall space and top light, which eliminates windows and
necessitates the use of skylights.

b. A school building - must contain many windows to admit the necessary side light and to offer an
interesting contrast with the possible monotony of the classroom walls.

c. Shop - a structure with large show windows is usually a shop for the display and sale of merchandise.

d. Factory - readily seen from the exterior to express the efficient operation of the manufacturing within.
The exterior shows often only the structural members - which are stripped of all unnecessary
decoration together with the enclosing expanses of the glass to light the interior. The building has little
architectural show, it is simple since it is to raise revenue.

e. Monument-serves to perpetuate a memory of a person or an important event. It does not produce any
revenue. It must be impressive and should have dignity and command respect. Its function, then, is to
be monumental, usually symmetrical. In arrangement and uses permanent materials like stone, steel,
concrete, or some durable and heavy materials to produce a feeling of lasting effect

f. A Bank-should have dignity-it is a building designed to house an activity which is very near to the heart
and mind of the average citizen-that of caring for his money. The building should Inspire confidence in
its integrity. This building houses an activity which is work.
g. Movie-Cinema House -a place of relaxation or recreation after a hectic day of discharging one's
obligations of the day. In this building psychological use of color and decoration is important. Bright
colors and unusual or unique architectural effects quicken the imagination and cater to the holiday
spirit. This building houses an activity of man-that of relaxation.

h. House - should reflect the informal intimacy of home life.

2. ASSOCIATION or influence of traditional types.

3. PERSONALITY or the human quality or emotional appeal.
Character then maybe expressed in Architecture by the following:
1. Scale ... when increased, it gives a feeling of grandeur, dignity and monumentality.
However, when scale is reduced, these characteristics are lessened if not reversed.
2. Proportion ... regarded to produce formality in character when applied. Example is triangular massing. The huge
proportions applied in the parts of the classical buildings give them the formal character.
3. Style ... many architects believe that style is character expressive of definite conceptions as for example-grandeur, gaiety or
solemnity. On account of traditions, certain styles of Architecture were adapted for specific types of buildings.

This give the proper or good "Ambience" say, for example, a neat and orderly modern design of a beer garden as compared to
a beer garden with indigenous, all local materials used.
AMBIENCE -surrounding on all sides, an environment or its distinct atmosphere; or milieu.
MILIEU -environment, social or cultural setting.
PLAN COMPOSITION SCHEME
SECONDARY PRINCIPLES
a. Repetition may be present when a number of rooms of equal size and shape occur side by side, or when windows,
columns, or arches are spaced in a regular manner to give unaccented rhythm.

b. Alternation -a synonym for contrast. There may be alternating sizes of rectangular elements or alternation of shapes.

c. Transition -a satisfactory progression from one unit to another. Small vestibules protect and act as buffers for the lobbies
which follow, and the lobbies allow the visitor to become adjusted to the situation which confronts him upon entering the
building. These minor elements also give the observer some preparatory indication of the general character and use of the
interior before introducing him to the more important units.

d. Transformation
The principle of transformation allows a designer to select a prototypical architectural model whose formal structure and
ordering of elements might be appropriate and reasonable, and to transform it through a series of discrete manipulations to
respond to the specific conditions and context of the design task at hand.
Transformation requires first that the ordering system of the prior or prototypal model be perceived and understood so that,
through a series of finite changes and permutations, the original design concept can be classified, strengthened and built upon
rather than destroyed.

ANTHROPOMORPHIC PROPORTIONS- These systems are based on the dimensions and proportions of the human
body. Anthropomorphic proportioning methods seek not abstract or symbolic ratios, but functional ones.
They are predicated on the theory that forms and spaces in architecture are either containers or extensions of the human body
and should, therefore, be determined by its dimensions.

VISUAL ACUITY AND PERCEPTION

Perception is the process by which we organize and interpret the patterns of stimuli in our environment, the immediate
intuitive recognition, as of an aesthetic quality.

SPATIAL PERCEPTION
All spatial implications are mentally conditioned by the environmental and experience of the viewer. Vision is experienced
through the eyes, but interpreted with the mind. Perception involves the whole pattern of nerve and brain response as well as
the visual 'stimulus'. Man uses two eyes for the perception of objects in nature and continually shifts his focus of attention. In
so doing, two different types of vision are used STEREOSCOPIC and KINESTHETIC. Having two eyes set slightly apart for
each other, man sees two different views of the object world at the same time.

The term STEREOSCOPIC is applied to his ability to overlap these views, which are slightly different, into one image. This
visual process created an illusion of three-dimensional depth, making it possible to judge distances.

In KINESTHETIC vision, man experiences space in the movements of the eye from one part of a whole work of art to another.
Space is experienced while viewing a two-dimensional surface because we unconsciously attempt to organize its separate
parts so that they can be seen as a whole. In addition, man explores objects segmental recognition of them. Objects close to
the eye require more. Ocular movement then those more distant, and this factor add patch illusion to man's kinesthetic vision.

THE PERCEPTION OF SHAPE

"FIGUREGROUND" - a phenomenon wherein drawings consisting of black lines, any line which surrounds an area, and which is
recognized as representing an object is quickly picked out by the observer, and it then seems to him to stand out from the background
in an obvious manner. No field of view is perceived all at one dead level. Some part of it will always tend to become "figural" and to be
differentiated from the rest of the field which forms the "ground" to this figure. This figure then stands out, is readily perceived and
attended to and its appearance and details are noted.

Passive design considerations include:

1. Siting and orientation-The relation of the building to the land, the sun and the wind.
2. Building shape -the less skin, the less exposure.
3. Nature of the envelope- Fenestration, insulation, thermal mass, wall shading, color and reflectivity, openings and
penetrations.

• Fenestration: The percentage of openings for each orientation.

• Insulations: For walls, roof and cellar levels, at interior partitions separating spaces which are treated differently.
• Thermal Mass: Desired densities for wall and interior surface.
• Space and Structural Requirements: Together with optimal locations for major items of equipment such as reservoirs for
energy storage.
• Horizontal Space Requirements: Ceiling and Roof Plenums.
• Vertical Space Requirements: For ducts, shafts, and insulation.
• Exterior Equipment: On roofs, adjacent to building on the ground, louver openings, and any other items visible on the outside
of the building.
Reserve Spaces: Not needed for the energy supply situation projected for initial building occupancy, but desirable to
accommodate future changes deemed probable in the light of continuing changes in energy availability.

BUILDING CONFIGURATION
The Overall shape of a building affects the amount of energy it will consume. In general, a configuration that resists unwanted
heat transmission for a given enclosed volume, a building should be constructed with minimum exposed surface area. A
spherical or round building has fewer surfaces and thus less heat gain or loss than any other shape for an equal amount of total
floor area. A square building has fewer surfaces than a rectangular one of equal area per floor, and so undergoes less thermal
transmission loss or heat gain. However, the number of stories modifies this relationship for the building as a whole.

The exception to this generalization about a buildings configuration is the situation where the primary thermal load is the result
not of the environment, but rather of internally generated conditions. Where an office building, for example, generates large
amounts of heat from its lighting and computers, the problem may be one of dissipating rather than conserving thermal energy.
In this case it may (depending on the climate) be desirable to have as large an amount of building skin as possible to facilitate
heat dissipation. In its " Energy Conservation Design Guidelines for New Office Buildings" GSA adds the following observations
with respect to building configuration;

1. Tall Buildings: A tall building has a proportionately smaller roof and is less affected by solar gains on that surface. On the
other hand, tall buildings generally are subjected to greater wind velocities, which increase infiltration and heat losses. Tall
buildings are less likely to be shaded or protected from winds by surrounding buildings and trees. They require more
mechanical support systems, including elevators and longer exhaust duct systems. The stack induction action in tall buildings
increases infiltration, thus requ iring special measures to reduce its influence on heat gain and heat loss.
2. Floor-to-Ceiling Height: Greater ceiling heights improve environmental conditions in the summertime by permitting warm air
to rise. However, greater ceiling heights increase the perimeter areas. thus increasing heat transmission through the walls.
Reduced ceiling height, reduce the exposed exterior wall surface area and the enclosed volume. A reduced ceiling height can
also increase illumination effectiveness.
Floor-to-ceiling height is determined by physiological comfort, height of light fixtures for proper light distribution, and height of
windows necessary for good natural lighting.
In general, increases in ceiling height need increase only the exposed wall surface (not window surface). The effect of greater
heights on energy consumption may be rather small, depending on the thermal characteristics of the wall.
3. Ceiling Plenum Height: Deep ceiling plenums allow the use of larger duct sizes with low pressure drop and reduced heating,
ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) air handler and fan requirements. Ducts can be larger, allowing greater volumes and air
to be moved with smaller pressure drops, permitting reduced fan horsepower.
4. Roofs: Very low buildings may have greater roof area in proportion to wall area, and the heating and cooling leads which
they generate may, in turn, influence the selection of the mechanical equipment. In tall buildings, the roof is a lesser influence
on the total heat loss and gain, and will rarely influence the selection of the total heating and cooling systems.
5. 'Exposed Floors: Buildings that are elevated on columns or with first -floor areas and large overhanging upper floors increase
heat loss and heat gain because of the extra exposed floor surfaces. While this may be of slight advantage all year in southern
regions, or anywhere in the summertime, it presents a serious increased heat loss in colder climates. Locating parking garages
on intermediate levels similarly increases energy consumption from additional exposed surfaces.
6. Building Forms: A dome roof can permit warm air to rise and collect at the top, leaving the floor area cooler. Pyramids,
zigzag exterior walls, rhomboid-shaped buildings, and other forms can all be used to control the influence of climate on
consumption.
7. Zigzag Walls: Zigzag configuration of east and west walls provides self-shading to reduce summer solar loads, provides
natural windbreaks, and can permit low rays to penetrate the building in the winter to supplement the heating system, if the
windows in the zigzag are facing south. By facing the windows north in the z.igzag in a southern location, heat gain is reduced
year-round; but, in both summer and winter, natural lighting and views can be available at both east and west facades without
the penalty of increasing summer heat gains. However, the energy requirements resulting from the additional wall surface for
the zigzag form must be weighed against the other energy benefits.
FOLK BELIEFS IN CONSTRUCTION SOME BELIEFS
1. Don't start the construction of a house at a period when the moon is waning, or entering its last quarter. Pick a time on or
about a full moon.
2. Start a construction on a Monday; never on a Friday.
3. Avoid starting construction when the year is about to end. A better time is when the year has just begun, January to June.
4. Never have a house built when your wife is pregnant, and is expected to give birth at that very month.
5. Before giving the order to lay the foundation or put up the posts of your house. Make peace with all your enemies -
especially those belonging to your own family or clan.
6. In the North, they usually practice the flowing of blood from some animals or chicken and all foundations or corners of the
wall are splattered with this blood in honor of the spirits that might be living within the premises. Also a few drops of wine is
offered with some prayer dedication before any wine is partaken.
7. Before cement is poured into the foundation, one peso coins should be dropped inside the forms to bring good luck other
place silver medals of any patron saints, for protection. Some also place coins at the stair foundation.
8. When any vertical part of the house is being erected, like the first post, or the first row of hollow blocks or cement wall, the
father or the eldest member of the family should be present to witness. Two contributes to the solidity of the house.
9. Do not build a house directly perpendicular to the street. If space still allows it, locate the house such that it lies in position
which is at angle with the street. This way, the inhabitants keep out of the way of disaster.
10. No par1 of your house should-cover or overhang an anthill ("PUNSO" in Tagalog. They say that the small spirit man or
"NUNO" will get angry.
11. No part of the house should cover or overhang a site of a recently-cut tree; neither should the new house overlap any
portion of the old house.
12. Never use materials that once belonged to a church.
13. As much as possible, avoid using materials that came from the owner's old house. The bad luck of the old house will be
transferred to the new house. the old people say.
14. All nails and screws that become bent in the process of building a house should be kept in a box and not left lying around.
Leaving them scattered will bring misfortune to these involved in the construction.
15. It is taboo to use wood the sap of which is still fresh ~ what they call 'weeping' wood (Lumuluha).
16. The number of main posts should always be even; not odd, never 13 pes.
17. Flooring planks-whether of wood or of bamboo-must be laid parallel to the steps of any stairway to make it 90 degrees to
the stair will make the good luck go down the stairs.
18. The longer length of the roof must lie parallel to the road instead of perpendicular to it.
19. The number of steps in every flight of stairs must fall to the count of either oro (gold) or plata (silver) never mata (death!
since if the last counting is mata, bad luck or poverty is to be expected.
20. The principal stairs, the master's bed should face the East, so that the rising sun may shine on them.
21. To the Muslims, the principal room and stairway should face the direction of Mecca.
22. Doorways should not face each other along a straight path, or a door to the window. They should lie on a staggered path.
Good fortune flows quickly out of the house if arranged in a straight path
23. Main doorways should not face the west or where the sun sets, it brings bad luck.
24. Main doors should always open towards the inside to bring in good luck. Reverse opening to the outside will bring out the
good luck.
25. Do not occupy a new house until it is completely built and blessed. Before you will occupy the new house, bring in first the
common necessities in a house like sugar, rice, salt, and also the statue of Christ in a throne.
26. The arrangement of the bed should not directly be parallel and vertical to the girt or rafter as the old folks say it will cut into
half your good fortune.
27. Umbilical cord of a child is inserted in the staircase so that the stringer would strongly connect itself to the girder.
28. House plan shaped like a cross should be avoided for this brings bad luck.
29. A basement placed in flat level land indicates graves. This is a sign of early death in the family.
30. To avoid wealth or money from flowing out of the household, main doors should not face the exit doors.

FENG SHUI
Feng shui (pronounced "Fung soy") a term literally translated as wind-water, is the Chinese art of geomancy, the placement
and location of buildings and manmade structures to harmonize with, as well as benefit from, the surrounding physical
environment. It is believed that with proper orientation of one's house or business premises one is able to harmonize with
nature and relate to the physical surroundings favorably to attract desirable cosmological influences. Having good Feng shui
builds up one's confidence and energy to pursue success. It is believed that having bad feng shui may lead one to misfortune,
failure in business ventures or poor health.

It is the task of a Geomancer to determine the qi in order to site buildings in such a way as to benefit from its vitalizing power.
With the help of the luopan or geomancer's compass, the geomancer determines the best orientation of buildings, and assesses
the good and bad qualities of the dragon at the site. The luopan is a circular disc marked with concentric circles of Chinese
characters. It gives series of direction and classifies a variety of geomantic factors such as the type of water and the five orders
of natures in relation to the time of birth of the owner or prospective buyer.
Besides the luopan, the geomancer uses the geomancer's ruler to calculate the size and overall dimensions of a building to
ensure proportions favorable to good fortune. Apart from the surrounding land and the building itself, each room is seen
independently to possess qi, and the geomancer's tasks is to locate its nucleus, the center of vibrant energy, so that its
occupants may benefit from it, through the arrangement of furniture or the organization of work.

Oi - cosmic breath of the Chinese dragon or life for growth and vitality which causes mountains to be formed and gives man
spiritual energy. In locating commercial and business centers it is important to find the dragon and qi areas. Locate the most
important buildings in the qi and prominent positions, like in the central position and on the highest ground. If there are hills
and sea in the location, place the commercial buildings facing the sea with the hills in the rear. (Or the building facing south so
that the rear faces north and preferably blocked to invite good luck).

Sha qi - literally translated, breathe that hurts; travels in a straight line; ex: when a building faces a T -junction, the qi is too
vibrant and becomes sha qi.

YIN/YANG ELEMENTS AND FENG SHUI

In order to achieve good feng shui, there must be a good balance of yin and yang. In other words, contrast should be present
in order to achieve Balance. For example if the walls of an office are painted a cool color, the furnishing should be in warm
colors.
EXAMPLES OF YIN/YANG
YIN
  Feminity, darkness
 Cool colors, liquidity and intrusion.

YANG
 Masculinity and brightness.
 Colors that are warm,
 Solidity and protrusion.
SIGNBOARDS
The signboard is a very important element for a business establishment because it represents the spirit and nature of business
of the company. It must be legible and pleasing to the eye, well balanced in shape and not blocking any openings. The sizes of
signboards are subject to yin and yang forces. For example, if the length is yin, say 88 mm (even in number), then the breadth
should be yang, say 81 mm (odd number). Signboards should have either three or five colors. Three symbolizes growth and
five, completeness. Those with two or four colors are not as ideal.

LOGOS
A logo or signage on a commercial building carries a denotative indication and gives a message regarding its trade and
sometimes, products. Good signage is not only an integral part of the building design but also important in feng shui terms.
Besides the color and size of the signboards, the logos on them are just as important. Logos have to be identifiable, attractive
and appropriate.

THE FIVE ELEMENTS AND FENG SHUI

The Chinese conceived the five elements as the five forces of nature and designed in the sequence of harmony as Gold, water,
wood fire and earth, or in the sequence of destruction as gold, wood earth, water and fire. It is favorable to have water with
wood, wood with fire, fire with earth, earth with gold and gold with water (note that they are near each other). It is not
favorable to combine earth with water, water with f ire, fire with gold, gold with wood and wood with earth. {Note that they are
not near each other in the sequence of destruction).

STAGES IN DESIGNING

I. DESIGN ANALYSIS
II. TENTATIVE 'SOLUTIONS'
BRAINSTORMING'-a group process in which several people, for a given amount of time, gather together and
discuss a particular problem. During this time, they all contribute positive thoughts to the discussion and try to
produce a workable solution. Also keep an open mind.
II. CRITICISM
III. OPERATIONAL PROCESS
It is therefore more reasonable to use the terms 'conceptual design' to describe the sketch, and 'operational
design' instead of working drawings.
IV. GEOMETRIC
METHODOLOGY
In order to Identify a problem, solving it through analysis, and then evaluating the solution; there should be an ORGANIZATION. This
process can he I p you save time, make better use of your time and know what you do with your time. It can also tell you what you
should be doing.
Methodology or the systematic method of problem solving, builds upon the concept by helping to make the best use of the design
tools acquired in creativity.
Interior design and housing has usually been associated with art, which is at the creative or intuitive, end of the spectrum. It is, to a
high degree, a creative vocation, as it concern, them with the improvement of life. This is best achieved by developing new ideas then
developing it to its fullest, most complete extent. After training yourself to think freely and unconventionally, to be creative it is now
time to control and direct the thought process. You must not be purely methodical or purely intuitive.
In the design professions, you must be a combination of the two.
"Methodology involves the systematic breakdown of a body of knowledge into its workable parts," When faced with a complex,
multifaceted problem, a methodical person will solve that problem methodically, or in steps. He or she will dissect and attack the
problem in a logical order. This is similar to eating food one piece at a time and not swallowing the whole piece at once.

3-DIMENSIONAL

1. THE CONCEPT OF SPACE

A. The System of Spaces
Architectural Space is defined as a concretization of man's existential space. It has to adopt itself to the needs of organic
action as well as facilitating orientation through perception.
It could also illustrate 'certain cognitive theories of space as when building a Cartesian coordinate system with concrete
materials. But above a11 it is related to the space schemata of man's individual and public world-which is created through
interaction with existing Architectural spaces.

B. The Concept of Space in Architectural Theory

Architectural space is divided into two classes:
1. These which is based on Euclidean Space and study its grammar - The Euclidean approach has recently been stimulated by the
importance of three - dimensional geometry.
2. Those which try to develop a Theory of a Space on the basis of perception psychology

SPACE
SPACE, in every sense of the word, is one of the most influential aspects of the "analysis" stage in design problem solving. Before you
actually design a space for people to behave in, it makes a great deal of sense for you to be aware of how they behave to begin with.
Knowing what activities, conditions, and people you are planning for, you should be able to use your time and effort constructively and
in a worthwhile fashion.

PHYSICAL SPACE
The basic answers for all of these questions involve measurements. But in design we talk about "ANTHROPOMETRICS" or the
measurement of the size and proportions of the human body.

Anthropometrics is a pure discipline. Measurements are objectively and scientifically obtained.

Applying these measurements to produce a desired effect we call " ERGONOMICS or the measurements of man implemented to
accommodate him to machines. Anthropometries is the tangible basis for producing optimum man-machine relationships. Clothing,
furniture, accessories: all are designed specificallv for people as the users. The physical space needs of people are most critical in the
drawing of floor plans. These needs are measurable, and so, Aoor plans show physical spatial relationships.

SENSORY PERCEPTIONS
1. Nose-"smell" olfactory (Air pollution, carbon monoxide, factory nuisances, smogs)
* SEALED BUILDINGS are used to control thermal environmental.
2. EAR-"HEAR (Noise, sonic boom)
+ Acoustical Refinement.
3. EYE-"SEE"
* Judicious proper colors of light.
SPACE TO SPACE RELATIONSHIPS
1. SPACE WITHIN A SPACE
A large space can envelop, and contain within its volume, a smaller space. Visual and spatial continuity between the two spaces
can be easily accommodated, but the smaller, “contained" space depends on the larger, enveloping space for its relationship to
outdoor space.

2. INTERLOCKING SPACE
In interlocking spatial relationships consists of two spaces whose fields overlap to form a zone of shared space. When two
spaces interlock their volumes in this manner, each retains its identity and definition as a space. But the resulting configuration
of the two interlocking spaces will be subject to a number of interpretations.

3. ADJACENT SPACES- This allow each space to be clearly defined and to respond, each its own way, to its functional or
symbolic requirements.

4. SPACES LINKED BY A COMMON SPACE

Two spaces that are separated by distance can be linked, or related to each other, by a third, intermediate space. The
relationship between the two spaces will depend on the nature of the third space to which they share a common relationship.

Configuration - to form after an arrangement of parts or a form or figures determine by the arrangement of parts.
Context -a joining together, the whole situation, background or environment relevant to a particular event. personality, creation.
FIVE WAYS TO ARRANGE AND ORGANIZE SPACE
1. CENTRALIZED-A central, dominant space about which a number of secondary spaces are grouped.
A Centralized organization is a stable, concentrated composition that consists of a number of secondary spaces grouped around a
large, dominant, central space. Circulation patterns with a centralized organization may be radial, loop or spiral in form. An almost
every case, however the pattern will terminate in the central space.
2. LINEAR A linear sequence of repetitive spaces.

3. RADIAL-A central space from which linear organizations of space ex tend in a radial manner.
A radial organization of space combines elements of both centralized and linear organizations. It consists of a dominant central
space from which a number of linear organizations extend in a radial manner. It is an extroverted scheme that reaches out to
its context. With its linear arms, it can extend and attach itself to specific elements or features of its site.

The Central space of a radial organization is generally regular in form. The Linear arms, for which the Central space is the hub,
may be similar to one another in form and length and maintain the regularity of the organizations overall form.
The radiating arms can also differ from one another to respond to their individual requirements of function and context.

4. CLUSTERED-Spaces grouped by proximity or the sharing of a common visual trait or relationship.

5. GRID- Spaces organized within the field of a structural or other three-dimensional grid.

A grid organization consists of forms and spaces whose positions in space and relationships with one another are regulated by a
three-dimensional grid pattern or field.

A grid is created by establishing a regular pattern of points that define the intersections of two sets of parallel lines. Projected
into the third dimension, the grid pattern is transformed into a set of repetitive, modular units of space.

A grid is established in architecture most often by a skeletal structural system of columns and beams. Within the field of this
grid, spaces can occur as isolated events or as repetitions of the grid module.
Since a three-dimensional grid consists of repetitive, modular units of space, it can be subtracted from, added to, or layered,
and still maintain its identity as a grid with the ability to organize spaces. These formal manipulations can be used to adapt a
grid form to its site, define an entrance or outdoor space. or allow for its growth and expansion to accommodate the specific
dimensional requirements of its spaces, or to articulate zones of space for circulation or service. a grid can be made irregular in
one or two directions. This would create a hierarchical-set of modules differentiated by size; proportion a net toc-crtion.

A grid can also undergo other transformations.

Portions of the grid can slide to alter the visual and spatial continuity across its field.
A grid pattern can be interrupted to define a major space or accommodate a natural feature of its site.
A portion of the grid can be dislocated and rotated about a point in the basic pattern.
The grid can transform its visual image across its field from a pattern of points-to lines, to planes, and finally, to volumes.

CIRCULATION
MOVEMENT THROUGH SPACE
The circulation path can be conceived as the perceptual thread that links the spaces of a building, or any series of interior or
exterior spaces, together. Since we move in TIME, through a Sequence of Spaces, we experience a space in relation to where
we've been, and where we anticipate going.

The following are five principal components of a building's circulation system as positive elements that affect our perception of
the building's forms and spaces.
CIRCULATION ELEMENTS
1. THE BUILDING APPROACH
a. Frontal
• A frontal approach leads directly to a building's entrance along a straight, axial path.
• The visual goal that terminates the approach is clear; it can be the entire front facade of a building or an
elaborated entrance within it.
b. Oblique
• An oblique, approach enhances the effect of perspective on a building's front facade and form.
• The path can be re-directed one or more times to delay and prolong the sequence of the approach.
• If a building is approached at an extreme angle, its entrance can project beyond its facade to be more
clearly visible.
c. Spiral
• A spiral path prolongs the sequence of the approach, and emphasizes the three-dimensional form of a
building as it moves around the building's perimeter.
• The building's entrance might be viewed, intermittently during the approach to clarify its position, or it
can be hidden until the point of arrival.

2. THE BUILDING ENTRANCE

3. CONFIGURATION OF THE PATH

The nature of the path's configuration influences, or is influenced by, the organizational pattern of the spaces, it links. It can either be:
a. Linear - all paths are linear. It can be curvilinear or segmented intersect other paths, have branches, form a loop.

b. Radial-A radial configuration has paths extending from, or terminating at, a central, common point.
c. Spiral-A spiral configuration is a single, continuous path that originates from a Central point.
Revolves around it, and becomes increasingly distant from it.
d. Grid -A grid configuration consists of two sets of parallel paths that intersect at regular intervals
and create square or rectangular fields of space.
e. Network-A network configuration consists of random paths that connect established points in
space.
f. Composite-A building normally employs a combination of the five patterns above to avoid the
creation of a distorting maze. a hierarchical order among the paths can be achieved by differentiating
their scale, form and length.

4. PATH-SPACE RELATIONSHIPS- Edges, nodes and termination of Path

Paths may be related to the spaces they link in the following ways. Paths may:

5. FORM OF THE CIRCULATION SPACE

Corridors, balconies, galleries, stairs and rooms.
Promenade - a suitable place for walking for pleasure, as a mall.
Mall - A public plaza or system of walks set with trees and designed for pedestrian use.

The form and scale of a circulation space, however, must accommodate the movement of people as they promenade, pause,
rest, or take in a view, along its path.
The form of a circulation space can vary according to how:
• Its boundaries are defined.
• Its form relates to the form of the spaces.
• Its qualities of scale, proportion, light, and view are articulated.
• Entrances open onto it;
• It handles changes

A CIRCULATION SPACE May Be:

• Enclosed. Forming a corridor that relates to the spaces it links through entrances in the wall plane;
• Open on One Side, to provide visual and spatial continuity with the spaces it links;
• Open on Both Sides, to become a physical extension of the space it passes through.
SEMANTICS
The study of meanings is called semantics, which is usually thought of as the meanings of words. Architectural meanings then
are discussed as architectural semantics.

1. Signals AND SIGNS

To understand the meaning of a perception implies for an animal that it is a signal for a certain action. For example a trained dog
hears the ringing of a clock and this is a s1gnal for the dog to take food: for a human being, a thing may be a signal for a certain kind
of behavior.
The gong sounds and we sit down at the table and eat. We see a certain traffic light and start our car. In this connection, it is also
customary to speak of signs. A traffic policeman makes a sign to the motorist, who· obeys this sign.

SYMBOLIC SIGN
There are three main types of Signs
1. Indexical Sign or Index
Something which had an essential relation between signifier and signified: Smoke with fire, footprints with foot. In architecture every
sign has an indicative component: a glass door indicates itself and what is behind, arrow indicate circulation. A weathercock indicates
the direction of the wind, a window indicates view. These are the literal signs and one can imagine low level significance architecture
made up from them such a vernacular, or industrial building, a building of clichés which does not, particularly, refer to metaphors,
symbols or aesthetic ideas apart from it.
The perceiver sees these forms as a matter of fact and generally there -has been no intention to communicate on the part of the
designer. Indexical signs are learned by the perceiver over time and in this sense really are disguised symbolic signs which have a
peculiar quality. The Indexical sign is important for architecture in as much as many new forms are introduced for pragmatic or
functional reasons which then become continuously re-used in this context until they become symbolic signs. An index therefore is a
sign, or representation which refers to its object not so much because of any similarity of, or analogy with it, nor because it is
associated with general characters which that object happens to possess, and because it is in dynamical {including spatial) connection,
both with the individual object on the one hand and with the senses or memory of the person for whom it acts as a sign.

2. The Iconic Signs

Concern a different set of relations between signifier and signified although, of course, there is always present an existential
and therefore indexical relation as well.
Most 'functional' architecture is of this sort: pie-shaped or wedge-shaped auditoria, tube-shaped circulation corridors, and
structurally-shaped bridges, hot-dog stands in the shape of hotdogs, folk house with a facade that look like a real fireplace. And
the use of forms and materials according to their inherent emotional overtones red as aggressive; passionate etc.).

An ICON therefore is a sign which refers to the object· that it denotes by virtue of certain characters of its own and which it
possesses just the same, whether any such object actually exist or not.

3. SYMBOLIC SIGN
Where conventional usage sets the arbitrary relation between signifier and signified. Samples of this are the conventional use of
three orders of classical architecture (Doric for banks etc., masculine).
The classical style used for townhouses, old English for country retreats; the emblems on pubs, and the great menagerie of
animals and amazons which decorate and hold up buildings.
A symbol is a sign which refers to the object that it denotes by virtue of law, usually any association of general ideas, which
operates to cause that symbol to be interpreted as referring to-1hat object.

2. SYMBOLS
Symbolism -assumes primary importance as the basic strategy of perception whereby learning and perhaps heredity establish what
symbols define the important features of the sensory milieu. This facility has survival value since the rapid recognition of a mismatch
in the world of the senses can mean the difference between life and death. The use of symbols is therefore something which is deeply
imbedded in the central nervous system, and which is by no means confined to man.

3. EXPRESSION
Both signals and· symbols must be distinguished from a third kind of meaning, namely expression. If a face has an angry expression,
this does not imply that a person entertains an emotional complex for which he exhibits a symbol. The angry facial expression forms a
part of the physical and mental totality which the angry person represents.
In a similar manner the ARCHITECTURAL EXPRESSION forms a part as the semantic active component in the mental totality, which
the experience of a consummate piece of architecture involves. Architectural expression however is not the same as the expression of
an emotion.

BUILDING DESIGN AS ICONIC SYSTEM TRANSFORMATIONS

1. Pragmatic design - in which available materials are used, earth, stones, tree trunks branches, leaves, reeds bamboos,

animal skins, tendons were put together initially by trial and error until a building form was achieved which actually 'worked'.
Pragmatic design is still used in design with new materials plastic skin inflatables, suspension structures, and so on.

2. Typological Design-in which the members of a particular culture share a fixed 'mental image' of what the design of the
building form should be 'like using the materials which happen to be available, at a particular place with a particular climate, to house
an established life-style. Often encouraged in primitive cultures by legend, traditions, work songs which describe the design process,
by the mutual adaptation which has taken place between way of life and building form.

3. Analogical Design - the drawing of analogies (usually visual) into the solution of one's design problems with existing
buildings, with forms from nature, from painting and so on. Structural analogies with the feeling of tension and compression in the
designer's own body; philosophical analogies with principles from physics, biology (general systems theory)

4. Canonic (Geometric) design-in which the form is generated by some two or three dimensional geometric system,
originated by the Egyptians given extensive philosophical stiffening by the Greeks (Plato, Aristotle) and utilized in the design of the
Gothic cathedrals, renaissance palaces and so on. Current manifestations include le Corbusier’s modular, dimensional co-ordination
and prefabricated building systems.
 DESIGN SEQUENCE:
1. SCHEMATIC DESIGN:
The characteristics of regional architecture throughout the world reflect these climatic
considerations, characterized as " PASSIVE DESIGN", and were long a part of architectural
education and practice. Passive design considerations include:
1. Siting and orientation-The relation of the building to the land, the sun and the
wind.
2. Building shape -the less skin, the less exposure.
3. Nature of the envelope- Fenestration, insulation, thermal mass, wall shading, color and reflectivity, openings and penetrations.

2. DESIGN DEVELOPMENT:

Having conducted their investigation first, the consultants will be able to advise the architect
on such .matters as:
• Fenestration:
• Insulations:
The percentage of openings for each orientation.
For walls. roof and cellar levels, at interior partitions separating
spac;:es which are treated differently.
• Thermal Mass: Desired densities for wall and interior surface.
• Space and Structural Requirements:
Together with optimal locations for major items of equipment
such as reservoirs for energy storage.
• Horizontal Space Requirements: Ceiling and Roof Plenums.
• Vertical Space Requirements: For ducts, shafts, and insulation.
• Exterior Equipment: On roofs, adjacent to building on the ground, louver openings,
and any other items visible on the outside of the building .
Reserve Spaces: Not needed for the energy supply situation projected for initial
building occupancy, but desirable to accomodate future
changes deemed probable in the light of continuing changes in
energy availability.