Unit 4: Mechanical Principles

Unit code: F/601/1450

QCF level: 5
Credit value: 15
OUTCOME 2
TUTORIAL 1 - STRESSES IN BEAMS DUE TO BENDING

2 Loaded beams and cylinders

1
EI 
Relationships: slope: i  Mdx
1
EI 
Deflection y  Mdx dx

Loaded beams: slope and deflection for loaded beams (e.g. cantilever beams carrying a
concentrated load at the free end or a uniformly distributed load over the entire length, simply
supported beams carrying a central concentrated load or a uniformly distributed load over the entire
length)

Stresses in thin-walled pressure vessels: circumferential hoop stress and longitudinal stress in
cylindrical and spherical pressure vessels subjected to internal and external pressure (e.g.
compressed-air receivers, boiler steam drums, submarine hulls, condenser casings); factor of safety;
joint efficiency

Stresses in thick-walled cylinders: circumferential hoop stress, longitudinal stress and radial stress
in thick-walled cylinders subjected to pressure (e.g. hydraulic cylinders, extrusion dies, gun
barrels); Lame’s theory; use of boundary conditions and distribution of stress in the cylinder walls

You should judge your progress by completing the self assessment exercises. These may be sent for
marking at a cost (see home page).

On completion of this tutorial you should be able to do the following.

 Define a beam.
 Recognise different types of beams.
 Define BENDING MOMENT
 Derive the BENDING FORMULAE for beams.
 Calculate the stress in a beam due to bending.
 Solve problems involving both bending and direct stress.
 Find the position of the neutral axis for combined stress situations.
 Solve problems involving simple composite beams.

It is assumed that students doing this tutorial already understand the basic principles of
moments, shear force, stress and moments of area.

Students must also be able to perform basic differentiation and calculus from their maths
studies.

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 1
 CONTENTS

1 TYPES OF BEAMS

2. THE BENDING FORMULA

2.1 NEUTRAL AXIS
2.2 RADIUS OF CURVATURE
2.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRAIN AND RADIUS OF CURVATURE
2.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS AND BENDING MOMENT
2.5 STANDARD SECTIONS

3. COMBINED BENDING AND DIRECT STRESS

3.1 NEUTRAL AXIS

4. COMPOSITE BEAMS

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 2
1 TYPES OF BEAMS

A beam is a structure, which is loaded transversely (sideways).

The loads may be point loads or uniformly distributed loads (udl).

The diagrams show the way that point loads and uniform loads are illustrated.

The beam may be simply supported or built in.

Figures 1a to 1e

Transverse loading causes bending and bending is a very severe form of stressing a structure. The
bent beam goes into tension (stretched) on one side and compression on the other.

Figure 2

M  E
The complete formula which describes all aspects of bending is  
I y R

We will go on to look at the derivation and use of this formula.

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 3
2. THE BENDING FORMULA

2.1 NEUTRAL AXIS

This is the axis along the length of the beam which

remains unstressed, neither compressed nor
stretched when it is bent. Normally the neutral axis
passes through the centroid of the cross sectional
area. The position of the centroid is hence
important.

Consider that the beam is bent into an arc of a circle

through angle  radians. AB is on the neutral axis
and is the same length before and after bending. The
radius of the neutral axis is R.
Figure 3
Remember the length of an arc is radius x angle in radians

2.2 RADIUS OF CURVATURE

Normally the beam does not bend into a circular arc. However, what ever shape the beam takes
under the sideways loads; it will basically form a curve on an x – y graph. In maths, the radius of
curvature at any point on a graph is the radius of a circle that just touches the graph and has the
same tangent at that point.

2.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRAIN AND RADIUS OF CURVATURE

The length of AB AB = R 

Consider figure 3. There is a layer of material distance y from the neutral axis and this is stretched
because it must become longer. The radius of the layer is R + y.

The length of this layer is denoted by the line DC. DC = (R + y)

This layer is strained and strain () is defined as = change in length/original length

DC  AB R  y  R y
Substitute AB = R  and DC = (R + y)    
AB R R

The modulus of Elasticity (E) relates direct stress () and direct strain () for an elastic material and
the definition is as follows.
stress 
E 
strain 
y R E 
Substitute   and E  
R y R y
It follows that stress and strain vary along the length of the beam depending on the radius of
curvature.

We will now go on to show that the radius of curvature depends upon the bending moment M
acting at any given point along the length of the beam.

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 4
2.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRESS AND BENDING MOMENT

Consider a beam with a consistent shape along its length. An arbitrary oval shape is shown here.
Think of the beam as being made of many thin layers of material running the length of the beam
and held together by molecular forces.

Consider one such elementary layer at a given point along the length at a distance y from the neutral
axis. When the cross section is viewed end on it appears as an elementary strip width b and
thickness y.

Figure 4
The cross sectional area is A.
The elementary strip is a small part of the total cross sectional Area and is denoted in calculus form
as A.
The strip may be regarded as a thin rectangle width b and height y so A = b y
The stress on the strip is  = Ey/R

If the layer shown is stretched, then there is a small force F pulling normal to the section trying to
slide the layer out of the material in a lengthwise direction. This force must be the product of the
stress and the area and is a small part of the total force acting on the section F.
Ey Ey
δF  δA Substitute  and δF  δA
R R

Consider that the whole beam s made up of many such layers. Some are being stretched and pull
normal to the section and some are compressed and push. The total force acting on the section is
the sum of all these small forces.
Ey
F   δF   δA
R
In the limit as y tends to zero, the number of strips to be summed tends to infinity. The small
quantities y and A become the differential coefficient dy and dA. The total force is given by the
top top
Ey E
integration F   R dA  R  y dA
bottom bottom
top
The expression  y dA is by definition the first moment of area of the shape about the centroid.
bottom
Evaluating this expression would give zero since any first moment of area is zero about the
centroid.

The centroid in this case is on the neutral axis. The areas above and below the neutral axis are
equal. Half the force is a compressive force pushing into the diagram, and half is tensile pulling out.
They are equal and opposite so it follows that F = 0 which is sensible since cross sections along the
length of a beam obviously are held I equilibrium.

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 5
 Figure 5

The diagram indicates that the two forces produce a turning moment about the neutral axis because
half the section is in tension and half in compression. This moment must be produced by the
external forces acting on the beam making it bend in the first place. This moment is called the
bending moment M.

Consider the moment produced by the force on the elementary strip F. It acts a distance y from the
neutral axis so the moment produced is M = y F

In the limit as y tends to zero the total moment is found by reverting to calculus again.
top top
Ey
M   yδδ   ydF   y
R
dA
bottom bottom
top
E
M  y
2
dA
R bottom
top

y
2
The expression dA is by definition the second moment of area about the neutral axis and
bottom
this is not zero but has a definite value. In general it is denoted by the symbol I.
top
I  y
2
dA
bottom
E M E
We may now write the moment as M  I and rearrange it to 
R I R

E  M E M  E
Combining  and  we now have  
R y I R I y R

This is called the bending equation and it has 3 parts.

My Ey
If the stress is required at a given point along the beam we use either   or   This
I R
indicates that the stress in a beam depends on the bending moment and so the maximum stress will
occur where the bending moment is a maximum along the length of the beam. It also indicates that
stress is related to distance y from the neutral axis so it varies from zero to a maximum at the top or
bottom of the section. One edge of the beam will be in maximum tension and the other in
maximum compression. In beam problems, we must be able to deduce the position of greatest
bending moment along the length.

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 6
2.5 STANDARD SECTIONS

At this stage, don't worry about how M is found, it is covered later. For a given section the value of
I may be determined by mathematics. Many beams are manufactured with standard sections. British
Standard BS4 part 1 gives the properties of standard steel beams and joists. The areas and second
moments of area are listed in the standards and since the distance y to the edge is also known they
I
list a property called the ELASTIC MODULUS and this is defined as z  . The stress at the edge
y
My M
of the beam is then found from the equation    .
I Z
For standard shapes the second moment of area can be deduced. This is covered in the pre-requisite
tutorial on moments of area. The following formulae apply to standard shapes.

Figure 6

For more complex shapes such as TEE and U sections, you will need to study the pre-requisite level
tutorial in order to solve the second moment of area. There are computer programmes for solving
beam problems. The Archon Engineering web site has many such programmes.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

A beam has a rectangular cross section 80 mm wide and 120 mm deep. It is subjected to a
bending moment of 15 kNm at a certain point along its length. It is made from metal with a
modulus of elasticity of 180 GPa. Calculate the maximum stress on the section.

SOLUTION

B = 80 mm, D = 100 mm. It follows that the value of y that gives the maximum stress is 50
mm. Remember all quantities must be changed to metres in the final calculation.
BD3 80 x 1003
I    6.667 x 10 6 mm 4  6.667 x 10  6 m 4
12 12
M 

I y
My 15 x 103 x 0.05
   6
 112.5 x 10 6 N/m 2
I 6.667 x 10

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 7
 WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

A beam has a hollow circular cross section 40 mm outer diameter and 30 mm inner diameter. It
is made from metal with a modulus of elasticity of 205 GPa. The maximum tensile stress in the
beam must not exceed 350 MPa.

Calculate the following.

(i) the maximum allowable bending moment.

(ii) the radius of curvature.

SOLUTION

D = 40 mm, d = 30 mm

I = (404 - 304)/64 = 85.9 x 103 mm4 or 85.9 x 10-9 m4.

The maximum value of y is D/2 so y = 20 mm or 0.02 m

M 

I y
I350 x 10 6 x 85.9 x 10 - 9
M    1503 Nm or 1.503 M Nm
y 0.02
 E

y R
I 205 x 109 x 0.02
R    11.71 m
y 350 x 109

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.1

1. A beam has a bending moment (M) of 3 kNm applied to a section with a second moment of
area (I) of 5 x 10-3 m4. The modulus of elasticity for the material (E) is 200 x 10 9 N/m2.
Calculate the radius of curvature. (Answer 333.3 km).

2. The beam is Q1 has a distance from the neutral axis to the edge in tension of 60 mm. Calculate
the stress on the edge. (Answer 36 kPa).

3. A beam under test has a measured radius of curvature of 300 m. The bending moment applied
to it is 8 Nm. The second moment of area is 8000 mm4. Calculate the modulus of elasticity for
the material. (Answer 300 GPa).

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 8
3. COMBINED BENDING AND DIRECT STRESS

3.1 NEUTRAL AXIS

When bending alone occurs in a member such as a beam, the neutral axis passes through the
centroid. The stress varies from top to bottom over the structure from a maximum tensile on one
edge to a maximum compressive on the other. The stress distribution is typically as shown. The
stress is zero on the neutral axis and this passes through the centroid.

Figure 7
When a compressive stress is added to the bending stress, the stress everywhere is decreased by B
and the neutral axis moves away from the centroid towards the tensile edge as shown in figure 8. It
is quite possible for the neutral axis to move beyond the edge.

Figure 8

WORKED EXAMPLE No.3

Calculate the stress on the top and bottom of the section shown when the bending moment is
300 N m. Draw the stress distribution.

Figure 9

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 9
 SOLUTION

First calculate the second moment of area using the tabular method that you should already
know. Divide the shape into three sections A, B and C. First determine the position of the
centroid from the bottom edge.
Area y Ay
2
A 600 mm 45 mm 27 000 mm3
2
B 300 mm 25 mm 7500 mm3
C 400 mm2 5 mm 2000 mm3
2
Totals 1300 mm 365000 mm3

For the whole section the centroid position is y =365000/1300 = 28.07 mm

Now find the second moment of area about the base. Using the parallel axis theorem.

BD3/12 Ay2 I = BD3/12 +A y 2

A 60 x 103/12=5000 mm4 600 x 452=1215000 1220000 mm4
B 10 x 303/12=22500 mm4 300 x 252=187500 210000 mm4
C 40 x 103/12=3333 mm4 400 x 52=10000 13333 mm4
Total = 1443333 mm4
The total second moment of area about the bottom is 1443333 mm4
Now move this to the centroid using the parallel axis theorem.

I = 1443333 - A y 2 =1443333- 1300 x 28.082 = 418300 mm4

Now calculate the stress using the well known formula B = My/I

Top edge y = distance from the centroid to the edge = 50 – 28.08 = 21.93 mm

B = 300 x 0.02192/418.300 x 10-9 = 15.72 x 106 Pa or 15.72 MPa (Tensile)

Bottom edge y = y =28.07 mm

B = 300 x 0.02808/418.300 x 10-9 = 20.14 MPa (Tensile)

The stress distribution looks like this.

Figure 10

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 10
 WORKED EXAMPLE No.4

The section solved in example 2 is subjected to a tensile force that adds a tensile stress of 10
MPa everywhere. Sketch the stress distribution and determine the new position of the neutral
axis.

SOLUTION

The stress on the top edge will increase to 25.72 MPa and on the bottom edge it will decrease to
-10.12 MPa. The new distribution will be as shown and the new position of the neutral axis may
be calculated by ratios.

Figure 11

A + B = 50 mm so B = 50 - A
By similar triangles A/25.72 = B/10.12 A = (25.72/10.12)B = 2.54 B

B = 50 - 2.54 B 3.54 B = 50 B = 14.12 mm A= 50 - 14.12 = 35.88 mm

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.2

-9
1. A symmetrical I section beam is 60 mm deep with a second moment of area of 663 x 10 m4
and a cross sectional area of 1600 mm2. It is subject to a bending moment of 1.2 kNm and an
axial force of 25 kN (tension). Find the position of the neutral axis.
(Answer the stresses are 69.92 MPa and -38.67 MPa and the neutral axis is 38.6 mm from the
tensile edge)

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 11
4. COMPOSITE BEAMS

A simple composite beam might be a piece of timber clad with

steel as shown. It must be assumed that they are firmly bonded so
that the strain at the interface is the same for both materials.

The bending equation states M/I = E/R = /y

It has been shown that  = y/R = /E

At the interface  must be the same for both materials so it follows

that t = sEt/Es where t refers to timber and s to steel.
Figure 12

If the beam was made entirely out of steel, it would have to have
the same flexural stiffness (EI) as the composite beam while
retaining the same vertical dimension for the interface.
Since I = By3 dy it is necessary to maintain the same y values so
B must be changed in the ratio of the values of E.

The equivalent steel section has a web width w = B E t/Es

Now the second moment of area about the centroid must be found
and the stress can be evaluated for a giver value of M.
Figure 13

WORKED EXAMPLE No.5

A rectangular section timber beam is 50 mm wide and 75 mm deep. It is clad with steel plate
10 mm thick on the top and bottom. Calculate the maximum stress in the steel and the timber
when a moment of 4 kNm is applied. E for timber is 10 GPa and for steel 200 GPa

SOLUTION

The width of an equivalent steel web must be t = 50 x E t / Es = 50 x 10/200 = 2.5 mm

Now calculate Igg for the equivalent beam.

This is easy because it is symmetrical and

Involves finding I for the outer box and
subtracting I for the missing parts.

Igg = 50 x 953/12 – 47.5 x 753/12

I gg= 1.9025 x 10-6 m4
Find the stress at y = 37.5 mm
 = My/I = 4000 x 0.0375/1.9025 x 10-6
 = 78.845 MPa
Figure 14

The stress in the timber at this level will be different because of the different E value.
t = sEt/Es = 3.942 MPa
The stress at y = 47.5 mm will be the stress at the edge of the steel.
s = My/I = 4000 x 0.0475/1.9025 x 10-6 = 99.87 MPa

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 12
 WORKED EXAMPLE No.6

A symmetrical steel I section beam has a second moment of area I gg = 90 x 10-6 m4 and section
area 6 x 10-3 m2. It has a vertical depth of 300 mm and forms part of a floor with concrete slabs
firmly bonded to the top 1.2 m wide and 100 mm thick.

Figure 15
Calculate the stress in the steel at levels (1) and (2) and in the concrete at levels (2) and (3)
when a bending moment of 50 kNm is applied to the section. The top layer is in compression.
The modulus of elasticity is 200 GPa or steel and 20GPa for concrete.

SOLUTION
First reduce the concrete to an equivalent width of steel. B = 1.2 x Es/Ec
B = 1.2 x 20/200 = 0.12 m. The equivalent steel beam is like this.

Figure 16
Now find the position of the centroid y by finding the first moment of area about the base.
Area y Ay
-3
Part 1 6 x 10 0.15 0.9 x 10-3
-3
Part 2 12 x 10 0.35 4.2 x 10-3
Total 18 x 10-3 5.1 x 10-3

y for the section is 5.1x10-3/18x10-3=0.283 m

Next find the second moment of area about the centroid axis g g. Use the parallel axis theorem.
H = distance from axis gg to centre of the part.
Area h Ah2 BD3/12 Igg
Part 2 12 x 10-3 0.067 53.3 x 10-6 10 x 10-6 63.3 x 10-6

Part 1 Igg = I + Ah2 = 90 x 10-6 + (6 x 10-3 x 0.1332) = 196 x 10-6

Total Igg = 63.3 x 10 + 196 x 10-6 = 259.3 x 10-6 m4
-6

At level (1) s = My/Igg = 50 000 x 0.283/ 259.3 x 10-6 = 54.57 MPa

At level (2) s = My/Igg = 50 000 x 0.017/ 259.3 x 10-6 = 3.28 MPa
At level (2) c = 3.28 x Ec/Es = 3.28 x (20/200) = 0.328 MPa
At level (3) s = My/Igg = 50 000 x 0.117/ 259.3 x 10-6 = 22.56 MPa
At level (3) c = 22.56 x Ec/Es = 22.56 x (20/200) = 2.256 MPa

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 13
 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.3

1. A rectangular section timber beam is 60 mm wide and 100 mm deep. It is clad with steel plate
12 mm thick on the top and bottom. Calculate the maximum stress in the steel and the timber
when a moment of 5 kNm is applied.
E for timber is 11 GPa and for steel 205 GPa.

Find the maximum stress in the steel and the timber. (103.7 MPa and 4.39 MPa)

2. A symmetrical steel I section beam has a second moment of area Igg = 3391.3 x 10-6 m4 and
section area 28.84 x 10-3 m2. It has a vertical depth of 851 mm and forms part of a floor with
concrete slabs firmly bonded to the top 1.5 m wide and 1200 mm thick.

Figure 17

Calculate the stress in the steel at levels (1) and (2) and in the concrete at levels (2) and (3)
when a bending moment of 50 kNm is applied to the section. The top layer is in compression.
The modulus of elasticity is 205 GPa or steel and 18GPa for concrete.
(174.7 MPa tensile, 45.12 MPa compressive, 3.962 MPa compressive and 8.5 MPa
compressive)

© D.J.Dunn www.freestudy.co.uk 14