Grade 11 Chemistry Class Notes
Grade 11 Chemistry Class Notes
Grade 11 Chemistry Class Notes
Structure of Carbon
CH3CH3
CH2CH2
Organic compounds containing one or more double bonds
between adjacent carbon atoms are known as unsaturated
compounds.
Unbranched vs. branched chains
Unbranched or branched chain of carbon atoms can form of
different lengths:
Rings
Rings of carbon atoms can form. For example, cyclohexane
(C6H12) is a ring of six carbon atoms:
Butanoic acid
- - The condensed structural formula. This shows the
sequence and arrangement of atoms in one molecule of the
compound in such a way that the nature and position of
attachment of the functional group is shown without
actually drawing the molecule. The condensed structural
formula of butanoic acid is:
CH3CH2CH2COOH
Practice:
Give the condensed structural formula and molecular formula of
this compound:
1 meth-
2 eth-
3 prop-
4 but-
5 pent-
6 hex-
7 hept-
8 oct-
9 non-
10 dec-
The table below gives the main homologous series together with
an example of a member of each series containing two carbon
atoms.
Naming the following organic compounds and give their
molecular and condensed structural formula.
Butene
CH2CHCH2CH3
C4H8
Propanol
CH3CH2CH2OH
C3H7OH
Ethanoic acid (Vinegar) Methane (“pup”, “fart”)
CH3COOH CH4
Heptane
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
C7H16
Structural isomers
Carbon chains can have side branches of one or more carbon atoms. For
example, pentane (C5H12) has three isomers, one of which is the straight
chain isomer and two of which are formed by branching of the carbon
chain as shown below:
The functional group is usually situated at the right hand end of the
molecule. However, the position of the functional group can change.
Examples
Or 1-butene 2-butene
Butanol (C4H9OH) has two isomers because the position of the hydroxyl
group can change as shown below:
The side chains which branch off from the longest chain of carbon atoms
in a molecule are known as alkyl groups. These groups have the general
formula CnH2n+1 . Alkyl groups are named by adding the suffix ‘-yl’ to
the prefix:
-CH3 methyl
-C2H5 ethyl
-C3H7 propyl
- the first part indicates the number of the carbon atom to which the
side chain is attached.
- the second part is the name of the side chain i.e. the alkyl group
- the third part is derived from the homologous series to which the
compound belongs and the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms.
1) Find the number of the carbon atom to which the side chain is
attached.
2) Determine the name of the side chain. Side chains can have prefixes
like ‘di’ or ‘tri’ if there are 2 or 3 side chains present in the compound.
3) Determine the homologous series to which the compound belongs
and the total number of carbon atoms in the longest continuous carbon
chain.
Or
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qcuTyVAXzJg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hUdepUn1x7A
- if a precipitate forms, the appearance of the precipitate can be
measured, e.g. the reaction between sodium thiosulphate and
hydrochloric acid.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r4IZDPpN-bk
Example
If the volume of gas is plotted against time, the curve below may be
obtained:
As seen in the graph, overall the rate of the reaction decreases. The
gradient is steep at the beginning of the graph indicating the reaction is
rapid. However, as the reaction progresses, the gradient becomes
shallower indicating the reaction is slowing down until the reaction stops
and there is no further change in the volume of hydrogen gas.
Determine the average rate of reaction in the first minute (60 s):
The rate of reaction is dependent on several factors. There are four main
factors which can affect the rate of a reaction:
- concentration
- temperature
Light and pressure can also affect the rate of certain reactions.
Concentration
The general rule is that the higher the concentration of a reactant, the
higher the rate of the reaction.
Temperature
The general rule is that the higher the temperature at which a reaction
occurs, the higher the rate of reaction.
The general rule is the smaller the particles of a reactant, the higher the
rate of reaction.
This only applies to reactions in the solid state. When solids react, the
reaction occurs on the surface of the solid. Small solid particles have a
larger total surface area than the same mass of large solid particles. If
the particle size is decreased, the smaller particles have a greater surface
area exposed to particles of the other reactant. As a result, the particles
collide more frequently which increases the chances of effective
collisions, therefore, the rate of reaction increases.
The effect of surface area and particle size on the rate of a chemica…
Most catalysts are added to speed up the rate of a reaction. They work by
providing an alternative pathway for the reaction which requires less
activation energy than the normal pathway. As a result, more of the
collisions occur with sufficient energy for the particles to react, which
increases the number of effective collisions in a given length of time.
A few catalysts are added to slow down the rate of a reaction. These are
known as negative catalysts or inhibitors.
Energetics
- If the reaction produces heat, causing the reaction mixture and its
surroundings to get hotter, the reaction is said to be an exothermic
reaction. Exothermic reactions transfer energy to the surroundings.
- If the reaction absorbs heat, causing the reaction mixture and its
surroundings to get colder, the reaction is said to be an
endothermic reaction. Endothermic reactions absorb energy from
the surroundings.
Reactants → Products
bonds are broken bonds are formed
energy is absorbed energy is released
Enthalpy change
The energy content of a substance is called its enthalpy and is given the
symbol H. The energy content of a substance cannot be measured
directly but it is possible to measure the change in enthalpy that occurs
during a reaction. This is known as enthalpy change and is given the
symbol ΔH and is usually expressed in kilojoules, kJ, or kilojoules per
mole, kJmol-1
The enthalpy change of a reaction is summarized by the following
formula:
Endothermic reactions
Reversible reactions
ΔH = -46.1 kJmol-1
OR
q = m x c x ΔT
Example: The specific heat capacity of water is 4.2 J/goC. This means it
takes 4.2 J of heat energy to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1oC.
Example
Therefore 0.05 mol NaOH reacts with 0.05 mol HCl forming 0.05 mol
H2O
q = mcΔT
= 2814 J
= 2.814 kJ
Heat evolve in forming 1 mol H2O = 2.814 kJ/ 0.05 mol = 56.28 kJ/mol
Heat of solution
Example
= 2699 J = 2.699 kJ
When metals are placed in order of ease with which they lose electrons,
i.e. ease with which they ionize, a series known as the electrochemical
series of metals is created.
Potassium is highest in the series, which means that it ionizes the most
easily, forms the most stable ions and is the strongest reducing agent.
Silver is lowest in the series, which means that it ionizes the least easily,
forms the least stable ions and is the weakest reducing agent.
Example
Electrolysis
During electrolysis both anions and cations are discharged i.e. they lose
or gain electrons to form neutral ions. This occurs as follows:
An- → A + ne-
- The electrons, lost by the anions at the anode, travel through the
circuit to the positive terminal of the battery. They then re-enter the
circuit from the negative terminal of the battery and travel to the
cathode.
Cn+ + ne- → C
Reduction occurs at the cathode. The cathode acts as the reducing agent.
· The rate of flow of the electrical charge, i.e. current, which is given
the symbol I and is measured in units called amperes, A. A current of 1
amp is equivalent to 1 C, or 6.25 x 1018 electrons flowing for 1 s.
Q=Ixt
Calculate the mass of lead produced at the cathode when a current of 5.0
A flows through molten lead(II) bromide for 16 minutes and 5 seconds.
Q=Ixt
I = 5.0 A
t = (16x60) + 5 = 965 s
Q = 5 x 965 = 4825 C
x= 96500 x 2 = 193,000 C