Nain Cop DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GOLAGHAT ENGINEERING COLLEGE

BOGORIJENG, GOLAGHAT, ASSAM-785621

Solid and Hazardous Waste Management

Module 1:- Solid waste

Notes prepared by: Gautam Kumar Das. (Asstt.Prof, Civil Engineering Dept. )

CLASSIFICATION OFSOLID WASTES

Solid wastes are the organic and inorganic waste materials such as product packaging,
grass clippings, furniture, clothing, bottles, kitchen refuse, paper, appliances, paint cans,
batteries, etc., produced in a society, which do not generally carry any value to the first
user(s). Solid wastes, thus, encompass both a heterogeneous mass of wastes from the urban
community as well as a more homogeneous accumulation of agricultural, industrial and
mineral wastes. While wastes have little or no value in one setting or to the one who wants to
dispose them, the discharged wastes may gain significant value in another setting. Knowledge
of the sources and types of solid wastes as well as the information on composition and the
rate at which wastes are generated/ disposed is, therefore, essential for the design and
operation of the functional elements associated with the management of solid wastes.

1 Source-based classification
() Residential: This refers to wastes fiom dwellings, apartments, ete., and consists of leftover
food, vegetable peels, plastic, clothes, ashes, etc.
(i)Commercial: This refers to wastes consisting of leftover. food, glasses,.metals, ashes, etc.
generatedfrom stores, restaurants, markets, hotels, motels, auto-repair shops, medical
facilities, etc.
(ii)Institutional: This mainly consists of paper, plastic, glasses, etc. generated from
educational, administrative and public buildings such as schools, colleges, offices, prisons,
etc.
(iv)Municipal: This includes dust, leafy matter, building debris, treatment plant residual
sludge, etc., generated from various municipal activities like construction and demolition,
street cleaning, landscaping, ete.
(v) Industrial: This mainly consists of process wastes, ashes, demolition and construction
wastes, hazardous wastes, etc., due to industrial activities.
(vi) Agricultural: This mainly consists of spoiled food grains and vegetables, agricultural
remains, litter, etc., generated from fields, orchards, vineyards, farms, etc.
(vii) Open areas: this includes wastes from areas such as Streets, alleys, parks, vacant lots,
playgrounds, beaches, highways, recreational areas, etc.
2 Type-based classification

characteristics
chemical, and biological
types, i.e.. physical,
of wastes based
on
Classitication
sale,
resulting from the handling,
is as follows.
ofwastes refers to animal and
vegetable wastes
wastes
Garbage: This comprising these
(i) and serving of food. Garbage
cooking odour and attracts
and storage. preparation, an obnoxious
which produces
matter,
putreseible (rotting) organic
and
contains attention in storage, handling
therefore. requires special
rats and other vermin. It.
wood, coal,
disposal remain ing from the burning of
These are substances institutions
(i) Ashes and residues: in houses,
combustible materials for cooking and heating
charcoal, coke and other quantities, in power-
as
establishments. When produced in large
and small industrial wastes. Ashes consist of fine
classified as industrial
factories, these are Since
generation plants and small pieces of metal
and glass.
clinker often mixed with
powdery residue. cinders and
valuable in landfills.
entirely inorganic, they
are
almost
ashes and residues are

from
non-combustible wastes: These consist of wastes generated
and
wastes and other highly
Combustible
(ii) etc., excluding food
commercial activities,
households. institutions, of paper, cardboard,
consists
putrescible material. Typically, while combustible material consists of such items as
non-combustible material
textile, rubber, garden trimmings, etc.,
material and dirt.
and non-ferrous
and aluminiüm cans, ferrous
glass, crockery, tin

wastes: These include appliances such as refrigerators, washing

large household
(iv) Bulky and branches. Since these
machines, furniture, crates,
vehicle parts, tyres, wood, trees
in normal storage containers, they require
a

household wastes cannot be accommodated

specialcollection mechanism.
-

walkways, alleys,
collected from streets,
Street wastes: These refer to wastes that are
(v) leaves and other vegetable
include paper, cardboard, plastics, dirt,
parks and vacant plots, and in many countries
matter. Littering in public places
is indeed a widespread and acute problem
must address this menace
India, and a solid waste management system
including
appropriately.

wastes mainly refer to

non-biodegradable wastes: Biodegradable
(vi) Biodegradable and and fruit peels, paper,
matter such as leftover food, vegetable
substances consisting of organic of the
household and industrial activities. Because
generated from various
textile, wood, etc., to simpler compounds.
these wastes are degraded from complex
action of micro-organisms,
materials such as plast ic, glass,
of inorganic and recyclable
Non-biodegradable wastes consist
cans, metals, etc.

animals those that die

municipal wastes, dead
are
regard to
(vii) Dead animals: With include
Note that this category does not
naturally or are accidentally killed on the road. wastes.
which are regarded as industrial
carcasses and animal parts from slaughter-houses,
the large animals are
Dead animals are divided into two groups large and small. Among
-

the small ones are dogs, cats, rabbits, rats,

horses,
etc. Thecows, goats,
reason sheep, pigs, etc., and among
for this differentiation is that large animals require special equipment for2
 and handling when a
ng they are removed. If not collected promptly, dead animals pose
nreat to publie health since they attract flies and other vermin as they decay. Their presene
n publie places is particularly offensive from the aesthetic point of view as well

that are
y ADandoned vehicles: This category includes automobiles, trucks
and trailers
bxndoned on streets and other public places. However, abandoned vehicles have signiticant

highly variable.
Serap value for their metal, and their valuc to collectors is

as a resun
(1X) Construction and demolition wastes: These are wastes generated and
houses, commercial buildingS
Or construction, refirbishment, repair and demolition of and
stones, concrete,
bricks, lumber, roofing
other structures. They consist mainly of carth,
of the general municipal
wires and parts
pumbing materials, heating systems and electrical
waste stream.

agricultural activities such as plant ing,

wastes result from
diverse
(X) Farm Wastes: These and the operation of feedlots.
harvesting. production of milk, rearing of animals for slaughter from
waste has become a critical problem, especially
In many areas, the disposal
of animal
dairies.
feedlots, poultry farms and
wastes of industrial
wastes are those defined as
(xi) Hazardous wastes: Hazardous or o v e r a
that are potentially dangerous either immediately
institutional or consumer origin chemical

to human beings and the environment. This is due to their physical, and
period of time like ignitability,corrosivity,
reactivity
radioactive characteristics
and biological or
be' liquid or gaseous
hazardous

Note that in some cases, the active agents may confined in so lid
toxicity. solid wastes as they are
These are, nevertheless, classified as paints
wastes.
containers of solvents,
hazardous wastes are empty
containers. Typical examples of wastes and become part of the
and pesticides, which frequently mixed with municipal
are
in incinerators and fires
wastes may cause explosions
urban waste stream. Certain hazardous
radioactive wastes also
wastes from hospitals and
at landfill sites. Others such as pattho logical that
Effective management practices should ensure
require special handling.
are stored, collected, transported
and disposed of separately, preferably
hazardous wastes
treatment to render them harmless.
after suitable

treatment are classified sewage as

solid by-products of sewage
wastes: The
(xii) Sewage separated
wastes. They are mostly organic
and derived from the treatment of organic sludge
The inorganic fraction of raw sewage
such as grit and
from both raw and treated sewages.
it may entrain putrescible
stage of treatment, as
eggshells is separated at the preliminary The bulk of treated
and must be buried without delay.
organic matter with pathogens uneconomical. Solid sludge.
conditioner but is invariably
dewatered sludge is useful as a soil
are made for its
wastes, unless special arrangements
therefore, enters the stream of municipal
disposal.

3
 Waste characterisation
different waste streame
composition of
:

is the by which the of waste which

Waste characterisation
process treatment mav
in any
analysed. Waste characterisation
plays an important part exactly
take
must into account what waste
waste technologies
occur. Developers of new The biodegradable
element of the waste
order to fully treat the waste.
streams consist of in or anaerobic digest ion.
the use of systems
such as composting
stream is important
vitally in

beside waste management plants in a

Waste characterization is a manual process carried
the sample into 4 parts,
process that consists of taking 1 tone
from a garbage truck, dividing
to analyse them
and take one of them (250kg)
mixing them, dividing again into 4 parts
3-4 hours to complete the characterization and
manually. This is a process that takes around
generally involves 2-4 people.
and the material flows
There are two basic methods for characterizing MSW-sampling
method has merits and
methodology used to produce the data referenced in this chapter. Each
drawbacks, as shown:

Material Flows Sampling

Characterizes residential, commercial, Characterizes wastes received at the
institutional,and some industrial wastes sampling facility
Characterizes MSW nationwide Is site-specific
Characterizes MSW generation as well as Usually characterizes only discards as
discards received
Characterizes MSW on an as-generated Usually characterizes wastes after they
moisture basis have been mixed and moisture transferred
Provides data on long-term trends Provides only one point in time (unless
multiple samples are taken over a long
period of time)
Characterizes MSW on an annual basis Provides data on seasonal fluctuations
(if enough samples are taken)
Does not account for regional differences Can provide data on regional differences

When recyceling is planned, or if materials or energy recovery by combustion is the objective,

it becomes necessary to have a better picture of the solid waste. Some of the characteristics of
interest are-
Composition by identifiable items (steel cans, office paper, etc.)
This method is called the input method of estimating so lid waste production. The input
method of estimating solid waste generation is applicable where the input data can be
obtained from specialized agencies that routinely collect and publish industry-wide data. This
system also allows for regular updates of waste generation estimates, because gathering the
data is expensive. Furthermore, since the data collected by the same institutions include
future projections, it is possible to estimate future solid waste generation.
Moisture content t lIS
when the refuse is processed
into fuel or when
nosture content becomes important
content is
fired directly. The usual expression for calculating moisture

M W x 100
where M = moisture content, wet basis, %
w = initial (wet) weight of sample
d final (dry) weight of sample

Particle size If these particles

describe analytically.
of various sizes is difficult to the worst
Any mixture of particles refuse is possibly
is compounded. Municipal
shaped, the problem the MSW processing
are irregularly size analysis, and yet much of
imaginable material for particle
accurate description
of particle size.
techno logy depends on an

hydrogen, etc.) the chemical

Chemical composition (carbon, often depends on
and/or energy
of materials Two common
The economic recovery
well as the heat value.
chemicals as
refuse-the individual and the
composition of the of refuse are the
proximate analysis
the chemical composition coal.
means of defining for solid fuels, especially
developed
ultimate analysis. Both
descriptions were originally and fixed
define the fraction
of volatile organics
is an attempt to
The proximate analysis on elemental
compositions.
while the ultimate analysis is based
carbon in the fuel,

the heat
Heat value in resource recovery. Commonly,
refuse are of some importance device
The heat values of with a calorimeter, a
materials are measured
other heterogeneous the mass of
values of refuse and
temperature rise is recorded. Knowing
in which a sample is combusted
and the (recognizing, of
the combustion, the kJ/kg is calculated
heat generated by
the sample and the 1°c).
raise the temperature of Ikg of water
that 1 kilo Joule is the heat necessary to
course,

Density the pressure exerted,

on
has highly variable bulk density, depending
so lid waste a of MSW
Municipal can by the homeowner, the bulk density
might be placed into a garbage 150 be at
kg/m3); pushed into the can, might
Loose, it
as it
250 Ib/yd3 (90 and
be between 150 and bulk density
might the refuse, the
In a collection truck that compacts
300 lb/yd3 (180 kg/m3). 420 kg/m3). Once deposited in a landfill and
normally 600 and 700 lb/yd3 (350 and
between 1200 lb/yd3 (700 kg/m3).
it achieve bulk densities
can of about
compacted with machinery, are seldom expressed
in volumes and
variable density, MSW quantities
Because ofthe highly or tons in the
American standard
in mass terms as either pounds
are always expressed
almost
tonnes in the SI system.
system or kilograms or

Mechanical properties obtain volume reduction. The

variation exists in the amount of energy necessary to
A wide be achieved
that substantial volume reduction can
curves tend to be mostly linear, indicating
fact understood in the use of solid
waste
by expending greater energy in compaction-a
balers

5
Biodegradability
Treatment techniques (such as composting) must take into account that a
large fraction of
MSW is not biodegradable and that this material must be
disposed of by means other than
producing use ful products using biodegradat ion.

COLLECTION OF SOLID WASTE

Collection of commingled (unseparated) and separated (recyclables) solid waste is a critical
part of any solid waste management program. Solid waste collection is an exercise in
reducing entropy. The pieces that make up the solid waste are scattered far and wide, and the
role of the collector is to gather this material together into one container. In most parts of the
developed world, solid waste collection systems are invariably person/truck systems. With
only a few minor exceptions, the collection of MSW is done by men and women who
a town in trucks and then ride with the truck to a site at which the
traverse truck is emptied.
This may be an intermediate stopover where the refuse is transferred from the small truck
into trailers, larger vans, barges, or railway cars for long-distance transport or the final site
suchas the landfill, compost site, or materials
recovery facility.
The process of refuse collection should be thought of as a multiphase process, and it is
possible to define at least five separate phases, as shown in Figure

Truck

Can
House- Disposal
or
transfer

House Can Truck from house Truck

to
Truck
to to
can
routing to
truck house
disposal
Figure 3-1 Five phases of municipal solid waste collection.

6
The phases of solid waste collections are:

Phase 1: House to Can

The individual homeowner must
transfer whatever is considered waste (defined as materia
having no further value to the occupant) to the refuse can, which may be inside or outside the
home. Communities use tax funds to operate the solid waste collection and disposal system,
or they charge for the service just as they charge for water consumption and wastewale
disposal. Such a system gives the generators of waste chance to generate as much as tney
please because the cost is the same regardless of how much they contribute. Some
communities have adopted a volume-based fee system to pay for solid waste collection and

specify the containers that must be used.

Phase 2: Can to Truck

At one time, the most common system of getting the solid waste into the truck was the
collectors going to the backyard, emptying the garbage cans into large tote containers, and
in dollar cost to the
carrying these to the waiting truck. This system was not only expensive
rate to the collectors.
community, but it was expensive in terms of the extremely high injury

Phase 3: Truck from House to House

Once the refuse is in the is compacted as the truck moves from house to house. The
truck, it
before it has to make a trip to
higher the compaction ratio, the more refuse the truck can carry
the landfil1.

Phase 4: Truck Routing

The routing of a vehicle within its assigned collection zone is often called microrouting to
the disposal site and the
distinguish it from the larger-scale. problems (phase 5) of routing
to
establishment of the individual route boundaries. The latter problem is commonly known as

macrorouting or is to minimize deadheading,(which is passing a

districting. The objective
collection point again after a previous pickup). The assumption is that if a route can be
devised that has the least amount of deadheading possible, it is the most efficient collection

route.

Phase 5: Truck to Disposal

The fifth phase of the collection system involves the location of the final destination
(materials recovery facility, disposal site, or transfer station). This is a planning problem,
often involving more than one community.
Collection route optimization.
waste:-
solid
collecting
optimization for
the guidelines for
route
following are be fragmented.
and should not
he
should be compact,
. Routes should not overlap, possible.
as
truck garage
2.The start should be as close to the
ing point hours.
travelled streets should be avoided during rush from the upper
end
3. Heavily
be traversed in one line should be looped
streets that cannot
way
of the street. street.
5. Dead-end streets should be collected when on the right side of the
that the truck can coast.
6. On hils, collection should proceed downhill so

7. Clockwise turns around blocks should be used whenever possible

clockwise.
8. Long, straight paths should be routed before looping
9. For certain block patterns, standard paths, should be used.
street as the only access and exit to
10. U-turns can be avoided by never leaving one two-way
the node.

Start Srart
insh

Layout of Collection Routes

The four general steps involved in establishing eollection routes include:
1. Preparation of location maps show ing pertinent data and information concerning the waste
generation sources
2. Data analysis and, as required. preparation of information summary tables
3. Preliminary layout of routes
4. Evaluation of the preliminary routes and the development of balanced routes by successive
trials.

In many large cities and counties, some form of a geographic information system
(GIS) is now used to identify each customer's location. In addition. a variety of other
complimentary programs have been coupled to the GIS to both optimize the collection
process and to improve the service provided. As noted previously. many ofthe newer
collection vehicles contain on-board scales to optimize the payload.
It should be noted that the balanced routes prepared in the office are then given to the
colector-drivers who implement them in the field. Based on the field experience ofthe
colector- driver, each route is modified to account for specific local conditions, and
information on the new route is entered into a database. In large municipalities, route
supervisors are responsible for the preparation of collection routes. In most cases, the routes
are based on the operating experience ofthe route supervisor. gained over a period of years
working in the same section of the city.

8
Transfer stations
When the waste disposal unit is remote to the collection area, a transfer station is employed
At a transfer station, waste is transferred from smaller collection vehicles to larger transter

vehicles, such as a tractor and trailer, a barge, or a railroad car. Transfer stations can be qute

on its intended
Simple, or they be complex facilities. The design of the facility is based
can
collection vehiCies
use with small transfer stations typically relying on a tipping floor where
wheeled loader.
be loaded into open-top trailers using
a
arop their loads. Waste then can
into. Transfèr vehicles then
More complex facilit ies might employ pits for vehicles to dump
have tunnel for the transfer
compacting unit. A facility also might
a
can be loaded by using a to be loaded
allow these units
vehicle to drive into. Chutes or an opening in the floor would
transfer stations are shown in
Dy having waste pushed over the edge into them. Some typical
Figure

(c)

transfer station is o ften an economic or regulatory

The decision to build or not to build a
of the full-collection vehicle to the
decision. If the one-way haul distance from the point
On the other hand,
that no transfer station is needed.
discharge point is short, then is likely
it to be away from its
the collection vehicle will have
if the discharge point is far away and warranted. The
co llecting refuse for too long,
then a transfer station might be
primary role of
the breakeven point.
3-17. Where the two curves cross is
relationship is illustrated in Figure will
warrant the construction of a
transfer station, while shorter hauls
Longer distance will
distance to a
transfer station is required regardless of
make it uneconomical. Sometimes a
at a landfill, a permit may
limit the
landfill. To minimize the trafftic and air pollution impacts
reduces the number
transfer stations. This significantly
landfill to only receiving waste from
of vehicles travelling to a landfill

With
transter

Without

transter

Haul distance to disposal

Figure 3-17 Breakeven point of transfer stations.
Collection equipment
such as the
Solid waste collection systems may be classified
from several points of view,
collection
of waste collected. The
mode of operation, the equipment used, and the types
to their mode of operation:
systems have been classified into two categories, according
1. Hauled container systems
2. Stationary container systems

1. Equipment for Hauled Container System (HCS).

of wastes are
These collection systems in which the containers used for the storage
are

hauled to a materials recovery facility (MRF), station, or disposal site,

transfer
location. Hauled
emptied, and returned to either their original location or some other
where the
ideally suited for the removal of wastes from
sources
container systems are

rate of generation is high. There are three main types of HCSs:

1. Hoist truck
2. Tilt-frame container
3. Trash trailer

Hoist-Truck Systems. In the past, hoist trucks were used widely at military
installations(see Fig. 7,12). With the advent of self loading collection vehicles,
limited number of cases, the
however, this system appears to be applicable in only a
most important of which follows:
and collects
.For the collection of wastes by a collector who has a small operation
amount of wastes are
from only a few pickup points at which a considerable
for such operations the purchase of newer and more efficient
generated. Generally,
collection equipment cannot be justified economically.
For the collection of bulky items and industrial rubbish not suitable for collection
with compaction vehicles.

mounted on truck lyame. Phota was 1**S at a naval

lakea in the insta
FIGURE 7.12 Hoist-iruck nechanisn s Csseniially unchard
ind ued
still tolay.
ihe truck stylc has changeu. the hoist mechanisn
Jation. AIhough

10
Tilt-Frame Container Systems.
Systems that use tit-frame-loaded vehicles (see Fig. 7.13) and large containers, often called
drop boxes or roll-off containers, are ideally suited for the collection of all types of solid
waste and rubbish from locations where the generation rate warrants the use of large
containers.

wo

Tt rame

Tit cylindar

Contai SAabi?zing

FIGURE 7.13 Truck with tilt-frame loading mechanism used with large debris boxes,
sometimes called roll-off containers. Contents of debris box are being unloaded at a

combined recycling and transfer facility.

Trash Trailer Systems.

The application of trash trailers is similar to that for tilt-frame container systems. Trash
trailers are better for the collection of especially heavy rubbish, such as sand, timber, and
metal serap, and often are used for the collection of demolition wastes at construction sites.

160RE 7.14 Contentsof trash trailor used demoluwn watcs being unloaded al anutr.

Personnel Requirements for the Hauled Container System.

In most HCSs, a single collector-driver is used. The collector-driver is responsible for driving
the vehicle, loading full containers onto the colection vehicle, emptying the contents of the
containers at the disposal site (or transfer point), and re-deposit ing (unloading) the empty

11
 driver and helper are used. The helner
safety reasons, both
a
containers. In some cases, for
chains or cables used in loading and
and detaching any
usually is responsible for attaching the driver is responsible for the
containers on and off the collection vehicle;
unloading be used where hazardous wastes
of the vehicle. A driver and helper should always
operation
are to be handled.

Equipment for Stationary Container Systems (SCSs).

of
of wastes remain at the point
In the SCSs, the containers used for the storage
to be emptied.
to the curb or other location
generation, except when they are moved The
for the collection of all types of wastes.
Stationary container systems may be used number
of wastes to be handled, as well as the
systems vary according to the type and quality
almost all of the
of generat ion points. Because of the economic advantages involved,
collection vehicles now used are equipped with internal compaction mechanisms, especially
distances involved. Operational data on the collection vehicles used in
where long-haul are
vehicles contain onboard scales,
this system. To optimize the payload, many newer collection
devices (to weigh individual
including load cells on the arms of mechanical lifting
the loaded material).
containers) and/or load cells on the truck chassis (to weigh
There are two main types:

1. Systems in which mechanically loaded collection vehicles a r e used

Container size and utilization are not as critical in SCSs using collection vehicles
are in hoist-truck systems. Trips to
equipped with a compaction mechanism as they
station àre made after the contents ofa
the disposal site, trans fer station, or processing
number of containers have been
collected and compacted, and/or the collection
of the driver in terms of the quantities of
vehicle is full. For this reason, the utilization
than for HCSs.
wastes hauled is considerably greater for these systems
small sizes to sizes comparable with those handled
They vary from relatively
smaller containers ofers greater flexibility in terms of
with a hoist truck. The use of
features available. By using small, easier-to-load
shape, ease of loading, and special These systems can
containers can be increased considerably.
containers, utilization of
of residential wastes where one large container can be
also be used for the collection
substituted for a number of
small containers.

COMPACTOR
VEHICLE (RCV)
REFUSE 12
Fig:
2. Systems in which manually loaded collection vehicles are used
The major application of manual loading methods is in the collection of residential
is used in
Source-separated and commingled wastes and litter. Manual loading
residential areas where the quantity picked up at each location is small and the loading
time is short. In addition, manual methods are used for resident ial collection because

mechanically loaded
many individual pickup points are inaccessible to mechanized
of the collection
Collection vehicles. Special attention must be given to the design
it appears that a side-
vehicle intended for use with a single collector. At present,
curb and
with stand-up right hand drive, is best suited for
loaded compactor, equipped
alley collection.

with stand-up right hand drive

Fig: side-loaded compactor, equipped

Personnel Requirements for Stationary Container Systems.

will vary, depending on whether the

The personnel requirements for the SCS
collection vehicle is loaded mechanically or manually. Typically,
system selection is a
for injury) and capital and maintenance
function of worker fatigue (with the potential
collection vehicle systems cause the
costof the collection vehicle. Manually loaded
most fatigue while mechanically loaded
vehicle systems are the highest cost.
for mechanically loaded SCSs are essentially the same
as
Labour requirements
for HCSs. Where a helper is used, the driver often assists the helper in bringing
loaded containers mounted on rollers to the collection vehicle and returning the empty
containers. Occasionally, a driver and two helpers are used where the containers to be
inaccessible
emptied must be rolled (transfèrred) to the collection vehicle from
locations; such as in congested downtown commercial areas.
In SCSs where the collection vehicle is loaded manually, the number of
collectors varies from one to three, in most cases, depending on the type of service
and the collection equipment. Typically, a single collector-driver is used for curb and

alley service, and a multi-person crew is used for backyard carry service.

13