Logic design

Mr. Maged Saleh Sheghdara

 The D Flip-Flop
• An edge-triggered flip-flop
changes state either at the
positive edge (rising edge) or at
the negative edge (falling edge)
of the clock pulse and is sensitive
to its inputs only at this transition
of the clock.
• Notice that each type can be
either positive edge-triggered (no
bubble at C input) or negative
edge-triggered (bubble at C
input)
 Registers
• A register is a group of flip-flops with each flip-flop capable of storing one
bit of information.
• An n-bit register has a group of n flip-flops and is capable of storing any
binary information of n bits.
• In addition to the flip-flops, a register may have combinational gates that
perform certain data-processing tasks.
• In its broadest definition, a register consists of a group of flip-flops and
gates that effect their transition.
• The flip-flops hold the binary information and the gates control when and
how new information is transferred into the register.
• Various types of registers are
available commercially.
• The simplest register is
one that consists only of flip-
flops, with no external gates.
• Figure 2-8 shows such a
register constructed with four
D flip-flops.
• The common clock input
triggers all flip-flops on the
rising edge of each pulse, and
the binary data available at
the four inputs are
transferred into the 4-bit
register.
• The clear input goes to a special terminal in each flip-flop.
• When this input goes to 0, all flip-flops are reset asynchronously.
• The clear input must be maintained at logic 1 during normal clocked
operation.
• Note that the clock signal enables the D input but the clear input is
independent of the clock.
• The transfer of new information into a register is referred to as
loading the register.
• If all the bits of the register are loaded simultaneously with a
common clock pulse transition, we say that the loading is done in
parallel.
• A clock transition applied to the C inputs of the register of Fig. 2-8 will
load all four inputs I0 through I3 in parallel.
 Shift Registers
• A register capable of shifting its binary information in one or both
directions is called a shift register.
• The logical configuration of a shift register consists of a chain of flip-flops
in cascade, with the output of one flip-flop connected to the input of the
next flip-flop.
• All flip-flops receive common clock pulses that initiate the shift from one
stage to the next.
• The output of a given flip-flop is connected to the D input of the flip-flop at its right.
• The clock is common to all flip-flops.
• The serial input determines what goes into the leftmost position during the shift.
• The serial output is taken from the output of the rightmost flip-flop
Example shows the entry of the four bits 1010
into the register
Bidirectional Shift Register with Parallel Load
• A register capable of shifting in one direction only is called a
unidirectional shift register.
• A register that can shift in both directions is called a bidirectional
shift register.
• Some shift registers provide the necessary input and output terminals
for parallel transfer.
• Each stage consists of a D flip-flop and a 4x1 multiplexer.
• The two selection inputs S1 and S0 select one of the multiplexer data
inputs for the D flip-flop.
• The selection lines control the mode of operation of the register
according to the function table shown in Table 2.3.
The J-K Flip-Flop
Binary Counters

• A register that goes through a predetermined sequence of states

upon the application of input pulses is called a counter.
• A counter that follows the binary number sequence is called a binary
counter.
• Counting with JKflip-flop: The JK flip-flop, operating in its toggle
mode, goes through the following sequence:

Clock pulse number: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 …

Flip-flop output Q : 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
Memory Unit
• A memory unit is a collection of storage cells together with associated circuits
needed to transfer information in and out of storage.
• The memory stores binary information in groups of bits called words.
• A word in memory is an entity of bits that move in and out of storage as a unit.
• A memory word is a group of l's and O's and may represent a number, an instruction
code, one or more alphanumeric characters, or any other binary-coded information.
• A group of eight bits is called a byte.
• Most computer memories use words whose number of bits is a multiple of 8.
• Thus a 16-bit word contains two bytes, and a 32-bit word is made up of four bytes.
• The capacity of memories in commercial computers is usually stated
as the total number of bytes that can be stored
• The internal structure of a memory unit is specified by the number of
words it contains and the number of bits in each word.
• Special input lines called address lines select one particular word.
• Each word in memory is assigned an identification number, called an
address, starting from 0 and continuing with 1,2, 3, up to 2𝑘 - 1 where
k is the number of address lines.
• The selection of a specific word inside the memory is done by
applying the k-bit binary address to the address lines
• A decoder inside the memory accepts this address and opens
the paths needed to select the bits of the specified word.
• Computer memories may range from 1024 words, requiring an
address of 10 bits, to 232 words, requiring 32 address bits.
• It is customary to refer to the number of words (or bytes) in a
memory with one of the letters K (kilo), M (mega), or G (giga) K is
equal to 210 , M is equal to 220 , and G is equal to 230 .
• Thus 64K = 216 ,2M = 221 , and 4G = 232 .
Random-Access Memory
• In random-access memory (RAM) the memory cells can be accessed
for information transfer from any desired random location.
Communication between a memory and its environment is achieved
through data input and output lines, address selection lines, and
control lines that specify the direction of transfer.
• A block diagram of a RAM unit is shown in
Fig. 2-13.
• The n data input lines provide the
information to be stored in memory, and the
n data output lines supply the information
coming out of memory.
• The k address lines provide a binary number
of k bits that specify a particular word chosen
among the 2𝐾 available inside the memory.
• The two control inputs specify the direction
of transfer desired.
• The two operations that a random-access memory can perform are the
write and read operations.
• The write signal specifies a transfer-in operation and the read
signal specifies a transfer-out operation.
• The memory unit will then take the bits presently available in the input
data lines and store them in the word specified by the address lines.
• The memory unit will then take the bits from the word that has been
selected by the address and apply them into the output data lines.
• The content of the selected word does not change after reading.
Read-Only Memory
• A read-only memory (ROM) is a memory unit that performs the read
operation only; it does not have a write capability.
• This implies that the binary information stored in a ROM is made
permanent during the hardware production of the unit and cannot be
altered by writing different data into it.
• Whereas a RAM is a general-purpose device whose contents can be
altered during the computational process.
• As shown in the block diagram of Fig. 2-14, a ROM has k address input,
and n output lines.
• ROM is classified as a combinational circuit.
• In fact, a ROM is constructed internally with decoders and a set of OR
gates
Types of ROMs
• Three types of ROM devices are:-

• 1) Mask-programmable read-only memory

• 2) PROM - (The one-time programmable read-only memory)
• 3) EPROM – (The erasable programmable read-only memory)
Mask-programmable read-only memory

• This device has its data pattern programmed as a part of the

manufacturing process.
• This is known as mask programming.
• Once the device is programmed, its contents can never be changed.
PROM - (The one-time programmable read-
only memory):
• The bit patterns for the data are electrically entered by the user.
• Once a PROM is programmed, its contents cannot be changed.
• This is the reason they are sometimes called one-time-programmable
PROMs
EPROM – (The erasable programmable read-
only memory)
• The bit patterns for the data are electrically entered by the user.
• The contents of an EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet
light.
• In this way, the device can be used over and over again simply
by erasing and reprogramming.