TOPIC 1

3 How Do You Spell Relief?

Ahh! After a hard day mowing the lawn or raking
leaves, there isn’t anything better than the clean,
refreshing taste of your favourite soft drink,
accompanied by a big plate of sliced vegetables
with a tangy blue cheese or sour cream dip, maybe
even a peanut butter and jelly sandwich. As your
aching muscles relax and you take another sip of
that tart, cold drink, let your thoughts wander to
the importance of acids and bases in your world.
You are already familiar with acids and bases in
your environment — you experience them on a
daily basis, as shown in Figure 3.7. The tart taste
of carbonated beverages, the tang of a salad dressing,
even the burning sensation in your muscles during
exertion — all are due to acidic substances. The
bitter taste of celery or radishes, the soothing
action of a sunburn lotion, the slippery feel of
soap — these are due to basic substances. Figure 3.7 Some of the
objects in this picture
Acids and Bases contain acids, while others
contain bases.
Acids and bases, the chemicals that produce acidic and basic sub-
stances, have many uses in our lives. For example, phosphoric acid is a
key component in the manufacture of fertilizers, detergents, and many
pharmaceuticals. It is a flavouring agent in carbonated beverages,
cheeses, jams, jellies — virtually any food with a tangy flavour.
Another important acid, sulfuric acid, is most familiar as the ingredi-
ent of the battery for your family’s vehicle. But it is also used in the
manufacture of paints and dyes, the refining of oil and gas, and the
production of synthetic textiles. In fact, it is possible to get an approxi-
mate measure of any country’s industrial activity by looking at the vol-
ume of sulfuric acid used by that country.
Of the basic substances, sodium hydroxide is a component of house-
hold and industrial cleaners, bleaching agents for the production of
paper, fixatives in textile dying, solvents in the making of electronic cir-
cuit boards, and as a reagent in film processing. The base, aluminum
hydroxide, is a key ingredient in antacid tablets. You may need this if
you are going to mix peanut butter and jelly with blue cheese dressing!

How Do You Spell Relief? • MHR 197

 The Observable Properties of Acids and Bases
As you can see, acids and bases are used for very different roles, so it is
important to be able to identify acids and bases. You probably noticed
that one of the first clues to whether a substance is acidic or basic is its
Some people like a taste. Acids taste sour (e.g., lemons) and bases taste bitter (e.g., horse-
wedge of lemon with
radish). Unfortunately, tasting is not usually an acceptable option for
their fish. Others prefer
laboratory work, so you can omit this method as a means of determin-
to sprinkle vinegar. Did
you know that both of ing the basic or acidic nature of an unknown substance. Fortunately,
these are examples of acids and bases react differently with other substances, so we can devise
neutralizing reactions? tests to determine the acidic or basic nature of an unknown substance.
Fish contain a com- Likely you have experienced the slippery feel of soap (a basic sub-
pound that is basic, so stance). Although that property identifies basic substances, touching an
the acid in lemon juice
unknown liquid with your bare hands is not a good idea in any lab setting.
or vinegar neutralizes
the base. It may sound
To safely tell whether a substance is an acid or a base, look for a
fishy, but it’s true! noticeable colour change that occurs when an acid or base reacts with a
chemical indicator. One of the best known indicators is litmus, a mix-
ture of plant compounds extracted from certain lichens. This pinkish
mixture turns red when in contact with an acid and blue when it
contacts a base. Small strips of paper soaked in litmus are a standard
diagnostic tool for chemistry.

The “power” reported as pH is actually a power of ten in

scientific notation. Take a strong acid, with pH 0.0, as a
starting point. An acid with pH 1.0 has one tenth, or 10–1
times, the concentration. Vinegar, with pH 3.0, has only
one thousandth, or 10–3 times, the concentration. How
many times lower is the concentration of rainwater?

vinegar 2.2
battery lemon apples normal milk
acid juice 3.0 rain 6.6
0.5 2.0 tomatoes 5.6
4.2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

acidic

198 MHR • Environmental Chemistry

 pH: A Powerful Scale
While litmus turns red in acid solutions and
blue in basic solutions, it gives only an
approximate idea of how acidic or basic a
substance is. A more exact reading requires
some technology.
The strength or concentration of an acid
or base determines the extent to which it
reacts with water. This reaction changes the
electrical conductivity of the water, which
can be measured with a sensitive meter, as
shown in Figure 3.8. The pH scale is a way
of comparing the relative acidity or alkalini-
ty of a substance. In later courses, you will
learn more about the criteria for measuring
acidity and alkalinity and the exact chemical
changes that occur when an acid or base
reacts with water.
As shown in Figure 3.9, a pH of 7 indi-
cates a solution that is neither acidic nor
basic. It is neutral. If the pH of a substance
registers below 7, the solution is acidic. Figure 3.8 There are
Above 7, it is basic. There are a number of indicator substances that several ways to determine
the pH of a substance. A
turn different colours depending on the pH of the solution. Universal
pH meter and pH paper are
indicator (containing many such indicators) or pH paper will change two ways shown here.
to a colour that is characteristic of a specific pH. These colours are
then matched against a chart that shows the range of colours for known
pH values.

normal drain
human Great Lakes cleaner
ammonia
blood water 14.0
baking milk of 11.1
7.4 8.5
soda magnesia
8.2 10.5

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

neutral basic
Figure 3.9 This diagram shows the pH of some common substances.
Approximately how much more acidic is lemon juice than drain cleaner?

How Do You Spell Relief? • MHR 199

 Find Out
What Is the pH of Your Rain?
In this activity you will investigate the pH 3. Use an appropriate method to determine
of some common acids and bases. the pH of your sample.

Materials 4. Compare your results with your class-

mates’ results.
plastic container
rainwater (or melted snow) What Did You Find Out? Analyzing and Interpreting
pH paper, indicators, or pH meter
1. How did the pH value you obtained com-
Procedure Performing and Recording pare with your classmates’ pH values?
Account for any large discrepancies.
1. Decide which method you can use to test
the pH of rain or snow. 2. Calculate the average pH of the samples
obtained by your class. Is this value what
2. During the next rainfall or snowfall, use
you might expect for your area? Why or
the plastic container to collect a sample
why not?
of the rainwater or snow. If you collect
snow, let it melt.

The word “pH” means the “power of hydrogen” and refers

to the formation of hydrogen atoms that have lost an
In Danish, the “p” of pH stands for portenz meaning
electron. Each pH unit on the pH scale stands for a ten-
“strength.” In German, the word for “power” is potenz.
fold increase in acidity or alkalinity. For example, a pH of
Both of these words come from the Latin potens. Which
5.3 is ten times more acidic than a pH of 6.3, and a pH of
words in English are related to the Latin word potens?
4.7 is 100 times more acidic than a pH of 6.7.

Some common
acids and bases

200 MHR • Environmental Chemistry

 S K I L L C H E C K

Initiating and Planning

Performing and Recording

3-D
Analyzing and Interpreting

Communication and Teamwork

The pH of Common Acids and Bases

Many common substances are either acidic or basic. In this investigation, you will
make your own indicator and use it to find the pH of some common substances.

Question
What is the pH of a carbonated drink, and other common solutions?

Part 1
The Cabbage Test
Safety Precautions Apparatus Materials
plastic container with a tight lid 2 red cabbage leaves
potato masher, spoon, or fork
Solutions to Test
universal pH paper
(10 mL each)
test tubes and a test tube rack
• Ammonia is corrosive and toxic. lemon juice
100 mL beaker
Inform your teacher if you vinegar
glass stirring rod
accidentally spill ammonia. rainwater
medicine dropper
distilled water
pH meter (for teacher use)
• If you spill any of the solution on black coffee
kettle (for teacher use)
your skin, immediately wash the liquid soap or shampoo
area with cool water. milk of magnesia
household ammonia
club soda (leave to last)

Procedure
Take two leaves from a red Copy the table below into When the water in the con-
cabbage. Tear them into your notebook. You will need tainer has cooled enough for
pieces about the size of a enough space to record your you to handle the container
postage stamp. Put the pieces observations for nine solu- safely, use the potato masher
into a plastic container. tions. Also make a pH dia- to mash its contents. Keep
gram similar to Figure 3.9. doing this until the liquid is
Ask your teacher to pour You will fill in substances as deep blue or purple.
about 40 mL of hot water you determine their pH.
from a kettle into the con-
tainer. Carefully seal the
container, and leave it on Solution Colour of cabbage indicator Approximate pH range
your table to cool until it lemon juice
can be handled safely. While
the water is cooling, com-
plete step 3.

CONTINUED

How Do You Spell Relief? • MHR 201

 Open the container, and Set aside the cabbage juice Part 2
carefully pour the liquid into indicator for Part 2. All Breath Check
a 100 mL beaker. Discard other solutions can be rinsed You will use your indicator to
the cabbage leaves as down the sink with plenty analyze your breath. Does
directed by your teacher. of water. Discard indicator breath produce an acidic, basic,
paper as directed. Wash or neutral solution in water?
Pour about 10 mL of lemon your hands.
juice into a test tube. Use a
Safety Precautions
clean glass stirring rod to • If you spill any of the solution on
transfer a drop of the juice Teacher your skin, wash the area
to a piece of universal indi- immediately with cool water.
Demonstration
cator paper. Compare the
Although pH meters are Apparatus
colour with the colours in
more accurate than indicator clean plastic straw
the chart. Estimate the pH 250 mL beaker
paper, they are relatively
of lemon juice, and record it medicine dropper
expensive and require larger stirring rod
in your table. Write “lemon
volumes of liquid. For these
juice” above the correspond-
reasons, your teacher may Materials
ing pH on your diagram. cabbage juice indicator from Part 1
demonstrate how a pH meter
Rinse the stirring rod with 100 mL distilled water
is used to measure the pH of 5 mL household ammonia
water, and dry it with a
the solutions you tested. 20 mL vinegar
paper towel.

Use the medicine dropper to

add a few drops of cabbage
juice indicator to the lemon
juice. Record the colour of
the indicator beneath the
pH you estimated for the
lemon juice.

Repeat steps 6 and 7 for

each of the other solutions,
except the club soda. About
20 mL of cabbage juice indi-
cator should be left for step
9 and Part 2.

Pour about 10 mL of club

soda into a test tube. Using
only your observations of
the colours of the cabbage
juice indicator, estimate the
pH of the club soda. Enter
your observations for club
soda in your table. You can make your own indicator to test for acids and bases.

202 MHR • Environmental Chemistry

Procedure
Analyze
Pour about 100 mL of dis-
1. List the solutions you tested from most acidic to most basic.
tilled water into the 250 mL
Compare your list with the lists of other classmates.
beaker. Use the medicine
dropper to add two drops of
household ammonia to the Conclude and Apply
water. Stir the solution.
2. Which is more acidic, club soda, or a cola drink with a pH of
Rinse the medicine dropper
about 3.0? Check the labels on containers for both drinks,
with distilled water.
and find an ingredient that might account for the difference.
Drop by drop, add just
3. Did the gas in exhaled breath dissolve in water to produce a
enough of the dilute ammo-
solution that is acidic, basic, or neutral? Summarize the evi-
nia solution from step 1 to
dence that supports your conclusion. Which gas in exhaled
the cabbage juice indicator to
breath caused the change?
change the colour from deep
blue or purple to pale green.

Using a clean plastic straw,

carefully and gently blow a
steady stream of bubbles
through the indicator solu-
tion. Continue blowing until
Since soils in different environments have different natural pH values, the
you observe a change. plants that grow there have evolved to suit the pH ranges they must grow
Remove, rinse, and discard and live in. For example, rhododendrons flourish in moist, acidic environ-
the straw. Describe the ments and grow best at a pH of about 5. Many grasses, including wheat and
change in your notebook. maize, grow in drier environments, where they must tolerate a pH of 7 or 8.
(What can you determine about the “natural” pH of rainwater from this?)
Pour a little vinegar into the
Gardeners and farmers can adjust the pH balance to suit the plants and crops
solution from step 2, until
they want to grow. Clay soils are harder to “fix” than sandy soils, for exam-
the colour changes. Record
ple. Lime (calcium carbonate) or dolomitic lime (which also contains magne-
the new colour. Pour your
sium carbonate) can be added to acidic soils, while ferrous sulfate or alu-
solutions down the sink, and minum sulfate can help correct soil that is too alkaline.
rinse with plenty of water.
Why do you think these substances can change the pH of a soil? Work out
Wash your hands.
balanced chemical equations for reactions when (a) calcium carbonate is
added to soil with excess nitric acid and (b) aluminum sulfate reacts with the
water in an alkaline soil. Why are sodium hydroxide and sulfuric acid never
used to adjust the pH of soil?

The straw is used to gently blow

bubbles through the indicator. When
finished, the student will rinse and
discard the straw.

How Do You Spell Relief? • MHR 203

 Acid Precipitation—a Global Concern
Acid precipitation in one Over the past 30 years, there have been few issues that have created
country can be caused by
more studies, debate, or controversy than acid precipitation. The
emissions from another
country. In fact, more than
chemistry behind acid precipitation is clear. Oxides of carbon, nitrogen,
50 percent of the acid pre- and sulfur produced by burning organic materials react with moisture
cipitation affecting eastern in the air to form acids. The process is illustrated below.
Canada is due to oxides
originating in the United SO2(g) + H2O() → H2SO3(aq) ➤ sulfurous acid
States. This has been an
issue in political discussions
SO3(g) + H2O() → H2SO4(aq) ➤ sulfuric acid

between Canada and

the United States since
2NO2(g) + H2O() → HNO2(aq) + HNO3(aq) ➤ nitrous acid and
nitric acid

the 1970s. CO2(g) + H2O() → H2CO3(aq) ➤ carbonic acid

In a process called acid precipitation, these acid compounds are washed

out of the air by rain and snow and may be deposited a long way from the
In 2001, David Schindler, an
source of the oxides. Acid rain or snow looks, feels, and even tastes normal,
internationally recognized
ecologist at the Univeristy of
but this rain or snow causes an estimated $1 billion in damage each year.
Alberta won one of the Acid damages and, in some cases, destroys aquatic ecosystems of
largest science prizes on the lakes and streams, reduces productivity of crops, harms other vegetation,
continent. His research on and accelerates the decay of our buildings, structures, and monuments.
acid precipitation and the Acid corrosion is such a problem in Italy that some famous marble
impact of phosphorus-based
statues have had transparent cases filled with inert gases erected around
detergents on the world’s
them to prevent further damage. In Canada, the loss in productivity for
freshwater supplies netted
him the $1-million Gerhard agriculture, forestry, and fisheries means fewer jobs and lower profits.
Herzberg Canada Gold Medal Corrosion and erosion of structural materials requires expensive
for Science and Engineering. maintenance and repairs to our buildings, bridges, and machinery.

Figure 3.10 Sulfuric and nitric acids formed in the air by burning fossil fuels and other
industrial activities threaten crops, water quality, building materials, and living organisms.

204 MHR • Environmental Chemistry

International Agreements
In 1996, in response to the public’s concern about increasing damage to
the environment, Canada and the United States agreed to reduce
industrial exhaust emissions by 10 percent by the year 2000. In addi-
tion, exhaust emissions from cars built before 1998 were to be reduced
by 60 percent. As a result of these pollution control measures, levels of
sulfur and nitrogen oxides in the environment are diminishing.
There has been much disagreement over exactly how
acid precipitation affects living organisms. After all, it
looks, feels, and tastes normal. What is it about acid pre-
cipitation that causes damage? For terrestrial ecosystems,
one major effect is that acid added to the soil dissolves
mineral nutrients and allows them to be leached or washed
away, resulting in nutrient-poor soil and poorer growing
conditions for plants. In certain areas leaching may also
free heavy metals to wash into streams and water supplies,
where they may then be consumed by plants and animals.
Heavy metals are those with a density of over 4.0 g/mL
such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and nickel. These metals
are deadly to most organisms. You will learn more about Figure 3.11 These maple leaves show damage
their effects in later Topics. by acid precipitation.

Toxic Substances Officer Inspectors, ensuring that the environ-

Lori Forster-Clegg loved animals while grow- mental laws are being followed, also
ing up. She also loved biology. Lori brought contact Lori about whether certain sub-
those passions together with a diploma in bio- stances are banned. They look to her for
logical sciences and pollution technology and answers and training. “I’m in a position
then a Bachelor of Science in biology. During to know the science behind the regula-
the summers she banded ducks, gathered tions — why they’re in place — and
information about spills, created pamphlets, how they benefit the environment,” she
and researched toxic substances. Now Lori is says. Lori explains the environmental
a toxic substances officer with Environment regulations so inspectors know what to
Canada’s prairie and northern region — look for when they are on-site. While she
Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Northwest spends most of her time at her desk on
Territories, and Nunavut — from her Edmonton office. her computer, inspectors often ask Lori to come along on
calls because they are not familiar with the hundreds of dif-
Lori’s job involves being on the lookout for banned substances
ferent chemicals.
entering Canada, focussing mostly on ozone-depleting sub-
stances and substances new to Canada. Industries contact her Does Lori’s job sound interesting to you?
to see if materials they want to import are regulated or illegal. • Conduct some research over the Internet or at the library
New substances that aren’t on the approved list need to be to find out more about what it takes to become a toxic
tested. The industry that is trying to import a substance con- substances officer.
ducts environmental and toxicity tests on the substance. They
• What level of education does it require?
then submit these results to Environment Canada’s headquar-
ters in Ottawa. Lori helps industries put together their submis- • Which volunteer opportunities will give you experience in
sion package and helps them understand the rules so they can the field while you’re still in school?
more easily follow them.

How Do You Spell Relief? • MHR 205

 S K I L L C H E C K

Initiating and Planning

Performing and Recording

3-E
Analyzing and Interpreting

Communication and Teamwork

The Effect of pH on a Population

In this investigation, you will examine the effects of acid precipitation by
observing the effects of pH on the growth of a yeast culture.

Question Add 3 g of sugar and 0.5 g population density of yeast in

How do variations in pH affect of yeast. Stir well. each test tube. Examine each
the growth of yeast? sample under the micro-
Prepare seven test tubes scope. Record your results.
with a pH range of 2 to 8.
Safety Precautions Make a graph that shows the
Label each test tube.
relationship between popula-
Add 10 mL of yeast culture tion density and pH.
• Handle the hot plate with care to to each test tube. Allow the
avoid burns.
test tubes to sit for 24 h. Wash your hands after com-
• Handle the microscope slides pleting this investigation.
with care. Devise a sampling technique
• If you spill any of the solutions on to estimate the relative
your skin, wash the area with
plenty of cool water. Analyze
1. At what pH did the yeast population show the most growth?
Apparatus
microscope 7 test tubes At what pH did it show the least growth?
microscope slides thermometer
cover slips 100 mL beaker
100 mL graduated hot plate Conclude and Apply
cylinder marker
2. The graph shows changes in the populations of various
Materials aquatic organisms in Canadian lakes and rivers in relation to
yeast culture pH levels. Study the graph, and answer the questions.
water
dilute acid solution (a) Which organisms appear to be most sensitive to acid
dilute base solution conditions? Which are least sensitive?
sugar
labels (b) Why might the population of a species of fish that is tol-
erant of high acid levels still decline in an acidified lake?
Procedure (c) “When fish start dying, the damage has already been done.”
Work in a small group. From the information on the graph, explain why you agree
Measure 100 mL of water into or disagree with this 100 Aquatic insects
the beaker. Place the beaker statement. Which
0
on the hot place, and bring species might be bet- 100 Zooplankton
the water temperature to ter used as an early
Percent survival

0
30°C. CAUTION: Handle warning of acid dam- 100 Algae
the hot plate with care. age in lakes?
0
3. From your results, and 100 Amphibians
the data presented, make
0
a general statement about 100 Fishes
the effects of acid precip-
itation on organisms. 0
7.0 6.5 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5
yeast cells pH

206 MHR • Environmental Chemistry

Using Chemistry to Control Acid Effects
Acid precipitation falls all across Canada, but some
areas are affected more than others. Believe it or not,
the same chemical reaction that is destroying the marble
tablet in Figure 3.12 is exactly the same reaction that
protects areas of western Canada from acid precipita-
tion. Study the chemical equation that accompanies
Figure 3.12. Did you notice that the products of the
reaction of calcium carbonate and sulfuric acid are not
acidic?
During the last ice age (about 20 000 years ago), glac-
iers covered much of North America. As the glaciers
advanced, they eroded the rocks over which they passed,
carrying the debris with them. When the glaciers melt- Figure 3.12 Many monuments and statues — some
ed at the end of the ice age, the crushed rocks were left thousands of years old — are made of marble and
limestone. These substances contain calcium
behind. In western Canada, the rock debris contained a carbonate (CaC03), which is easily decomposed by
substantial amount of alkaline minerals such as calcium sulfuric acid:
carbonate or calcite. This calcium carbonate lying at the CaC03(s)  H2S04(aq) → CaS04(s)  H20()  C02(g)
bottoms of lakes in the Canadian west neutralizes the
Calcium sulfate dissolves in water more readily than
acids entering these lakes. calcium carbonate. Thus the monuments and statues
This presents us with a chemical solution to the corrode as the calcium sulfate is washed away.
problem of acidified lakes. Add a quantity of powdered
calcium carbonate to the lake in question and voilà —
instant neutral water. One major source of calcium
carbonate is limestone; the process of adding calcium
carbonate to the environment is referred to as liming,
as shown in Figure 3.13. The correct term for such a
chemical reaction is an acid-base neutralization.
You might be wondering why we aren’t neutralizing
the effects of acid precipitation in all the acidified
lakes if it is so easy. You will find out why after the
next investigation.

Figure 3.13 Liming is done by releasing

powdered calcium carbonate from aircraft.

Normal rainwater has a pH as low as 5.6 due to the carbonic acid

formed as carbon dioxide gas dissolves into the water. The presence
of sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides from industry and transporta-
tion in the atmosphere results in rain that is even more acidic. Central Europe, Japan, and
eastern North America are severely affected by acid precipitation. In these areas, rainwater can
have an acidity approaching that of vinegar (pH 3.0), which is about 1000 times more acidic
than normal rainwater. Amazingly, there are even more extreme acid conditions. In 1974 a
storm dropped rain with a pH of 2.4 over Scotland, and fog over Los Angeles has been
measured with a pH as low as 1.7! This is 10 000 times more acidic than normal.

How Do You Spell Relief? • MHR 207

 S K I L L C H E C K

Initiating and Planning

Performing and Recording

3-F
Analyzing and Interpreting

Communication and Teamwork

Drop-by-Drop
Neutralization
As you know from Unit 2, when acids and bases neutralize each other, the
products are water and a “salt” compound. Regardless of the strength of
the acid or base, neutralization will occur, even though the amounts of acid
and base may not be equal. A relatively weak acid or base can be used to
neutralize spills of much stronger acid or base. An antacid is a good exam-
ple. Acid in your stomach that helps digest your food has a pH of about 2.
“Heartburn” occurs when acid from your stomach enters your esophagus.
It is relieved by swallowing an antacid, which is just a weak base.

Question Procedure of drops and appearance of

the solution.
How does an antacid compare Place a few drops of bro-
with baking soda and a strong mothymol blue indicator in Dissolve 2 g of baking soda
base in neutralizing an acid? a small, clean beaker or petri into 2 mL of water. Repeat
dish. Then add 2 mL of steps 1 and 2, using the baking
Prediction sodium hydroxide solution. soda solution in place of the
sodium hydroxide solution.
Make a prediction about While stirring the solution
whether an antacid, baking soda, with the stirring rod, add Plan the steps you will take to
or a strong base will be most hydrochloric acid slowly, compare the antacid tablet to
effective in neutralizing acid. counting the drops until the sodium hydroxide and
the colour of the indicator baking soda solutions. (Hint:
Safety Precautions just changes, and the Break the tablet into pieces.)
colour change lasts at least Remove your gloves and
20 s. Record the number wash your hands.
• This investigation uses caustic,
corrosive substances. Clean up
any spills carefully and inform Analyze Conclude and Apply
your teacher.
1. Compare your results (the
• Bromothymol blue is flammable. 3. What would happen if more
number of drops added in the
Keep it well away from flames. baking soda were added after
three neutralization reactions)
neutralization occurred?
Apparatus with your classmates’ results.
What colour would the indi-
3 100 mL beakers or 3 petri dishes Discuss any differences.
2 medicine droppers or 1 mL cator turn? Why?
micro-pipettes
2. Using the number of drops of
stirring rod 4. What would be the danger
balance hydrochloric acid needed to
in swallowing many antacid
neutralize the antacid tablet
Materials tablets?
and baking soda, calculate the
dropper bottle of bromothymol blue
indicator mass of baking soda equal to 5. Which base was most effec-
dilute sodium hydroxide, NaOH (aq) one antacid tablet. tive in neutralizing acid?
dilute hydrochloric acid, HCl (aq)
(Note: These two solutions should How does the “alkalinity” of
have the same concentration) antacid compare to sodium
water hydroxide solution?
antacid tablet
baking soda

208 MHR • Environmental Chemistry

Using Chemistry to Control Harmful Emissions
You have observed how alkaline substances react with acids in a neu-
tralizing reaction. So why not use this process to eliminate the problem
of acidified lakes?
Liming has been used, but with limited success. Rivers and streams
constantly feed acidified water into lakes, so the lakes would have to be
limed continually to keep up with the new influx of acid. Imagine the
cost of treating between 14 000 and 150 000 affected lakes! Do you
think the cost would outweigh the benefits, or vice versa?
Since it is impractical and expensive to neutralize all of the acid pre-
cipitation we humans are causing, the only other option is to reduce or
eliminate the oxides. How can this be done? Chemistry to the rescue!
Chemical engineers use their knowledge of chemistry to design and
build devices to remove oxides before they get into the air. Catalytic
converters, such as the one shown in Figure 3.14, are required on
most vehicles and are a good first step.

You might expect the pH of a lake to decrease

gradually as acid water enters. However, this
gradual decrease does not happen in a lake with
a limestone bed. Such lakes are common in
Southern Ontario, Southern Québec, and the
Atlantic Provinces, but not on the Canadian
Shield or the Prairies. Some lakes in the Rocky
Mountains also have limestone beds. Calcium
carbonate in the limestone bed of a lake reacts
with acids, and so the pH stays fairly constant as
acid water enters the lake. But when all of the
limestone has reacted, the pH suddenly drops.
The rapid change in pH is deadly to the ecology
of this type of lake.

Figure 3.14 While catalytic converters are quite efficient, they work best
when the catalysts are warmed up. It takes about 90 s, after a car starts,
for the catalysts to be activated. Unfortunately, it is during this brief warm-
up that the car produces about 70 percent of all the pollutants that it
releases during its driving cycle.

Catalytic converters contain a ceramic or wire honeycomb-like struc-

ture coated with a thin layer of metallic catalysts, such as platinum,
rhodium, and palladium. A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a
chemical reaction without being used up in the reaction. The large
surface area of the honeycomb structure helps produce a complete
combustion. A converter aids the formation of carbon dioxide and
water from hydrocarbons, reducing the amounts of carbon monoxide
and nitrogen oxides produced. The purpose of the converter is to
encourage complete oxidation.

How Do You Spell Relief? • MHR 209

 Scrub Those Cares Away
The oxide emissions from industrial factories and power plants that
Look up the words
burn coal can be a major source of oxides depending on the sulfur con-
“absorb” and “adsorb” in
your dictionary. Explain the tent of the coal being used. The installation of “scrubbers” (devices
difference between them that use a sorbent — a substance that can adsorb, or capture oxides) is
in your notebook. a good way to reduce oxide emissions.
Traditional “wet” scrubbers remove sulfur dioxide gas (SO2(g)) by
reacting heated gases with calcium oxide or lime (CaO). Figure 3.15
illustrates this process. The calcium oxide sorbent is used up in this
reaction and the waste calcium sulfite (CaSO3) is disposed of. A large
power plant might produce millions of tonnes of waste calcium sulfite
every year, most of which presently ends up in landfills.
water + CaO

coal (C+S) CO2 + SO2

CaCO3 CO2 + CaO

SO2 + CaO to
air smokestack
O2 CO2
CO2
CaSO3
furnace wet slurry
of CaSO3
scrubber

Figure 3.15 The key to “scrubbing” exhaust gases is the addition of calcium oxide (Ca0), which reacts with the
sulfur dioxide gas (S02) to form calcium sulfite (CaS03). The calcium sulfite can be washed away with water.

Newer scrubber technologies have the potential to be more effective,

environmentally friendly, and economical. The use of metal oxide sorbents
(as shown in Figure 3.16) is the key. One such system, COBRA (copper
oxide bed regenerable application), uses a sorbent of small beads of alu-
minum oxide impregnated with copper. The beads form clusters of copper
oxide on their surface and as heated gases pass by, SO2(g) reacts with the
copper oxide to form copper sulfate. Fresh beads are continuously added
and “spent” beads are removed. The spent beads are then treated with
methane gas to release the
Figure 3.16 These little beads
SO2(g) and restore the
bead to its original www.mcgrawhill.ca/links/sciencefocus9
pack a big punch by removing
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen state for reuse. During the formation of coal, large amounts of methane-rich
oxides — pollutants Meanwhile the gas are created and remain trapped within coal beds and the sur-
responsible for acid rounding rocks. Mining of coal beds will allow this methane to escape into
precipitation — from gas given
trapped SO2(g)
the atmosphere where it acts as a potent greenhouse gas. Find out how
off during coal combustion. can be treated to
“Clean Coal Technology” may turn this problem into a profit — both eco-
produce elemental nomic and environmental! Go to the web site above, and click on
sulfur, sulfuric acid, Web Links to find out where to go next. Design an adver-
or even ammonium tising logo, jingle, or print ad to sell this
sulfate fertilizer. new technology.

210 MHR • Environmental Chemistry

 All of these products have applications we can make use of! As a
bonus, the addition of ammonia to the heated gases triggers a catalytic Fossil fuels such as coal, oil
reaction that breaks down nitrogen oxides into nitrogen and oxygen gas or natural gas are the sedi-
and water vapour. mentary remains of swamp
In tests, COBRA removed all nitrogen oxides and 95 percent of the sul- vegetation. Burning fossil
fuels releases solar energy,
fur dioxide from emissions. This is comparable to or better than the results
which was stored in plant
obtained by traditional scrubbers without the landfill waste. The copper matter through the process of
oxide sorbent is more expensive to produce than sorbents in traditional photosynthesis millions of
scrubbers. However, since it is reusable, costs are recovered over time. As years ago. Intense heat and
well, there is an end product to sell instead of waste to throw away. pressure exerted on the plant
Finally, what about the small amounts of oxide gases that make it matter initially forms bitumi-
nous (soft) coal. Higher pres-
past these devices? How much of a problem do they pose? What about
sures and temperature
the mountains of waste calcium sulfate produced by traditional scrub- change bituminous coal to
bers every year? Are they a problem? Both are pollutants, but how do the harder anthracite coal.
they compare? You will explore this question in Topics 5 and 6. Alberta contains 70 percent
of Canada’s coal reserves,
mostly of the sub-bituminous
category. Approximately four-
TOPIC 3 Review fifths of the coal produced in
Alberta is used as fuel for the
1. Which human activity is the major cause of acid precipitation?
generation of electricity.
2. Which key property do all indicators possess? Alberta coal is low in sulfur
and burns cleaner than most
3. It is thought that pain results from a change in the pH of the fluid that coal found in other areas of
surrounds nerve cells. The fluid within your cells is slightly acidic, so a the world.
cut or burn releases this fluid and causes pain signals from your nerve
endings. What would you expect to find if you tested the pH of creams
and lotions used to treat cuts and burns?

4. Suppose you have two containers, one containing a dilute acid and the
other a dilute base, but there are no labels on them. Describe how you
could use red cabbage to determine which solution is which.

5. Hydrofluoric acid, HF(aq), reacts with sodium hydroxide, NaOH(aq), to

form a compound that is used in toothpaste to prevent cavities. What is
the name of this compound?

6. Apply Coffee makers and kettles eventu-

ally become clogged with a buildup of
“scale” from deposits of calcium carbonate
and magnesium carbonate. Explain how
pouring vinegar into your coffee maker or
kettle removes this scale.

7. Thinking Critically Give three reasons why eastern Canada is more

affected by acid precipitation than western Canada. How might increased
acidity levels affect the economy of eastern Canada? Consider tourism,
factories, and taxes.

How Do You Spell Relief? • MHR 211

 Wrap-up TOPICS 1–3

If you need to check an item, Topic numbers are provided below.

Key Terms
nutrient biological magnification acid acid-base neutralization
macromineral biomagnification base leach
trace element herbicide acid precipitation heavy metal
enzyme insecticide indicator liming
vitamin fungicide litmus catalyst
protein pesticide oxidation catalytic converter
lipid acidic pH scale scrubber
carbohydrate basic pH paper

Reviewing Key Terms Understanding Key Concepts

1. In your notebook, write the description in 2. Modern food processing and refining used in
column A beside the correct term in column B. the packaging of food products decreases the
magnesium and potassium contained in those
A B
foods. Name some of the likely symptoms
• a naturally occurring • pH scale (3) shown by a person eating only refined foods. (1)
catalyst found in cells
• the reaction of an acid and • trace element (1) 3. What is the role of an enzyme in your body? (1)
base to form a salt and water
4. What are the characteristics of DDT (and
• process where chemicals • acid precipitation other “chlorinated” hydrocarbon pesticides)
collect in the tissues of (3) that make it both a valuable pesticide and an
organisms, increasing in
environmental problem? (2)
concentration toward
the top of a food chain 5. The figure below shows a field planted with
• a chemical substance that • enzyme (1) hybrid wheat called triticale. It is richer in pro-
changes colour in response tein than wheat and is used for human food and
to changes in acidity or livestock feed. List two risks and two benefits of
alkalinity planting only one crop, such as triticale. (2)
• a mineral needed in • catalyst (3)
amounts less than 100 mg
per day
• a substance that speeds • biological
up a chemical reaction magnification (2)
but is not depleted or
changed by the reaction
• a scale that measures • acid-base
the relative acidity or neutralization (3)
alkalinity of a substance
• rain or snow that contains • poison (2) 6. List the characteristic properties of acids and
high levels of acid bases. (3)
• a substance that causes • indicator (3)
illness or death when it
7. Your brother has eaten too many doughnuts,
enters the body in food and now he has acid indigestion. He cannot
or drink find a commercial antacid product. Could he
use baking soda? Explain why or why not. (3)

212 MHR • Environmental Chemistry