CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

As the growing population of human race widens the gulf between energy supply

and energy demand, the imbalance in energy availability sent researchers into

excavating for a way of settling this age long squabble. A lasting solution is vested

on alternative use of the renewable energy source, a project that is yet to be

widely applied. Hence, the continuation of the unsettled yearns for sufficient

power. Consequently, the power lines are frequently over loaded resulting to a

trip of power by the action of switch gears or by the load shading process

undertaken by the distribution authorities.

Since it is crystal clear that some institutions such as health related institutions

and some other delicate systems should not be allowed to suffer equally with

their counterparts, Automatic Phase Selector is used to sustain energy

consumption in the time of phase trip. The design of this circuit involves the use

of automatic switches but the details of design varies from place to place, time to

time and also depends on the type of load involved.

This project involves the use of transistor driven relays to affect the change of

phase whenever the voltage condition becomes intolerable in the previous phase

connected.

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1.1 BACKGROUND

The intelligent phase selector is a system that is capable of comparing three

phases and switching automatically to any of the three phases. The system

consists of three main parts namely; the transformer, comparators (which is the

brain of the system) and electrical switching device (relay).

The transformer used here is the step down type of transformer (it step down

240v to 12v) and these transformer is feed in with different phase voltage,

rectified and smooth. Then fed in to a voltage regulator that has positive output.

The regulator outputs were connected to comparators. Here the comparators are

three in number. We call the comparators the brain of the system because these

comparators are connected in a way that each of them will give out an output.

The relay in the system is where the output voltage is connected. In this project

we even went as far as using pictures for illustration of some components.

1.2 AIMS/OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

The analysis of this project cannot go without enumerating the goals meant to be

achieved in the pursuit of the work. These objectives include:-

i. To develop a simple low cost device aimed at easing the prevalent burden

faced by delicate offices, parastatals and institutions who need very low but

constant power supply. Since supply is always on along the distribution lines

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 that supply such sites, what pesters on the progress of work thereof is always

the unwarranted trip of phases due to power usage from neighboring

consumers. The automatic phase selector therefore, erases this setback form

the face of progress of work in such offices.

ii. To stimulate the interest of upcoming students to take up research not only

in their field of study “Electrical/Electronic Engineering” but also to extend

their arms to other disciplines, thus enhancing the versatility of

Electrical/Electronic Engineering.

iii. To create awareness that will stimulate the interest of fellow students who

intend to take up research topic on automatic switch of any type.

1.3 RELEVANCE OF THE PROJECT

The issue of selecting or switching over manually is now a thing of the past.

Nowadays we know that homes and offices enjoy steady power supply once the

three phases are available (i.e. red yellow and blue phases). Is just a question of

making a quick and automatic three phase selector?

1.4 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

The scope of the project covers aspects like the features of automatic three phase

selector, its applications, and its operations. Its advantages and its components.

Finally, it covers the importance on the need of automatic three phase selector

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and contributions toward a greater sharing load balance and a better three phase

power distribution and monitoring for domestics consumers.

1.5 LIMITATIONS

Owning to the nature of this project, the research centers and the resources were

not easy to come by within the immediate environment. Some of the limitation

encountered on the course of this project include financial and time constrains

which did not really take much room for additional capacity beyond what is at

hand.

1.6 TARGET BENEFICIARIES

This project will provide lasting solutions to the heavy losses incurred by

commercial institution, industries, hospitals, airport etc caused by poor manual

selector means and efficient switching facilities. It will also be of use in our

household because poor selector of phase manually causes damage to our

household equipment example electronics like television,radio,videoplayer etc

and electrical appliances like refrigerator, air condition, fans just to mention but a

few. Finally another target is to eliminate the loss of human life due to manual

selection of the three phases.

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1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

The significance of this project work cannot be overemphasized. This is because

the number of lives that has being lost to the hand of interruption of power in

health institutions and the like is not negligible. Delicate appliances have become

the main victim of this artificial circumstance. The applicability of the outcome of

this research work in several facets of human endeavor makes this work of real

importance to humanity.

The use of the device produced from this research work would help to reduce

human labor and hazard, going by the fact that many have been handicapped by

electric shock because of the attempt they made to select another phase, and

that the handicapped are helpless and cannot change phase.

1.8 ACHIEVEMENT OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PROJECT

As long as electrical generation and construction is must in everyday activities,

electrical power consumption is expected to be reliable and constant supply.

Therefore, what we tend to achieve from this project is;

1. To have constant power supply.

2. To have quick operation i.e. phase selection
3. Reliable power supply
4. Easy operation
5. Avoidance of risk in doing manual changeover or switch

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 LITERATURE REWIEW

In this chapter we are looking in to the definition of “Automatic three phase

selector’’, and what brought about the automatic phase selector. Also we will

look at way of effecting the design and construction; its area of application and

uses and also some of the important components in the device that make it carry

out its operation successfully.

2.2 EFFECT OF POWER FAILURE

For the past 100 years, the utility’s job has been to keep the’ lights on.’ For today’s
highly automated factories and processes, that is no longer sufficient. Even ¼
second voltage sag is sufficient to bring our modern machines to a screeching halt,
resulting in hours of interrupted production and irrecoverable scrap. Yet it is
interesting to note that most utilities are only required to record outages that last
more than 1-5 minutes. So if factory is experiencing 10-12 momentary
interruptions every year, costing millions of dollars in lost productivity, it is likely
that the utility would represent that it was providing perfect power. This
demonstrates a significant disconnect between the two positions, one that is
unfortunately very commonly found. Thousands of facility-years of power
monitoring at large industrial plants clearly demonstrates that, almost without
exception, these plants experience anywhere from 8 to 24 power quality
disturbances every year that are significant enough to impact plant operations.
Most of the events are of short duration (1-6 cycles), corresponding to the clearing
time of upstream utility protective equipment such as fuses, sectionalizers,

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breakers and reclosers [2, 3, 14]. It is important to understand the impact of such
power disturbances on a plant’s equipment and processes.
A process interruption caused by voltage sag may require a complete restart of the
process, with hours of interrupted production. This can clearly cause substantial
economic loss to the plant. However, most plants operate with contingencies built
in for unscheduled downtime, and these inefficiencies are typically absorbed
within this allowance. For plants with a substantial cost of downtime, voltage sag
ride-through solutions can protect against process interruption. The market has
been conditioned to correlate equipment failure, especially catastrophic failure,
with voltage surges [17]. The use of multiple layers of surge suppressors provides
clear evidence that the fear of equipment damage drives users to this ‘apply and
pray’ strategy. Yet, voltage sags occur thousands of times more frequently than
damaging voltage surges. In fact, even lightning strikes on the
power grid, thought to be a main culprit for voltage surges, have rarely been
correlated with actually measured voltage surges, but have frequently been
correlated with voltage sags [16]. The impact of voltage sags on equipment has not
been studied in detail, and the interactions are poorly understood. This paper
demonstrates that the very equipment at the heart of industrial automation—
industrial drives, PLC’s, robots, and motors—are also possibly most susceptible to
damage from short duration voltage sags. This is a very counterintuitive result as
one expects equipment to be robust under lower voltage conditions. In fact, some
of the practices being followed to allow equipment controllers to ride-through
voltage sags may exacerbate the potential for damage to equipment. Finally, the
paper presents some techniques for minimizing the potential for damage to typical
industrial automation equipment. The paper also points to a need for a standard
that specifies equipment behavior under short duration voltage sags, a frequently
encountered condition.
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2.3 EQUIPMENT VOLTAGE SUSCEPTIBILITY
A modern automated factory is replete with voltage-sensitive devices and
processes, among them computers, programmable logic controllers, sensors,
servo drives, robots, CNCmachines, extruders, and aseptic processes. A common
characteristic of all these devices is a dc supply that convert incoming single or
three phase ac line voltage into a dc voltage that feeds the electronics and power
electronics components[7], [8].A diode bridge is used to rectify the incoming
voltage, while a capacitor is used to create a constant dc voltage. The impedance
of the ac line, input transformers and input line filters (ac or dc) provide some
level of isolation from the ac line. Under normal operation, the capacitor provides
a filtered bus voltage for the load. The allowable ripple voltage and load current
provide the equipment designer with guidance for choosing a specific capacitance
value. Typical ripple voltage and input line current. One can see that such power
supplies feature unity displacement factor, but poor harmonic factor, resulting in
a poor overall power factor. This type of power supply is ubiquitous and is used in
virtually all equipment found on the factory floor.
2.4 SYSTEM INTERACTIONS AND SOLUTIONS
In a typical manufacturing plant, the incoming power is distributed such that
while there are several types of equipment and tools that are directly connected
to the incoming three phase power, there is an even larger number of different
controllers, sensors and power supplies that are connected to a single phase
source derived from the incoming line-line or line neutral three phase voltage. As
such, a normal manufacturing plant will have a mix of single and three phase dc
power supplies as front-ends for the equipment in the plant. In addition, there
will be a fairly large number of direct connected induction motors. Based on the

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sensitivity of typical equipment, many of the 40-50 power quality events that
occur will cause process interruptions [14]. Failure of specific equipment will
depend on the input stage designs, distribution of symmetrical and asymmetrical
sags, and the random nature of the point on wave at end of sag. This makes it
very difficult for any single manufacturer to systematically track equipment failure
within the facility, and to correlate it with a specific power disturbance. Positive
correlation can be obtained by tracking equipment failures as recorded by the
equipment manufacturer. For some specific products that have been investigated
(including PLCs, robots, drives and medical equipment), it seems to be clear that
input stage failures, in particular diode failures and burnt out traces/fuses/wires,
seem to represent the most significant reliability problem. This paper provides a
Means of understanding such failures. Two approaches are possible to fix the
problem. The first is based on designing the equipment to survive voltage sags.
This may be distinct from the issue of having the equipment ride through voltage
sag. As equipment specifications today do not include voltage sag recovery
characteristics, it is no surprise that equipment remains unprotected. Developing
a standard to address equipment behavior upon sag recovery is clearly the long-
term solution to fix the problem. In the near-term, a retrofit solution is required
that eliminates the voltage sag, or eliminates the current surge that occurs on
voltage sag recovery. Voltage sag correctors are available commercially [15] that
allow equipment rated at 250 VA to 2,000 kVA to ride through voltage sags. While
these devices mainly target process ride-through, they clearly protect the
equipment from the voltage sag recovery transient, and eliminate the dangerous
current surge. Power supply in Nigeria and most developing countries of the
world is anything but stable. This has adverse effects on the consumers of the

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electricity and the equipments that are operated from the mains sources of
electricity supply in these parts of the world. In this paper, we provide an
automatic switching mechanism that transfers the consumer loads to another
phase in the case of power failure in the other phases. It automatically detects
when power has been restored to the phases. This mechanism has been tested
and we recorded a great result. It thus holds an important key in the provision of
a continuous power supply through a near seamless switching between the mains
supply and the three phases.
Electricity (energy), which plays a major role in economic development of a
nation, forms the basis of this study, with interests in human, infrastructural and
economic development. In most developing and underdeveloped parts of the
world, the supply of electricity for industrial, commercial and domestic use is
highly unstable. This gives rise to the frequent use of alternative sources of power
supply to meet up with the energy demands. The introduction of these alternative
sources of supply brings forth the challenge of switching smoothly and timely
between the mains supply and the alternative sources whenever there is a failure
on the mains source. There is also the need to reduce drudgery from switching
between the two sources on the human side. Solving these challenges forms the
focus of this work. The Automatic three phase selector automatically switches
over to the alternative phases when there is a power outage. The Automatic three
phase selector is a device that links the load and the three phases and relay
switches. This enables the use of either the remaining phases when there is
outage on the mains source. This can either come in with three phase or single
phase. This device maintains constant power supply to the load by automatically
activating the phases when there is need. Since the user might not always be in

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need of the generator, provision has been made to prevent the generator from
starting should an outage occur. We can’t go on and on to emphasize the
importance of power supply to our home and industries, but it is important to
mention that the outage of power supply can bring discomfort in our homes and
loss of revenue due to down time in the industries. Thus Tony Rudkin, the author
of ‘upgraded signal source with improved performance and reliability’, states that
the cost and the depreciation associated with breakdown vary from one
application to the other, and in some cases, the user has little choice but to
ensure that a stand-by unit is available to take over on event of failure of primary
system. Also in his book, he went further to say that the depreciation caused by
such instability reduces efficiency of the organization and leads to a great deal of
frustration. Sequel to the rate at which more sophisticated electrical/electronic
gadgets are being procured and installed in our homes, hospitals and business
premises, there is a justifiable need for a faster and more reliable change-over
system in an event of power outage. Because of the study of the problems cause
by phases this lead to the invention of a switching device called the “automatic
three phase’s selector”
BACKGROUND OF THE AUTOMATIC THREE PHASE SELECTOR
The intelligent automatic three phase selector is known to be a device or
electrical circuit capable of comparing three phases and switching over of the
phases automatically. The use of the automatic three phase selector did not just
start up so easily. In the earlier days consumers of electric power always use
manual method to operate these phases. Without knowing if there is high voltage
on the supply on the other phases. Then there came for the need of automatic
phase selector of the phases. In other that this selecting or switching from one

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phase to another might be done automatically and quickly, an electrical device
was designed and constructed to do the work quickly and reliably. The device
became known as an “Automatic three phase selector”. It is also regarded as an
“intelligent phase selector” because it compares input or phase voltage and
selects the one with the optimum voltage value for supply and can also switch
over to another phase automatically if the present phase goes off.
According to Muhammad Ajman .P.(2007). “He talked about the three phase
application saying, a proper rating fuse needs to be used in the input lines (Red
Yellow Blue) of each phase.” [10]

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

This work was achieved using many design approach, which include all the step

used designing my project such as soldering, connection of components, testing

for continuity of the various components. The designing of this circuit will be

accomplished by a constant and detailed study of the constituent components.

This involved the study of their characteristics in isolation, and when connected

together with some other components. A rough design was always made with

some theoretical backup. Those designs were implemented and tested using

project boards to first consult the prototype circuits

3.1 INFORMATION GATHERING

Much information was gathered from many people which include my lectures and

my supervisor whom I consulted for explanation prior to choosing the automatic

three phase selector. Most of the in formations gathered are from the following

sources; technologist and internet.

TECHNOLOGIST: They advised me on a particular component to use and with the

help of their advice which prompt me to choose the most durable components

that will fit in the latest design of the automatic three phase selector. Each block

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that works was transferred to the Vero board where it was finally soldered in

position.

INTERNET: Here I was educated much on the current and modern automatic

phase selector available in the market. The internet was visited for circuit ideas

where problems were encountered and the necessary adjustments made on

paper and then constructed on the projects board. These are the primary source

of my information about this project. I.e. the material used in designing and

configuring of the automatic three phase selector.

3.2 WAYS OF EFFECTING THE DESIGN AND CONSTRIUCTION OF AN

AUTOMATIC THREE PHASE SELECTOR

The prominent ones include;

1. Manual control

2. Sequential logic control

3. Micro processor control

4. Comparator control(operational amplifier LM 741)

3.2.1 PHASE SELECTION BY MANUAL CONTROL

In the past the regular practice has been to manually select the required phase in

a three phase system with the help of a cut off (an electrical connector devices).

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This is used by appropriately interconnecting end and selecting between the

phases by manually plugging in to premeasured or detected voltage. This is

known as the convectional approach to phase selection.

Limitations of manual control selection

1. It is strenuous to operate.

2. It causes device to damage due to manual operation.

3. It can cause fire outbreak.

4. It can make a lot of noise during the changeover.

5. It causes wear and tear during manual changing of the three phase leading

to more frequent maintenance.

3.2.2 PHASE SELECTION BY SEQUENTIAL LOGIC CONTROL

In the sequential logic control of use to effect the detection and control of the

phase voltage whereas the measurement can be done manually or equally

automated by the same sequential circuit. This approach more often than not

involving an appreciable level of both automatic and manual control. Hence it is

more efficient than just the manual control.

3.2.3 PHASE SELECTION BY MICROPROCESSOR CONTROL

In the microprocessor based control, a central processing unit (CPU) which uses

implanted software and stored memory (random access memory (RAM) read only

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me (ROM) is used to effect control. There are two aspects of the microprocessor

control, they are;

1. Micro controller based control

2. Computer based control

3.2.4. PHASE SELECTION BY COMPARATOR CONTROL

A comparator is an operational amplifier circuit without negative feedback and

takes the advantage of very high open loop voltage gain of op amp. A comparator

has two input voltage (non-inverting and inverting) and one output voltage.

Generally a comparators circuit consists of two input terminals and one output

terminals. A signal at the output depends on the voltage of the input terminals.

The comparators used in my project are the LM741 IC. The comparator circuit has

the following two characteristics namely;

1. It is operated on a non linear mode

2. It uses no feedback so that the voltage gain is equal to the open loop

voltage (AOL) of OP-amp.

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 CHAPTER 4

4.0 SYSTEM DESIGN ANALYSIS

This chapter gives full detail design of the comprehensive project.

4.1. COMPONENTS USED IN THE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE

AUTOMATIC THREE PHASE SELECTOR

Some important components of the automatic three phase selector are included

below;

1. Transformer (step down transformer 12V)

2. Diodes –IN4007

3. Zener diode -5.1V

4. Capacitor-1000microF, 35V

-470microF, 12V

5. Operational amplifier (LM 741)

6. Resistors- 3.3k, 10k

7. Potentiometer (variable resistor)-10k

8. Relay switches 12V, 400Ω

4.2. THE DESIGN TOPOLOGY

This is a block and line diagram that summarizes the actual work done. It consists

of 4 blocks in each stage of the automatic three phase selector.

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 Power Comparator Relay
supply Unit Switch
Unit

Fig 1 Block diagram showing the various stages of the automatic phase selector.

4.2.1 THE POWER SUPPLY BLOCK

Absolutely all the electronics equipment makes use of the DC voltage from either

a battery or converted from an energy source such as the AC power line, the solar

energy panels the thermal energy converted (thermocouple) and others. Here the

power supply is a constituent block of the device. It can be regarded as the driving

block since the operation of every other block absolutely lies on its output.

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage

AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronic circuits and

other devices. It is made up of some sub blocks which includes: the step down

(electromagnetic reduction of the input ac source) block, the rectifier (ac to dc

converter) block, and the smoothening block.

For example a 5V regulated supply:

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 Fig 2 Block diagram of power supply

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

 Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

 Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing - smooth the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
 Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Power supplies made from these blocks are described below with a circuit diagram
and a graph of their output:

a) Transformer only

b) Transformer + Rectifier

c) Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing

d) Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

a) Transformer only

Fig 3

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The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC motors. It

is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier and a smoothing

capacitor.

b) Transformer + Rectifier

Fig 4

The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors. It is not

suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing capacitor.

C) Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing

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 Fig 5

The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic circuits.

d) Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

Fig 6

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all

electronic circuits.

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1. THE STEP DOWN BLOCK

Under the step down block it consists of transformer. Here transformer is a static

(or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in one circuit is

transformed in to electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. A

transformer is also a device consisting of two closely coupled coils (called primary

and secondary). An AC voltage applied to the primary appears across the

secondary, with a voltage multiplication proportional to the turn’s ratio of the

transformer and a current multiplication inversely proportional to the turn’s ratio.

Transformers are quite efficient (output power is very nearly equal to input

power); thus a step-up transformer gives higher voltage at lower current whereas

a step-down transformer gives a lower voltage at a higher currents.

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 Fig 7 transformer windings

TWO IMPORTANTS OF TRANSFORMER IN AN ELCTRONICS INSTRUMENTS

i. The change the AC line voltage to a useful and lower value that can be

used by the circuit.

ii. They isolate the electronic device from actual connection to the power

line, because the windings of a transformer are electrically insulated

from each other.

In step down transformer, the parameter is selected to be capable of meeting the

load current sees a major load of the relay excitation coil, they should be capable

of supplying up to the corking voltage of the relay as well as the relay current. A

220v: 18v, 500MA transformer satisfies these requirements. Because of the

unavailability of a transformer of these parameters a 220v: 9v, centre tapped

transformer is used instead, but its full span secondary voltage is used given a

score of 18v at the secondary side of its winding.

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Fig 8 The transformer schematic

THE TRANSFORMER SPECIFICATIONS

In this project an 18Vac was used to step-down the 220Vac to 18Vac.

THE DESIGN CALCULATION

The transform input voltage (voltage in the primary winding) Vp = 220Vac

The transformer output voltage (voltage in the secondary winding) Vs=18Vac

The transformer primary current (current in the primary winding) Ip =200MA = 0.2
A.
The transformer secondary current (current in the secondary winding)
Is=unknown.
From the expression given below,

𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑠
=
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑝

Where VP = 220V

Vs = 18V

Ip = 0.2A

Is = ?

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 𝑉𝑝×𝐼𝑝
Therefore, Is=
𝑉𝑠

220×0.2 44
Is= = = 2.44𝐴
18 18

Therefore, the transformer secondary current Is=2.44A

IP IS

VS

VP

Fig 9 transformer circuit

From this analysis, the automatic phase selector circuit is designed to allow

maximum amperage of 2.44A. This is the current of the sensing or control circuit

circuit.

2. THE RECTIFIER BLOCK

The rectifier block is made up of four IN4001 diode connected in the bridge form.

The operation of the bridge rectifier is simple to understand by visualizing the

operation of the rectifier for the two half- cycles of the as wave form separately.

The rectification circuit commonly called the converter is a circuit which employs

one or more diodes to covert AC voltage into pulsating DC voltage. In my design

the Full-wave bridge circuit was used because of its ability to produce a different
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reference voltage from the ac reference voltage. In other words it isolates the ac

circuit completely from the dc circuit. The bridge rectifier is also less liable to

many ripples which is the quantity that judges the genuine of the dc produced.

Fig 10 Circuit symbol for bridge rectifier

Fig 11 Output: full -wave varying DC

Current Flow in the Bridge Rectifier

For both positive and negative swings of the transformer, there is a

forward path through the diode bridge. Both conduction paths

cause current to flow in the same direction through the load

resistor, accomplishing full -wave rectification.

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While one set of diodes is forward biased , the other set is reverse

biased and effectively eliminated from the circuit.

Fig12 (a) Positive swing of rectification

Fig 12 (b) Negative swing of rectification

A good number of electronics circuit requires the use of both positive dc source

and negative dc source that are referenced at a common ground.

For the sake of this work the full wave bridge rectifier that supplies only a positive

dc voltage and its reference is always referred to as the converted dc voltage.

DESIGN CALCULATIONS

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The maximum instantaneous voltage between the terminals of the rectifier circuit

is:

Vmax = Vrms x √𝟐

Vmax = 18 x 1.4142= 25.46V

This is the magnitude of the summit lf the ac voltage wave form usually called the

peak to peak voltage, which the desired circuit voltage is expected to swing. For

this case it is from -25.46V to 25.46V.

Fig 13, The full wave bridge rectifier .

From the above circuit,

d.c output voltage,Vdc= Idc× RL

where Idc= dc output current(average current)

RL=load resistance

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 2 Vmax
In full wave bridge rectifiers, Idc =
𝜋 Rl

2 Vmax 2 Vmax
Therefore, Vdc= Idc × RL = × RL =
𝜋 RL 𝜋

Finally our

2 Vmax
Vdc = (for a 2 – pulse, full wave, bridge ac to dc converter).
𝜋

Where 𝜋=3.142

2 Vmax
Vdc =
𝜋

2 Vmax
Vdc =
3.142

Vdc = o.636Vmax.

It should be noted that the peak inverse voltage (PIV) of the rectifying elements

(diode) should be greater than the maximum voltage, Vmax. Since Vmax is already

calculated to be 25.46V. Therefore the peak inverse voltage is twice the maximum

voltage across the secondary winding.

Mathematically, PIV=2 Vmax= 2 × 25.46= 50.92volts

This value of PIV monitors the selection of the 4 diodes with which to form a

bridge rectifier. In this case, the diodes to be selected must be capable of

withstanding a potential stress equal to the peak inverse voltage.

The IN4001 is suitable for this application as indicated in the fair child table of

data lf diode rectifiers below.

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Item Device PIV IR@ VR Vmax Vf@If Vmax Vfm@IO

No UAmax

1 IN4001 50 10 1.1 @1.0 1.6 @1.0

2 IN4002 100 10 1.1 @1.0 1.6 @1.0

3 IN4003 200 10 1.1 @1.0 1.6 @1.0

4 IN4004 400 10 1.1 @1.0 1.6 @1.0

Any of the four types of rectifier can work well but the IN4001is much lower than

others and operates within the proximity of our design specification.

NB-consider the operating voltage of the dc relay.

3. THE SMOOOTHENING BLOCK

Here the smoothening block is also called the filter block or the filter circuit. The

main function of the filter circuit is to minimize the ripple content of the bridge

rectifier output. This is necessary because the absence of a filter will eventually

result in distortion of signals hence the circuit may not work properly as there

may occur a vibration of the relays when they are already switched on.

Its operation depends on the property of a capacitor to charge up during the

conducting half-cycle and to discharge (deliver energy) during the non conducting

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half-cycle. Put differently, a capacitor opposes any change in voltage; it tends to

smoothen out or filter out the voltage pulsations (or ripples). Hence the name

“filter” given to power supply shunt capacitors.

Although the conventional and bridge full-wave rectifier circuits effectively

converts the ac signals that have zero average, or dc value to a signal with a non

zero average voltage, either rectifier output is still an oscillating wave form.

Rather than provide a smooth, constant voltage, the full-wave rectifier generates

a sequence of sinusoidal pulses at a frequency double that of original ac signal.

The ripple that is, the fluctuation about the mean voltage that is characteristic of

these rectifier circuits – is undesirable since one desires a true dc supply. A simple

yet effective means of eliminating most of the ripples (AC components)

associated with the output of the ripple that preserves the dc component of the

load voltage. A low-pass filter that preserves the dc component of the rectified

voltage while filtering out components at frequencies at or above choice to

remove the ripple component from the rectified voltage. In this case of rectifier

circuit, the signal wave form to be rectified is 50Hz, 220v rms voltage.

The ripple frequency is therefore F ripple = 2×50=100Hz.

The relationship above is equivocal to ensuring small ripple through making the

time constant for discharge much longer than the time between recharge. The

~ 31 ~
diagram given below shows the original rectifier output and the out of ripple

filter.

Fig 14 The output of the rectifier circuit.

Fig 15 The filtered output of the smoothening capacitor

~ 32 ~
DESIGN CALCULATION

The ripple voltage can be approximated by the triangular wave form depicted

below; which has a peak to peak of Vr (p-p) and a period Tr.

Vr(P.P)

Tr

Fig 16 output signal wave form.

Considering the charge lost during the discharge of the shunt capacitor as dq in a

time T and is given as:

dq = Idc x Tr---------------------(1)

dq 𝐼𝑑𝑐×𝑇𝑟
Thus, Vr (p-p) = = ------------------------(2)
𝐶 𝐶

Vdc
But Idc=
𝑅𝑙

~ 33 ~
 𝑉𝑑𝑐
dq ×𝑇𝑟
𝑅𝑙
Therefore, Vr (p-p) = =
𝐶 𝐶
𝑉𝑑𝑐×𝑇𝑟
Finally, Vr(p-p)=
𝑅𝑙𝐶
1
But the ripple delay ( Period) Tr=𝐹𝑟

𝑉𝑑𝑐
Therefore; Vr (p-p)= ------------------3
𝑅𝑙 𝐶 𝐹𝑟

Where RL is the worst case load resistance, ie the maximum circuit resistance =

100Ω

𝑉𝑟(𝑝−𝑝) Vdc
Vrms = = -------------------------4
2 √3 2 √3 Fr RL C

From equation 4 above; taking the ration of Vrms to Vdc we get a constant known

as ripple factor rf

Vrms 1
Given that rf = = −−−−−−−−−5
Vdc 2 √3 Fr RL C

But ripple frequency Fr=100Hz, because it’s a full wave rectifier bridge

15
𝑟𝑓 = = 0.6
25.46

For the worst case resistance of the circuit, Rl = 100 and assuming a maximum

ref 0.6%

Recalling that Vrms = 15v, Vmax = 25.46V

Also noting that Vmax = IdcRL, therefore RL = Vmax / Idc.

Vrms 1
Hence; rf = = −−−−−−−−−6
Vdc 2 √3 Fr RL C

Substitute RL = Vmax / Idc in equation 6

~ 34 ~
 Vrms 1
rf = = −−−−−−−−−7
Vdc Vmax
2 √3 Fr ( ) C
Idc

from euation 7 it becomes

1
𝑟𝑓 = −−−−−−−−−8
Vmax
2 √3 Fr ( ) C
Idc

Rearranging the above equation; it becomes;

Idc
𝑟𝑓 = −−−−−−−−−8
2 √3 Fr Vmaz C

Idc
𝐶= −−−−−−−−−9
2 √3 Fr Vmaz 𝑟𝑓

Given parameters are

C=? unknown

Vmaz=25.46v

Fr=100Hz

rf=0.6%=0.006

finding Idc

𝑉𝑑𝑐 0.636Vmax
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = = −−−−−−−−−9
𝑅𝐿 RL

But Vmaz=25.46v

𝑉𝑑𝑐 0.636Vmax 0.636 × 25.46 16.2

𝐼𝑑𝑐 = = = = = 0.162𝐴
𝑅𝐿 RL 100 100

~ 35 ~
Therefore finding the capacitor C;

Idc
𝐶=
2 √3 Fr Vmaz 𝑟𝑓

0.162 0.162
𝐶= =
2 √3 × 100 × 25.46 × 0.006 2 × 1.732 × 100 × 25.46 × 0.006

0.162
= = 0.0030615𝐹
52.916064

C=0.003061f=3061×10-6F

Finally C=3061µF

The commercially available 330µf takes care of this calculated value. Therefore

we used 3300uf, 25v capacitor in designing the power supply filter.

4.2.4 THE RELAYS SWITCHES

Relays switches, popularly known as relays are used for switching operations. The

relays have contact point which form the normally open (NO) and the normally

closed (NC) switches. It has an energizing coil through which the switching

contacts can be pulled together or drawn apart to accomplish the NO and NC

effects. When a current passes through the coil of the relay, the metal core

becomes magnetized and attracts a strip of metal which closes the contacts that

form the normally open switch. At this point the normally closed terminal opens.

~ 36 ~
Removing the energizing voltage demagnetize the metal core which then releases

the metal strip to open the NO terminal and close the NC terminal again. Thus,

the relay contacts can be opened or closed by simply applying or removing the

energizing voltage as required.

Fig 17 Relay

The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:

 COM = Common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the switch.

 NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.

 NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.

 Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the

relay coil is on.

 Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the

relay coil is off.

~ 37 ~
A relay always had some rated values of voltage and current. The rated voltage

specifies the amount of voltage needed to energize the coil and ensure that the

contact is made at the NO terminals.

Standard relays commonly exist with rated voltages of 5v, 12v and 24v. The rated

current in the other hand specifies the maximum load current allowed passing

through the contacts. It is a function of the cross-sectional area of the contacts.

Relay of rated currents; 5A, 10A, 20A, 30A or higher are commercially available. In

the design of my project the rating use in my design is 12V 10A relay switches.

After much design analysis, the complete circuit diagram used in achieving this

project is show below with detailed explanation below.

~ 38 ~
 Fig 18 Circuit diagram on automatic phase selector

Some important components of the automatic three phase selector are included

below;

1. Transformer (step down transformer 12V)

2. Diodes –IN4007

3. Zener diode -5.1V

4. Capacitor-1000microF, 35V

-470microF, 12V

5. Operational amplifier (LM 741)

~ 39 ~
6. Resistors- 3.3k, 10k

7. Potentiometer (variable resistor)-10k

8. Relay switches 12V, 400Ω

4.3 DESIGN OF THE CIRCUIT

The circuit is built around with a transformer, comparator, transistor and relay.

Three identical sets of this circuit, one each for three phases, used. Here we used

a step down transformer and we used LM 741 working as comparator is used

here is surrounded by all other components. Transistor BC557 acting as a switch.

Relay is the electromagnetic type. The processes under here are divided in to five

namely;

 Step down the main supply

 Rectification

 Filteration

 Comparing

 Switching

Main supply R, Y, B is stepped down to desired voltage and current. Each

transformer is individually connected to the phases R,Y,B respectively. In this

case, only one phase work at a time. The diodes (IN4007) are used to rectify the

~ 40 ~
AC to DC. The capacitor for removing the noises/ripples in the DC. The resistors

and the potentiometer of the circuit give the specified voltage input to the

comparator. Based on the comparator output, the transistor (BC557) goes to on

and off position. Thus we can say that transistor work as a switch.

The components were mounted on the bread and were wired up. A 12V dc supply

was generated. The main circuit consist consist comparator, transformer,

transistor and relay. Three identical set of this circuit connected on the

breadboard. Then the output is verified by connecting a load (bulb) at the output

and got the desired output.

4.4 WORK OF LM 741 COMPARATOR

A comparator circuit compares two voltage signals and determines which one is

greater. The result of this comparison is indicated by the output voltage: if the op-

amp output is saturated in the positive direction,the non inverting input(+) is

greater, or more positive voltage than the inverting input(-),all voltage measured

with respect to ground. If the op-amp voltage is near the negative supply

voltage(in case,0 volts, or ground potential), it means the inverting input(-) has a

greater voltage applied to it than the non inverting input(+).

~ 41 ~
4.5 COMPARATOR USING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

Often two voltage signals are to be compared and to be distinguish which is

stronger. Thus the op-amp comparator is a circuit with two inputs and one

output. The two input can be compared with each other i.e. one of them can be

considered a reference voltage, Vref.

A fixed reference voltage Vref is applied to the inverting (-) input terminal and and

sinusoidal signal uin is applied to the non inverting (+) input terminal. When Vin

exceed Vref the output voltage goes to positive saturation because the voltage at

the inverting (-) input is smaller than at the non inverting (+) input. On the other

hand, when Vin is less than Vref the output voltage goes to negative saturation.

Thus output voltage Uout changes from one saturation level to another whenever

Vin =Vref. in short the comparator is a type of an analog to digital converter(ADC).

At any given time the output the output voltage waveform shows whether Vin is

greater or less than Vref. The comparator is sometimes referred to as a volt-level

detector because for a desired value of Vref, the voltage level of the input voltage

Vin can be detected. Diodes D1 and D2 are provided in the circuit to protect the

op-amp against damage due to excessive input voltage. Because of these diodes,

the differential input voltage Vd is clamped to either + 0.7V or -0.7V, hence the

diodes are called clamp diodes. These are some op-amps with built in input

~ 42 ~
protection. Such op-amps need not to be provided with protection diodes. The

resistance R1 in series with Vin is used to limit the current through protection

diodes D1 and D2 while resistance R is connected between the inverting- input

terminal and Vref to reduce the offset problem.

4.6. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION/CIRCUIT WORKING OF THE AUTOMATIC THREE

PHASE SELECTOR

The circuit is built around with a transformer, comparator, transistor and relay.

Three identical set of circuit, one each for the three phases are used. Let us now

consider the working of the circuit connecting red phase. The main power supply

phase R is stepped down by transformer X1 to deliver 12V, 300mA, which is

rectified by diode D1 and filtered by capacitor C1 to produce the operating

voltage for the operational amplifier (IC1). The voltage at inverting pin 2 of op-

amp IC1 is taken from the voltage divider circuit of resistor R1 and preset resistor

VR1 is used to set the reference voltage according to the requirement. The

reference voltage at non-inverting pin3 is fixed to 5.1V through zener diode ZD1.

Till the supply voltage available in phase R is in the range of 200V- 230V, the

voltage at inverting pin 2 of IC1 remain high, i.e. more than reference voltage of

5.1V, and its output pin 6 also remain high. As a result, transistor T1 does not

conduct, relay RL1 remains de-energized and phase R supplies power to load L1

~ 43 ~
via normally closed (N/C) contact of relay RL1. As soon as phase R voltage goes

below 200V. the voltage at inverting pin 2 of IC1 goes below reference voltage of

5.1V, and its output goes low. As a result, transistors T1 conducts and relay RL1

energizes and load L1 is disconnected from phase R and connected to phase Y

through relay RL2. Similarly, the automatic phase changing of the remaining two

phases, via phase Y and phase B can be explained. Switch S1 is main power on/off

switch.

4.7 TABLE FOR PHASE SELECTION

INPUT-R INPUT –Y INPUT-B OUTPUT

0 0 0 NO SUPPLY

1 0 0 PHASE –R

0 1 0 PHASE –Y

0 0 1 PHASE –B

0 1 1 PHASE-B

1 0 1 PHASE –B

1 1 0 PHASE –Y

1 1 1 PHASE –B

Fig 19 Table for phase selection

~ 44 ~
 CHAPTER FIVE

SYSTEM TESTING, RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION

5.1 SYSTEM TESTING

System testing is the last step which comes after thorough analysis of the various

section explained in chapter four. At this step, the component values specified in

the analysis of each were used to realize the section in the breadboard. A system

testing involves testing the entire component on the veroboard. The prototype

was then functionally tested using standard electronic testing equipment like

multimeters, probes, voltmeter etc.

5.1.1. TESTING PROCEDURES AND RESULTS

Here the system is tested with three phase supply system. When the three phase

terminal is connected to the pin input terminals of the system, the indicator light

emitting diode (LED) comes ON indicating power supply to the system. Just

immediately after the powering of the system, one of the LED indicating any of

the phases comes ON indicating that one of the lines has being selected and gives

an output. It’s also applies to the other phases.

~ 45 ~
PRECAUTION TAKEN DURING SOLDERING AND TESTING

A. For soldering

1. It was ensured that IC socket were used for the IC instead of soldering the

chip directly. This enables easy replacement of chip and avoids heating of chip

during soldering.

2. It was ensured that the soldering iron was inplugged when not in use

3. It was ensured that all cables and materials that do not require soldering

were kept out of reach from the soldering iron.

B. For testing

1. it was ensured that the cables were properly plugged to avoid loose

contacts, which may result to arching

2.it was ensured that I was properly insulated to avoid electric shock in the

event of current leakage during testing

3. it was ensured that proper ear thing of the hands was done before touching

any of the ICs to avoid the damage of the chips due to electrostatic discharge.

~ 46 ~
5.2 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

1. High transportation expenses: transporting myself to IMT where my

supervisor lectures was not easy. Out of the financial support from parents and

relations enabled the success of this project.

2. Time factor problem: congested academics activities posed a time factor

problem. However, the project was embarked on immediately it was approved

and registered

3. Interruption of power supply: soldering of components also suffered a setback

because of intermittent power supply by PHCN.

4. Lost of components: during soldering some components were lost to the

inexperienced soldering done by me. However replacement was always done in

the event of loss.

5.3 RESULT

The implemented circuit is a close reflection of the objective of this work. It

simulates an automatic switch with an intrinsic ability of searching for a suitable

live wire to hook on to whenever any of the previously supply phase among the

three goes dead. The additional feature supported by the voltage programmable

current sink internally incorporated into the circuit to skip some very low voltage

as it seeks a suitable phase.

~ 47 ~
 To sum up, the result was in accordance to the expectation when the circuit

was tested. The design calculations made assured that the internal components of

the circuit can work round the clock as it is meant to, without any one getting

over heated and burning out. Therefore the longevity of the device as well as the

reliability is assured to the user.

5.4 CONCLUSION

This project has illustrated how to design and construct an automatic phase

selector. There may be many other ways of achieving a very straight forward way

of obtaining the desired result using classical design techniques. The beauty of the

work lies in the fact that it can be used round the clock and it can neglect a phase

with very low voltage.

The construction of this automatic three phase selector was interesting,

stimulating and challenging but only in its efficient performance can any real level

of success be measured.

The functionality values of this project make it desirable to be developed

especially in all residential and small commercial buildings using three phase. This

is to put an end to manual phase voltage monitoring, measurement, selction and

switching activities. This project saves resources like time, energy and even lives

while ensuring automatic and efficient domestic power load sharing from the

~ 48 ~
consumer end. This project will be economically justifiable if this is to be

produced in commercial quantity, although there may be slight variation because

the design was carried out based on technical and economical consideration. It is

believed that the design will operate at minimal cost and at high efficiency. To

ensure conformity with engineering designs, engineering design standards and

rules were strictly adhered during the design and construction.

This design does not have any major restriction in the aspect of who to use

it and who not to use it nor where to use it and where not to use it. Its

applications range from domestics homes, light industries and heavy industries.

5.5 RECOMMENDATIONS

Since there is need for load balancing in a three phase distribution line, a

universal usage of this type of phase selector may imply over loading a particular

phase which phase voltage is up to the normal required value. Since similar

devices will switch on simultaneously to one phase, it should only be advisable to

use the device in an exclusive case of power consumption. Moreover every

health center all over nations should use this project since it will help to save life

at crucial points when power outrage becomes a threat to life.

~ 49 ~
 REFERENCES
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McGranaghan, M., Gunther, E., & Laughner, T. (2002). Correlating PQ Disturbances with
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