See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/326846296

Inca imperial colonization in Northern Chile

Chapter · April 2018

DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190219352.013.38

CITATIONS READS

14 521

2 authors:

Calogero Santoro Mauricio Uribe

University of Tarapacá University of Chile
238 PUBLICATIONS   5,216 CITATIONS    158 PUBLICATIONS   2,172 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Human Mobility and Diet in the Atacama Desert View project

MSCA RoadNet_Andes: Road networks and territorial dynamics: a geospatial approach to Andean cultural heritage in motion between the Altiplano and the Pacific
coast View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Calogero Santoro on 09 September 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Quaternary International 461 (2017) 41e53

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Quaternary International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quaint

The Dry Puna as an ecological megapatch and the peopling of South

America: Technology, mobility, and the development of a late
Pleistocene/early Holocene Andean hunter-gatherer tradition in
northern Chile
Daniela Osorio a, b, *, James Steele a, Marcela Sepúlveda c, Eugenia M. Gayo d, e,
! M. Capriles f, Katherine Herrera b, g, Paula Ugalde b, h, Ricardo De Pol-Holz i,
Jose
Claudio Latorre j, k, Calogero M. Santoro b
a
Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 31-34, Gordon Square, London, WC1H 0PY, United Kingdom
b
Laboratorio de Arqueología y Paleoambiente, Instituto de Alta Investigacio !n, Universidad de Tarapaca!, Antofagasta 1520, Casilla 6-D, Arica, 100236, Chile
c
Laboratorio de Ana !lisis e Investigaciones Arqueo m!
etricas, Laboratorio de Arqueología y Paleoambiente, Instituto de Alta Investigacio !n, Universidad de
Tarapaca !, Antofagasta 1520, Casilla 6-D, Arica, 100236, Chile
d
Departamento de Oceanografía, Universidad de Concepcio !n, Barrio Universitario s/n, Concepcio!n, Chile
e
Center for Climate and Resilience Research (CR)2, Blanco Encalada, 2002, Santiago, Chile
f
Department of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
g
UMR “Pr! ehistoire et Technologie” de la Maison Ren!e Ginouv" es, Universit!
e Paris X-Nanterre, 200 avenue de la R!epublique, 92001, Nanterre Cedex, France
h
School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721-0030, USA
i
GAIA-Antartica, Universidad de Magallanes, Punta Arenas, Chile
j
Departamento de Ecología y Centro UC Desierto de Atacama, Pontificia Universidad Cato !lica de Chile, Alameda 340, Santiago, Chile
k
Instituto de Ecología y Biodiversidad (IEB), Las Palmeras, 3425, Santiago, Chile

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Current scientific evidence shows that humans colonized South America at least 15,000 years ago, but
Received 8 October 2016 there are still many unknown aspects of this process, including the major and minor migratory routes
Received in revised form involved, and the pattern of successive occupation of a diverse continental mosaic of ecosystems. In this
4 May 2017
context, the role of the Andean highlands (!3400 meters above sea level) has been neglected, because of
Accepted 11 July 2017
Available online 12 August 2017
the supposedly harsh conditions for humans including hypoxia and cold climate. Nevertheless, the
environmental and cultural resources available in the high Andes constitutes an important “megapatch”
that should be assessed in terms of human settlement patterns. We review the evidence for late Pleis-
Keywords:
Early peopling of south America
tocene/early Holocene hunter-gatherer occupation of one part of this megapatch, the northern Chilean
South central Andean Archaic Dry Puna, in its palaeoecological context. We focus on lithic technology, faunal remains, radiocarbon
Dry Puna dates, and other archaeological materials related to different social activities, which allow us to suggest
High Andes that groups of hunter-gatherers organized and adapted their way of life to highland ecosystems through
Late Pleistocene logistical mobility, and curatorial strategies for lithic tool kits that included projectile points and other
Megapatch formalized tools. The morphology and technological processes involved are recognized over vast terri-
tories along the high Andes. We identify this material expression as the high south central Andean
Archaic hunter-gatherer tradition, which also featured long distance mobile settlement systems and
communication processes over this broad and distinct megapatch. More speculatively, we outline the
hypothesis that these highland ecosystems constituted a suitable migratory route that may have been
key for the early peopling of the continent, and contrast it with the alternative hypothesis of the initially
secondary and seasonally intermittent exploitation of this habitat by hunter-gatherers dispersing along
the Pacific coastal corridor.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

* Corresponding author. Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 31-

34, Gordon Square, London, WC1H 0PY, United Kingdom.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected]
(D. Osorio).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.07.010
1040-6182/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
42 D. Osorio et al. / Quaternary International 461 (2017) 41e53

1. Introduction previous work regarding specific mobility strategies engaged by

early hunter-gatherers in northern Chile (Osorio et al., 2017).
The south central Andean highlands (>2500 metres above sea-
level [masl], latitudinal range16e25" S, which encompasses 1.1. The south central Andean dry puna as a megapatch
southern Peru, northern Chile and north-western Argentina,
Santoro, 1989), like other high altitude environments, are regions We suggest that the south central Andean high puna can be
with marked ecological gradients where plant and animal com- considered a megapatch, as defined by Beaton (1991). Beaton
munities vary markedly over relatively short distances derived the concept from the patch choice model in classical
(Aldenderfer, 1998, 1999, 2006, 2008; Santoro and Nún ~ ez, 1987). foraging theory (e.g. Pyke et al., 1997), where it complements the
Ecologically, on the western Andean slope the 2500 masl boundary diet-breadth model by predicting how movement by foragers will
between the highlands and lowlands generally coincides with occur between circumscribed areas with specific resources
dramatic shifts in precipitation that bring about large differences in (patches). On a larger spatial scale, regions with a resource struc-
vegetation and in animal adaptations (Arroyo et al., 1988; Luebert ture distributed across many rather homogeneous patches, but
and Pliscoff, 2006). Above 2500 masl, physiological processes which appear, in a coarser grain, homogeneous in relation to a
related to hypoxia (or decrease in oxygen availability) can affect given cultural tradition of resource exploitation can be considered
humans as well as plant and animal populations, due to a reduction as ‘megapatches’. This notion differs somewhat from the ecological
in barometric pressure at greater altitudes (Behn et al., 2007; Llanos concepts of ‘biomes’ (plant and animal communities determined by
et al., 2007). Thus, steep relief, low temperatures and hypoxia climate) and ‘ecoregions’ (geographically continuous instances of
characterize the ecology of highland landscapes in the following particular biome types), by being additionally defined with relation
ways: (a) environmental heterogeneity, (b) low predictability (high to a specific set of human foraging goals. It has significance in two
instability), and (c) low primary productivity (Aldenderfer, 1998). distinct contexts here: firstly, in enabling us to predict that an
These harsh environmental conditions have led researchers to ecosystem such as the high Andean puna may have supported a
overlook the Andean highlands as a potential early migratory route widespread tradition of hunter-gatherer adaptation after initial
and as suitable habitat for the initial human colonization of South occupation; and secondly, in enabling us to speculate that such an
America (Bird, 1943; Lanning, 1967; but see Santoro and Nún ~ ez, ecosystem, with its predominant North-South axis, may also have
1987; Santoro, 1989). Archaeological narratives of the region typi- facilitated dispersal and range expansion.
cally begin in the Holocene with Archaic societies, ca. 10,000 years Beaton's own focus (1991:220) was on the colonization of con-
ago (Aldenderfer, 2008). tinents, and he only loosely identified several possible types of
Recent discoveries of very early sites located in the highlands of megapatch: “coasts, mountains, plains, forests, deserts, riverine
Peru (Cuncaincha, at 4400 masl, dated between 12.8 and courses, etc.” He also suggested that colonization would typically
11.5 cal. kyr BP; Rademaker et al., 2014) and of Bolivia (Cueva first occur in ‘preferred habitats’ such as coasts and river valleys,
Bautista, at 3900 masl, dated between 12.9 and 12.6 cal. kyr BP; only later expanding into other kinds of habitat that required sig-
Capriles and Albarracín-Jordan, 2013; Capriles et al., 2016) have nificant new adaptations. Others have subsequently emphasized
challenged this perception of the earliest settlement of the high that during range expansion, knowledge acquired locally by
Andes. Given this new evidence, models of how the highlands were hunter-gatherers about animal and plant characteristics could have
peopled are also being re-evaluated. One proposal which we been transferred to unfamiliar landscapes within a megapatch,
advance here relates to whether this whole high south central minimizing the demands for landscape learning (Kelly, 2003;
Andean sierra/dry puna region represented an ecological high Meltzer, 2003; Rockman, 2003). Confining movement within
Andes ‘megapatch’ (a term introduced by Beaton, 1991) with a megapatches, therefore, would have allowed successful and more
dispersed but interconnected hunter-gatherer settlement system or less continuous dispersal (Borrero, 2015). Examples of them
extending as far north as the highland of the Peruvian Central which have been explicitly identified as such by other authors in
Andes (where comparable biomes are found in the Pampa de Junin, the context of early peopling of the Americas include: the Pacific
11" S, the punas of Ancash, 8e9" S, and the Cajamara puna, 7" S; K. rim coastal corridor (e.g. the Kelp Highway hypothesis, Erlandson
Rademaker, pers. comm.). Another ongoing debate relates to the et al., 2007), the Great Plains and other regional biomes of North
possibility of a late Pleistocene dispersal corridor across this pre- America (Meltzer, 2004), eco-refugia of North American megafauna
dominantly north-south oriented South America megapatch, linked to terminal Pleistocene climatic stress (Haynes, 2013), and in
accompanying the Pacific coastal corridor hypothesis that is a the southern cone of South America, the xeric steppe and the
familiar element of initial colonization models (Sandweiss, 2008). temperate evergreen forests of Patagonia (Borrero, 2005).
Validation of the Andean megapatch would not, in itself, prove its For the South Central Andes and their western coastal margins,
use as an initial dispersal corridor. However, validation of the initial an influential hypothesis asserts that initial dispersal followed the
dispersal corridor hypothesis would necessarily support the meg- coastal corridor, with subsequent expansion into high altitude
apatch hypothesis, since part of the definition of a dispersal ecoregions - initially on an intermittent or seasonal basis
corridor is that it represents a continuous area of exploitable (Aldenderfer, 1998; Sandweiss, 2008). The first half of this argu-
habitat. ment has been seen as supported by radiocarbon evidence for a lag
In this paper, we discuss evidence from the five earliest known in radiocarbon ages for early sites in the montane as compared with
archaeological sites in the highlands of northernmost Chile at the the coastal regions (Aldenderfer, 1998; Sandweiss et al., 1998). This
South Central Andes, which date to the terminal Pleistocene/early has then led to the expectation that initial expansion into high al-
Holocene (ca. 12.0e9.5 cal kyr BP) (Fig. 1). In introducing these sites titudes would have been for occasional, or at most seasonal,
into the discussion of the role of early high altitude settlement in hunting expeditions. Aldenderfer (1999/2000: 85), for example,
the peopling of South America, we propose also to explore the first suggests that in mountain environments.
of the above two hypotheses, namely that the Andean highlands “Mobility should be logistical in form, with relatively few resi-
may have constituted an important megapatch and that the ma- dential moves on an annual or seasonal basis. In temperate
terial culture of these sites was part of a region-wide cultural mountain environments, high-elevation land use will be limited to
tradition and settlement system. This paper thus complements the late spring through early fall months since temperature and
climate are too extreme for permanent habitation. Foragers will
 D. Osorio et al. / Quaternary International 461 (2017) 41e53 43

Fig. 1. High Andes Central Peru and Dry Puna Pleistocene-Holocene archaeological sites.

move to lower-elevation base camps during the winter. High- configurations, while the size of the foraging group and whether or
elevation land use during the late spring through early fall will be not it disperses into smaller units depends on resource density,
characterized by some residential mobility as foraging groups move abundance, and distribution.”
into the highlands to exploit newly-available resources. The degree Aldenderfer (1999/2000) also suggests that the archaeological
of residential mobility will depend on specific resource record points to a fairly rapid adaptive shift to permanent
44 D. Osorio et al. / Quaternary International 461 (2017) 41e53

occupation of Andean high altitude environments within 500 years are exacerbated south of 20" S, defining the transition between the
of initial exploration, with the coastal ecosystems subsequently no wetter-temperate Dry Puna (16" -20" S) and the cold-drier Salt Puna
longer included in these montane foragers' annual subsistence (20" -25" S) eco-regions (Troll, 1958; Santoro and Nún ~ ez, 1987).
circuits. An implication would then be that this also marked a shift Tussock grasses associated with cushion-plants and sparse shrubs
from exploitation of ecologically complementary zones by seasonal prevail in both eco-regions. Nevertheless, these differ considerably
mobility, to one involving more complex kinds of social alliance and in species composition and ecosystem properties. Grassland and
exchange, that enabled all groups to develop more fine-grained steppe bioproductivity as well as the extent of bofedales are greater
local adaptations. This change should have been reflected in a in the Dry Puna (Villagr! an et al., 1983; Arroyo et al., 1988; Nún ~ ez
more permanent occupation of the highlands, with the localisation and Santoro, 1988). Although edible fruits are lacking, the Dry
of residential camps near high-quality resource patches, to increase Puna has constituted a favourable productive environment for
the efficiency of the subsistence effort of these hunter gatherer- permanent human settlements at elevations >4000 masl. Today,
groups (Aldenderfer, 1998). existing high-elevation households are occupied year-round, with
In considering the macro-regional similarities in the technology reliance on agriculture activities as high as 4000 masl and camelid
among the early Andean hunter-gatherer sites, we therefore pro- pastoralism complemented by seasonal herd mobility to lower el-
pose that adaptation to the permanent occupation of the highlands evations in the late austral summer and fall (Nún ~ ez and Santoro,
can be most easily reconstructed by focusing on sociocultural tra- 1988).
ditions found within the highland region itself. The coast and the The western Andean slope underwent two protracted positive
lowlands remained interconnected but socioculturally distinct. We hydroclimate anomalies (Fig. 2) at 18.1e14.1 cal kyr BP and
propose that archaeological correlates of long-term adaptation to a 13.8e9.7 cal kyr BP as hydrological budgets increased over a vast
megapatch must include not just evidence for its permanent area of the south central Andes (16" -25" S) at the end of the last
occupation, but also evidence for a focus on particular resources glacial period. Together, these millennial-scale variations in the
coupled with the necessary technological strategies for resource regional hydrological cycle are part of the Central Andean Pluvial
acquisition and processing. We expect that such a strategy is likely Event (CAPE I and CAPE II, Latorre et al., 2006; Quade et al., 2008;
to lead to some degree of mapping of the demographic structure of Placzek et al., 2009; Gayo et al., 2012; further investigation
hunter-gatherer populations onto the mega-patch and its bound- should reveal the extent of any spatially lagged responses and/or
aries, such that there is also likely to be homogenization of cultural differential sensitivity of local circulation patterns to these dis-
traditions and social systems. In contrast, we do not expect that ruptions in the Andean climate system).
occupation of a megapatch should always correlate with a consis- Substantial evidence indicate that the CAPE stages profoundly
tent pattern of lithic raw material procurement, nor with a affected the potential for early hunter-gatherer settlement by
consistent preference for campsite location at specific kinds of increasing the availability of hydrological and biotic resources
landscape features (e.g. rock shelters vs. open air sites), because raw across the arid Andes (Moreno et al., 2009; Santoro et al., 2011;
material and natural shelter availability will also be affected by Gayo et al., 2012; Latorre et al., 2013). For instance, wetter condi-
physical and chemical variation in bedrock and surficial geology. tions led to a prominent lacustrine transgression on the Uyuni
basin (Placzek et al., 2006, 2013; Blard et al., 2011) and other minor
high-elevation basins (Geyh et al., 1999; Grosjean et al., 2001; Bao
2. Regional environmental characteristics, past and present et al., 2015) during the Tauca (18.1e14.1 cal kyr BP) and Coipasa
(12.8e11 cal kyr BP) lake highstands. Concomitant glacier advances,
The Andean orographic effect creates severe environmental implying a snowline depression of up to 1000 m, occurred on the
conditions for human activities across the steep relief that rises Bolivian Altiplano apparently brought about by a precipitation
abruptly from the Pacific coast to the Altiplano. Atmospheric intensification of at least 250 mm/yr and >4 " C cooling (Blard et al.,
pressure drops logarithmically with altitude (West, 2004) and 2009, 2013; Placzek et al., 2013). Similarly, positive rainfall anom-
temperature decreases at a predictable rate of 0.0065 " C/m alies enhanced groundwater and superficial discharge along An-
(Petersen and Pellicciotti, 2011). Conversely, the rain-shadow dean catchments (Rech et al., 2003; Nester et al., 2007; Quade et al.,
imposed by high Andean ridges to humidity from eastern South 2008; Gayo et al., 2012; Schittek, 2014; S! aez et al., 2016; Veit et al.,
America (Garreaud et al., 2003; Vuille and Keimig, 2004) creates a 2016), which in turn could have amplified the extension and bio-
strong gradient that ranges from semi-arid conditions >5000 masl productivity of fertile environments for human activities (i.e.
(~300 mm/yr), to arid conditions at 4000 masl (<100 mm/yr) and bofedales). Moreover, moister conditions promoted significant in-
finally to hyperarid conditions (<5 mm/yr) below 2500 masl creases in the availability of plant resources for livestock at lower
(Houston and Hartley, 2003). elevations as evinced by elevational displacements of hillslope
Prevailing cold-xeric conditions constrain the presence of any vegetation and reconstructed plant-cover for Andean grasslands
glaciers to the highest ridges (>5000 masl, Amman et al., 2001) and (Maldonado et al., 2005; Latorre et al., 2006; Quade et al., 2008;
hillslope vegetation grows at elevations above 2500 masl up to Placzek et al., 2009; Mujica et al., 2015).
5000 masl (Gajardo, 1994; Arroyo et al., 1988). Indeed, following the
elevation, rainfall, and temperature gradients, primary productivity
peaks at mid-elevations (3300e4000 masl), and declines as aridity 3. Archaeological evidence for early occupation of the Dry
(or adiabatic cooling) increases at lower (or higher) elevations Puna: the north Chilean case
(Villagr!an et al., 1983; Arroyo et al., 1988). Localized groundwater
and superficial discharges sustain dense and highly productive We now review the archaeological record of early human set-
Andean peat-bogs (bofedales) between 3400 and 5000 masl (Squeo tlements of the Andean highlands, focusing on the Dry Puna of
et al., 2006). These peat-accumulating wetlands have provided key northern Chile. We define the technological features of the lithic
ecosystem services by sourcing fresh-water, fuel supply, wild faunal assemblages, complemented with descriptions of other compo-
resources (i.e. birds and small rodents) and grazing habitats for nents found in the camps such as faunal remains and ochre pig-
domestic and wild herds (Squeo et al., 2006; Patty et al., 2010; ments. Our megapatch model predicts the development of a
Salvador et al., 2014). cultural tradition with consistent attributes within a fairly homo-
Aridity and extreme minimum temperatures at high elevations geneous resource zone.
 D. Osorio et al. / Quaternary International 461 (2017) 41e53 45

Fig. 2. Chronological relationship between calibrated ages for each archeological site considered in this study and inferred paleoclimate conditions along the western Andean slope
in the interval 7e18 ka BP. Light blue bars represent Central Andean Pluvial Event (CAPE) phases, while orange bars denote negative hydroclimate conditions. Vertical dashed line
delineates the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. Archeological dates were calibrated in Calib 7.0.4 by using the SHCAL 13 calibration curve.

Our case study includes the five earliest sites that have been fewer residential movements and invest more effort in logistical
found in the Dry Puna of northern Chile, located between 3100 and forays (Kelly, 1995).
4500 masl, in the Arica and Parinacota Region (18e19" S). These
sites are Las Cuevas, Hakenasa, Patapatane, Pampa El Muerto 15, 3.1. Faunal assemblages
and Ipilla 2 (Fig. 1, Table 1), We have analyzed material from the
earliest stratigraphic levels of these sites, which are dated to the The faunal assemblages were dominated by artiodactyls, espe-
Pleistocene-Holocene transition (ca. 11.5e9.0 cal kyr BP). The five cially camelids (guanaco and vicun ~ a), in all five sites (see Osorio
sites presented here can be split into three groups: the oldest sites et al., 2017). Also present were a few deer bones (probably Hippo-
located above 4000 m (Las Cuevas and Hakenasa) were occupied camelus antisensis) at Hakenasa. Other identified taxa include
during CAPE II, whereas the younger sites are located below medium-sized rodents such as vizcachas (Lagidium), wild guinea
4000 m (Patapatane, Ipilla 2) and postdate the CAPE II event (Fig. 2). pig (Cavia) and cholulos (Ctenomys, a small Andean mammal similar
The third group composed by Pampa El Muerto 15 falls in between to the North American gopher in its burrowing habit). Many bones
these upper and lower elevation sites and is intermediate in age are burnt or have breakage patterns consistent with human con-
(10.7 cal kyr BP). Previous studies on these and other Andean sites sumption (Supplementary Information, Fig. S1).
focused on lithic technology and faunal assemblages, which were Birds were also present, and although they were not identified
then used to discuss mobility strategies using classic models such to genus, most correspond to medium-sized ducks and coots. Exotic
as transhumance, cyclical mobility, and sedentism, or newer faunal remains are very scarce; for example, two shark teeth were
behaviorist approaches (Niemeyer and Schiappacasse, 1963; identified in Las Cuevas and Ipilla 2, and unidentified fish bones
Cardich, 1964; Lynch, 1971; Rick, 1980; Santoro and Nún ~ ez, 1987; from the Pacific Ocean and mussel shell (Choromitylus) fragments
Aldenderfer, 1998; Osorio et al., 2017). (three of which show evidence of edge retouch) were found in
The total study sample, obtained from the earliest levels of these Patapatane.
five sites, is composed by 3848 fragments of faunal remains and
4446 specimens of lithic artifacts (Table 2). For bone assemblages 3.2. The lithic assemblages (see also Osorio et al., 2011; Herrera
we used standard zooarchaeological techniques and classified the et al., 2015; Santoro et al., 2016; Osorio et al., 2016)
material to the highest taxonomic and anatomical resolution that
their condition permitted (Lyman, 1994; Reitz and Wing, 2008). A large variety of lithic raw materials were recorded and can be
Cultural and non-cultural modifications were also recorded. Lithic grouped into five general categories (siliceous rocks, obsidian,
technological analyses included both the de !bitage and the tools basalt, sandstone and other rocks) with a predominance of high
(defined by the presence of retouch or of used edges), with a main quality siliceous rocks. The siliceous rocks found in the two oldest
focus on identifying reduction sequences (Andrefsky, 2005, 2008; and highest sites, Las Cuevas (11.5 cal kyr BP) and Hakenasa
Aschero and Hocsman, 2004). The highest-level descriptive vari- (10.9e11.3 cal kyr BP) must have been transported from lower el-
ables recorded were raw material, type and size of de !bitage, pres- evations, which required journeys of at least 30 to 40 km. The
ence of cortex, and type of platform. We also classified sites by younger sites (Pampa El Muerto 15, 10.7 cal kyr BP; Ipilla 2,
function (residential or logistical, Binford, 1979, 1980; Nelson, 1991) 10e9.4 cal kyr BP, and to a lesser degree Patapatane, 9.4e9.0 cal kyr
and by technological strategy (Bamforth, 1986; Nelson, 1991; Shott, BP), are located close to seasonal watercourses where nodules of
1996), using the criteria of Binford (1979, 1980), Nelson (1991), and siliceous rocks adequate for knapping are readily available (Table 3).
Aldenderfer (1998). The presence of logistical sites would allow us Obsidian, which is abundant in Hakenasa and Las Cuevas, was
to define a collector mobility strategy, which differs (along a con- probably transported from the relatively close Charan ~ a and Par-
tinuum) from the forager mobility strategy. The main difference inacota sources, both of which are currently under study by our
between the two is that in a forager system, hunter-gatherers research group. Small nodules (<5 cm) mixed-in with surface
maintain high residential mobility (movement of the complete gravels and consistent with the size of artifacts are common near
group from one camp to another) with fewer logistical movements these sites, and occur throughout the Altiplano. In contrast,
(movement of specific task groups out from the camp that then obsidian is exotic at the three younger sites, where it is also infre-
come back), whereas in a collector system, hunter-gatherers make quent in the lithic assemblages.
46 D. Osorio et al. / Quaternary International 461 (2017) 41e53

Table 1
41 AMS radiocarbon dates for archeological sites discussed in the text. All radiocarbon dates were calibrated using CALIB 7.0.4 at 2-sigma with the Southern Hemisphere
Calibration curve (SHCAL13, Hogg et al., 2013).
14
Site Level Lab-Code C yr BP Age Lower cal Upper cal Material dated Reference
(cal yrs BP) range BP range BP

Hakenasa Level 13 Beta-187535 9580 ± 40 10,890 10,700 11,090 Charcoal LeFebvre 2004
Hakenasa Level 14 UCIAMS-145003 9655 ± 40 10,940 10,770 11,160 Camelid tooth Osorio et al. in press
Hakenasa Level 13 UCIAMS-77761 9830 ± 40 11,210 11,150 11,260 Charcoal Osorio et al., 2011
Hakenasa Level 13 UCIAMS-77762 9975 ± 40 11,330 11,240 11,600 Charcoal Osorio et al., 2011
Hakenasa Level 13 UGAMS-2953 9980 ± 40 11,340 11,240 11,600 Charcoal Osorio et al., 2011
Hakenasa Level 12 Beta-187534 9520 ± 70 10,760 10,560 11,090 Charcoal LeFebvre 2004
Hakenasa Level 11 Beta-187533 9260 ± 60 10,380 10,240 10,550 Charcoal LeFebvre 2004
Hakenasa Level 11 Beta-187532 9170 ± 70 10,310 10,190 10,500 Charcoal LeFebvre 2004
Hakenasa Level 10 Beta-187531 8789 ± 60 9740 9540 10,120 Charcoal LeFebvre 2004
Hakenasa Level 23 I-13287 8340 ± 300 9230 8460 10,120 Charcoal Santoro y Nún ~ ez 1987
Ipilla 2 15 UGAMS-4588 8510 ± 30 9490 9440 9530 Charcoal Santoro et al., 2011
Ipilla 2 N1E1 8 UCIAMS-77765 8600 ± 40 9530 9470 9600 Charcoal Santoro et al., 2011
Ipilla 2 N1E1 7 UCIAMS-77764 8635 ± 40 9550 9490 9660 Charcoal Santoro et al., 2011
Ipilla 2 N1E1 6 UCIAMS-84348 8675 ± 25 9580 9530 9670 Charcoal Santoro et al., 2011
Ipilla 2 N1E0 10 UCIAMS-77767 8690 ± 40 9600 9530 9700 Charcoal Santoro et al., 2011
Ipilla 2 N1E1 9 UCIAMS-77766 8695 ± 40 9600 9530 9730 Charcoal Santoro et al., 2011
Ipilla 2 N1E0 13 UCIAMS-77770 8695 ± 40 9600 9530 9730 Charcoal Santoro et al., 2011
Ipilla 2 Ipilla 2/S4E0/1 UCIAMS-165635 8700 ± 70 9640 9520 9890 Charcoal This study
Ipilla 2 S5E0/2B UCIAMS-165632 8725 ± 25 9620 9540 9700 Charcoal This study
Ipilla 2 N1E0 11 UCIAMS-77768 8730 ± 35 9630 9540 9760 Charcoal Santoro et al., 2011
Ipilla 2 S4E0/2A UCIAMS-165633 8780 ± 25 9700 9560 9890 Charcoal This study
Ipilla 2 Exposed profile CAMS-124594 8785 ± 30 9710 9560 9890 Charcoal Santoro et al., 2011
Ipilla 2 S4W1/2B-C UCIAMS-165636 8820 ± 25 9780 9630 10,110 Charcoal This study
Ipilla 2 S5E0/2B-C UCIAMS-165638 8820 ± 25 9780 9630 10,110 Charcoal This study
Ipilla 2 N1E0 12 UCIAMS-77769 8825 ± 40 9800 9560 10,120 Charcoal Santoro et al., 2011
Ipilla 2 Exposed profile CAMS-124595 8840 ± 30 9820 9660 10,130 Charcoal Santoro et al., 2011
Ipilla 2 S4E0/2E UCIAMS-165639 8845 ± 25 9830 9680 10,120 Charcoal This study
Ipilla 2 Exposed profile CAMS-124596 8845 ± 30 9830 9680 10,130 Charcoal Santoro et al., 2011
Ipilla 2 S4W1/2C UCIAMS-165634 8890 ± 25 9960 9750 10,160 Charcoal This study
Ipilla 2 S4W1/2E UCIAMS-165637 8940 ± 30 10,030 9900 10,180 Charcoal This study
Las Cuevas 2 T2EIVC Beta-298938 10,040 ± 70 11,490 11,250 11,760 Charcoal Santoro et al., 2011
Las Cuevas 2 E8/IVC UCIAMS-165646 10,070 ± 30 11,520 11,330 11,720 Charcoal Osorio et al. in press
Las Cuevas 2 Level 11 I-13128 8270 ± 250 9160 8460 9700 Charcoal Santoro and Chacama 1984
Las Cuevas 2 Level 13 I-12835 9540 ± 160 10,810 10,300 11,210 Charcoal Santoro and Chacama 1984
Las Cuevas 2 T2EIVA Beta-298937 9630 ± 70 10,940 10,710 11,170 Charcoal Osorio et al. in press
Pampa El Muerto 15 Level 9 Beta-335686 8190 ± 40 9090 9000 9250 Burned bone Osorio et al., 2016
Pampa El Muerto 15 Level 13 Beta-319884 9510 ± 50 10,720 10,570 11,070 Burned bone Osorio et al., 2016
Patapatane Level G Beta-238853 7010 ± 40 7800 7690 7930 Charcoal Santoro et al., 2011
Patapatane Level 20 Beta-43019 7970 ± 110 8780 8460 9070 Charcoal Santoro et al., 2005
Patapatane Level J I-12837 8160 ± 340 9030 8210 9890 Charcoal Santoro and Chacama 1984
Patapatane Level J Beta-238852 8440 ± 80 9400 9140 9540 Charcoal Santoro et al., 2011

Table 2
Site description and frequencies of the studied materials.

Site Elevation (masl) Camp category Studied occupation level Excavated area (m2) Lithics Animal bones

Las Cuevas 4485 Rock shelter IVc 3 357 6

Hakenasa 4100 Cave 13e14 6 1284 2849
Pampa El Muerto 15 3174 Rock shelter 13 1.5 26 140
Ipilla 2 3400 Open-air site 6e12 1.5 1888 288
Patapatane 3800 Cave J 7 912 586

Table 3 Soler, 2006). We also found bifacial trimming flakes with faceted
Provenience of the main raw materials categories identified in the studied sites. or “complex” platforms, lips, flake curvatures, and dorsal scars in
Sites Siliceous Obsidian Basalt different directions (Andrefsky, 2005) (Fig. 3). We also found some
Las Cuevas Extra-Local Probably Local Extra-local
evidence of probable heat treatment in some of the siliceous
Hakenasa Extra-Local Probably Local Extra-local de!bitage in Hakenasa, and we found small fragments of red
Pampa El Muerto 15 Probably Local Extra-local Extra- local pigment at Las Cuevas and Patapatane.
Together, these attributes and the absence of complete cores
suggest that the activities consisted primarily of shaping and
De!bitage dominates the lithic assemblages (~98%) and mostly reactivating instruments, and secondarily of bifacial reduction.
derives from late, and to a lesser extent, middle stages of reduction Only four fragments of exhausted cores were observed in Hakenasa.
of mainly bifacial and in less degree unifacial tools. Most of the The lithic de
!bitage from Patapatane and Ipilla 2 mainly corresponds
observed de !bitage (Table 4) is characterized by the absence of to retouching de !bitage and, to a lesser extent, to flakes and other
cortex (81e98%), small size (<20 mm), and a preponderance of fragments. Most of the lithic de !bitage does not include cortex
broken, reduced and flat platforms (Inizan et al., 1999; Duran and (Fig. 4) and is of small size (<20 mm). These features are also
 D. Osorio et al. / Quaternary International 461 (2017) 41e53 47

Table 4
Percent of cortex present in the dorsal surface of the debitage products by site.

Cortex Percent Las Cuevas Hakenasa Pampa El Muerto 15 Ipilla Patapatane

No cortex 94.92 81.54 100 98.5 98.5

Less 50 4.52 15.75 1.02 1
More 50 0.56 2.73 0.27 0.2
Full cortex 0.21 0.2

Fig. 3. Percentage of debitage products identified at the different Dry Puna sites of northern Chile.

indicative of the final stages of the reduction sequence. used for hunting animals as well as processing hides and meat. The
Most of the lithic tools were highly standardized and main- frequency of projectile points, scrapers, sidescrapers and knives,
tained, which is consistent with the high frequency of retouching suggest animal procurement and meat and hide (and to a lesser
flakes recorded (Fig. 4). Projectile points are the most frequently extent, plant) processing activities, which is consistent with the
observed instrument, but they are only present in three of the abundant faunal remains, especially camelids, found in association
studied sites (Patapatane, Hakenasa and Ipilla 2), and correspond to with the stone tool assemblages.
five morphological types: stemmed with shoulders (known as Similarly, at Las Cuevas we recognized a predominance of final
Patapatane); triangular with either straight, convex or concave stages of formalization, re-sharpening of worn edges and to a lesser
base; and tetragonal. Many of these projectile points have evidence extent, bifacial knapping. The instruments are scarce and suggest
of maintenance by re-sharpening of the edges, and some of them activities related to scraping and to tool maintenance. At Ipilla 2, the
show evidence of recycling (Osorio et al., 2011; Herrera et al., 2015). predominance of medium and mostly final stages of reduction,
At Patapatane and Hakenasa, projectile point preforms and abun- especially of bifacial artifacts, as well as knives and side scrapers,
dant de !bitage are also present, all indicative of final stage indicate diverse activities such as hunting, animal processing, and
manufacturing processes. probably leather scraping. There are also a few expediently utilized
Sidescrapers are the most abundant tool at Hakenasa: their flakes (with macroscopic wear traces), and a denticulate scraper
forms are simple or double convex and show high standardization possibly used in woodwork. At Pampa El Muerto 15, the site with
and maintenance. Scrapers (semidiscoidal and end scrapers) are the most ephemeral occupation, knapping activities, shown by
very common and highly maintained. In lower frequencies we instruments and de !bitage were rare, and were related to final
found hammers at Patapatane and Ipilla 2, and small core frag- stages of tool manufacture, and to cutting and processing meat and
ments in Hakenasa. Unstandardized or expedient tools are other soft materials such as plants.
extremely rare, and correspond to utilized flakes in Ipilla 2 and
retouched flakes in Pampa El Muerto 15. The latter site also includes 4. Discussion
one notched tool, possibly related to processing plants (Winchkler,
2006; Hocsman, 2009; Osorio et al., 2016). 4.1. Interpretation of site function
In terms of site function, some formal tools at Hakenasa show
macroscopic wear traces on their active edges and were possibly We interpret the analysed sites as temporary logistical camps
48 D. Osorio et al. / Quaternary International 461 (2017) 41e53

Fig. 4. Lithic tools from the studied sites. Stemmed projectile points with shoulders “Patapatane type”: (1, 2, 6), Patapatane, (3) Hakenasa (4, 5, 7) Ipilla. Tetragonal projectile points:
(8, 9) Hakenasa. Unstemmed triangular projectile points with convex base (10 Hakenasa), straight base (11 Hakenasa), and concave base (12 Patapatane). Hakenasa scrapers (13, 14,
15), Hakenasa sidescrapers (16, 17, 18, 19).

(Binford, 1980) as suggested by the quantity and characteristics of (Nelson, 1991). The specific strategy for facing these difficulties is to
the lithic assemblages, which were focussed on final stages of lithic invest more energy in the manufacturing of the artefacts, and the
reduction sequences for formalization or reactivation of worn transportation of a toolkit elaborated in advance.
edges, and by the absence of more elaborated features like hearths. Risk minimisation, a crucial element in the process of coloni-
The almost exclusive use of high quality raw materials, the small zation of new landscapes (Meltzer, 2003) has been especially
size of the tools, their standardized forms, and the changes in their emphasized by Aldenderfer (1998) for the early occupation of a
morphologies due to rejuvenation, are all attributes of a curatorial mountain environment. Due to the extreme conditions of the
strategy. The tools recorded in the five studied sites were trans- highland ecosystem (low temperatures and hypoxia), hunter-
ported by hunter-gatherers in their mobility circuits and were not gatherer decision-making would have been guided by the need to
initially elaborated in situ. The identification of bifacial trimming reduce effort in obtaining a sufficient caloric return (Aldenderfer,
flakes shows bifacial reduction, which is also an element of a 1998, 1999). In the scenario of an early first entry into highland
curated system, reflecting those tools' flexibility and trans- zones, curation and versatility of the tool kit would have been an
portability (Shott, 1986; Kelly, 1988). In this way, hunter-gatherers essential strategy for an effective settlement process.
anticipated, mitigated, and minimized risks of possible adverse The two earlier sites located >4000 m in the Dry Puna (Las
conditions, like the absence of good raw materials, or insufficient Cuevas and Hakenasa) are both interpreted as logistical camps. Las
time for manufacturing tools at moments where they needed them Cuevas has a briefer occupation with minimal processing of
 D. Osorio et al. / Quaternary International 461 (2017) 41e53 49

formalized instruments, and could be related to the initial phase of (see Fig. 5). The similarities are identified mainly in the morphology
exploration of new areas. The absence of projectile points may of the stems, and the maintenance of shoulders or barbs even when
indicate that hunting activities were carried out elsewhere. Hake- the projectile points were reactivated. It seems possible to identify
nasa Cave, some 35 km away, has evidence of multiple activities a change in shape with use: probably the projectile point initially
(hunting, processing of animals, and final manufacturing of the had barbs, which would have changed to shoulders because of the
instruments). reactivation process (cf. Hoffman, 1985; Shott and Ballenger, 2007).
The second and later group of sites, Papatapane and Ipilla 2, Additionally, the overall geometry also changed, moving from
show striking similarities, including final stages of the lithic convex edges and more elongated blades, to straight edges and
reduction sequence. The difference with the earliest sites, however, shorter blades, producing a triangular morphology (Fig. 5: 11, 13,
is the presence of more diverse activities, especially in Patapatane 14).
(hunting, scraping, processing animals, among others). Such di- Stylistic similarities in projectile point form, when defined by a
versity could be due to either longer stays at the sites, or to frequent diagnostic morphology and technology of production that repre-
visits to the site over a short time period (the two earliest 14C dates sents more than archaeologists' essentializing of a midpoint on
from Patapane, Beta-238852 and I-12837 are statistically indistin- some continuum, may arise and persist by repeated and conser-
guishable by Ward & Wilson's test, p > 0.05, T ¼ 0.64, X2 ¼ 3.84). vative cultural transmission within social networks or groups.
The appearance of some exotic materials in Las Cuevas (shark These distinctive characteristics may arise and persist simply
teeth) and Patapatane (fish bones and shells) suggests the existence through cultural drift due to partial population isolation, or they
of inter-regional exchange with other groups. Such exotic elements may be maintained as active signals of social identity (Close, 1978;
can contribute to identifying interaction between different bands, Meltzer, 1981; Sackett, 1982; Wiessner, 1983; Wobst, 1999). The
or social differentiation within groups (Castillo and Sepúlveda, Patapatane type is therefore informative as a cultural tradition and
2017). Additionally, the presence of probable bone beads in Hake- potentially as a symbolic resource, which indicates the existence of
nasa and red pigments in Las Cuevas are key indicators of social wider networks of social relations between dispersed and highly
activities that went beyond hunting and procurement of raw ma- mobile groups involved in different kinds and scales of social
terials. Indeed, the absence of a specific theoretical framework for interaction and exchange (and as a minimum, the transfer of
early colonizing strategies that can predict the use of such “rare” knowledgeable people between local bands). If an active signalling
materials, reveals the over-simplification of explanations for early function is assigned to the Patapatane type, then this must have
hunter-gatherer societies which focus solely on economic and extended beyond the smaller-scale ‘intimate networks’ of local
technological aspects (Miotti, 2003). In more recent times, although bands where the presence of such symbolic or stylistic resources
only one piece of painted rock has been identified for the late was not necessary (Gamble, 1998). By implication, the use of a
Archaic Period in Patapatane, rock art of a naturalistic tradition can specific type of lithic projectile point was not only a simple tool for
be encountered, without major stylistic changes, from the end of hunting, but also a communication device spread over the central
middle Archaic (6.7 cal kyr BP) up to the Formative periods (ca. Peruvian and south central Andean highland megapatch. This sig-
1.3 cal kyr BP) in the region (Sepúlveda et al., 2017). This tradition is nalling of cultural identity would also formed part of the back-
shared by the highlands of the southern Peru and northernmost ground for other later communication practices shared across the
Chile (Sepúlveda et al., 2013), demonstrating a flow of information south central Andean highland megapatch, such as the rock art
between hunter-gatherer groups at a large spatial scale and the (already noted above), which show similarities in the represented
creation of territories with specific symbolic landmarks. Economic figures, in its formal and technical features and in the composition
intensification and social complexity created cultural landscape of the panels (Sepúlveda et al., 2013, 2017).
linked to a naturalistic rock art tradition, which is coincident with
specific territories in the Dry Puna megapatch. This traditional 5. Conclusions
symbolic practice stemmed from a long-term history of hunter-
gatherer adaptation inside this high Andean region. The evidence described and analysed here suggests that the
highland sites from northernmost Chile were camps occupied
within a logistic mobility system, and coupled with a curatorial tool
4.2. Wider cultural relationships and implications for the Dry Puna strategy. The associated residential camps have yet to be found, if
megapatch model indeed they existed at the same elevations in the high Andes.
However, we are inclined to suggest that our understanding of the
To further evaluate the earliest evidence for such large-scale diagnostic signatures of such camps during an initial occupational
interactions, we looked at the lithic record in wider comparative phase should also be re-evaluated and new models proposed,
perspective within the south central Andean highlands. We note especially for interpreting differences in lithic assemblages and
remarkable similarities among formal tool types present at Hake- implied activity patterns at camps that are not captured by the
nasa, Patapatane, and Ipilla 2 (all dated to 11.3e9.5 cal kyr BP), and simple dichotomy of residential and logistic. Indeed, it is possible
at sites located in the Peruvian highlands (~12.8e9.0 cal kyr BP). For that the evidence discussed in this paper, which spans a 2000-year
instance, the triangular unstemmed projectile points found in time range, reflects neither an initial exploration phase (Borrero,
Hakenasa and Patapatane (Fig. 5: 1, 19, 20) are also found in the 1989e90) engaged in by transient explorers (Beaton, 1991), nor
earliest levels at Pachamachay (Rick, 1980). However, the most intermittent hunting expeditions to a familiar but physically diffi-
common element shared between the sites from northernmost cult environment from base camps at lower elevations. Instead, it
Chile and the assemblages of other early Andean highland sites is could reflect a highland way of life that had developed over gen-
the stemmed point with shoulders known as a “Patapatane” pro- erations of permanent occupation within this large megapatch.
jectile point type (Fig. 5: 1, 19, 20; Santoro, 1989; Osorio et al., 2011). Resolving these competing interpretations will require further in-
Its morphology is similar to the point Type 1A, defined by Klink and formation on lithic raw material procurement (to establish at which
Aldenderfer (2005) at Asana and Caru (Ravines, 1967; Aldenderfer, elevation zone the raw materials had been procured), the identi-
1998). Similar point shapes occur at Telarmachay (Lavalle !e et al., fication of contemporaneous residential camps of the same cultural
1995), Pachamachay (Rick, 1980), Lauricocha (Cardich, 1958), and tradition, and further information on resource availability and
Guitarrero Complex 2 (Lynch, 1980) in the central Peruvian Andes seasonality during the earliest occupation phase in CAPE II. We
50 D. Osorio et al. / Quaternary International 461 (2017) 41e53

Fig. 5. Similar projectile points types from different sites of the Andean highlands. (1e3) Hakenasa (after Osorio et al., 2011: Fig. 7); (4e8) Asana (after Aldenderfer, 1998: Fig. 6.24);
(9e10) Caru (after Ravines, 1967: Fig. 26); (11) Telarmachay (after Lavallee !, 1994: Fig. 5); (12e13) Patapatane (after Santoro and Nún ~ ez, 1987: Fig. 5).

further note that there are as yet no dated occupations in the An- from north to south (after initial discovery by hunter-gatherers
dean highlands (or in all of the central Andes) that date to the CAPE dispersing inland as well as southwards along the Pacific coast). It
I event, despite abundant evidence for increased available mois- may also potentially have provided a habitat ‘bridge’ to the eastern
ture. One possibility is that temperatures may have been simply too side of the Andean mountains. Specific ecological conditions during
cold for human occupation, but this should be tested by seeking the Pleistocene-Holocene transition may have favoured human
new evidence. occupation of the area, and recent discoveries in the highlands of
Turning more speculatively to the potential of the Andean Peru and Bolivia show that parties of hunter-gatherers initiated
highlands as a migratory route, we have argued that the highlands processes of colonization at much earlier stages than was previ-
of southern Peru and northernmost Chile, which correspond to ously thought. However, resolving the chronology of initial occu-
geographical distribution of the Dry Puna, constitute a rather ho- pation of the South Central Andes and its different altitudinal
mogeneous “megapatch” that may have favoured rapid dispersal ecozones, for comparison with the chronology of settlement of the
 D. Osorio et al. / Quaternary International 461 (2017) 41e53 51

lowlands and coastal margins, will require additional radiocarbon Andrefsky, W., 2008. Lithic Technology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Arroyo, M.T.K., Squeo, F., Armesto, J.J., Villagra !n, C., 1988. Effects of aridity on plant
dates from a larger sample of sites.
diversity in the northern Chilean Andes: results of a natural experiment. Ann.
We propose that the longevity and distinctiveness of the hunter- Mo. Bot. Gard. 75, 55e78.
gatherer Andean tradition we see in the Dry Puna megapatch in- Aschero, C.A., Hocsman, S., 2004. Revisando cuestiones tipolo ! gicas en torno a la
dicates long-term familiarity with and cultural adaptation to the clasificacio ! n de artefactos bifaciales. In: Acosta, A., Leponte, D., Ramos, M. (Eds.),
Temas de Arqueología: An! alisis Lítico. Universidad Nacional de Luj! an, Luja!n,
highland landscapes and ecosystem, consistent with permanent pp. 7e25.
occupation (Rick, 1980). The existence of shared ideas and of long- Bamforth, D., 1986. Technological efficiency and tool curation. Am. Antiq. 51 (1),
distance communication processes may reflect the development of 38e50.
Bao, R., Herna !ndez, A., S! aez, A., Giralt, S., Prego, R., Pueyo, J.J., Moreno, A., Valero-
a cultural tradition linked to occupying and appropriating this Garce !s, B.L., 2015. Climatic and lacustrine morphometric controls of diatom
particular megapatch. paleoproductivity in a tropical Andean lake. Quat. Sci. Rev. 129, 96e110.
Finally, we contend that the megapatch concept is a useful tool Beaton, J.M., 1991. Colonizing continents: some problems from Australia and the
Americas. In: Dillehay, T.E., Meltzer, D.J. (Eds.), The First Americans: Search and
for the analysis of settlement processes on a broad spatial scale Research. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 209e230.
(Dixon, 2001), such as the early occupation of South America. We Behn, C., Araneda, O., Llanos, A., Celedo !n, G., Gonza !lez, G., 2007. Hypoxia-related
suggest that the ecological and geographical boundaries of the Dry lipid peroxidation: evidences, implications and approaches. Respir. Physiol.
Neurobiol. 158, 143e150.
Puna megapatch are reflected in similarities in lithic technology Binford, L.R., 1979. Organization and formation processes: looking at curated
and typology at the sites reviewed in this paper. By contrast, the technologies. J. Anthropol. Res. 35, 255e272.
archaeological records of the Atacama Desert and the Salt Puna, Binford, L.R., 1980. Willow smoke and dog's tail. Hunter-gatherer settlement sys-
tems and archaeological site formation. Am. Antiq. 45, 4e20.
south of the Dry Puna, are completely different in their cultural
Bird, J., 1943. Excavations in Northern Chile. Anthropological Papers of the American
trajectory, in their lithic assemblages (different technology and Museum of Natural History Volume XXXVIII, Part IV. Nueva York.
projectile point types), and in their paleoenvironmental conditions, Blard, P.H., Lave !, J., Farley, K.A., Fornari, M., Jime !nez, N., Ramírez, V., 2009. Late local
which did not favour year-round human occupations (Santoro and glacial maximum in the central altiplano triggered by cold and locally-wet
conditions during the paleolake Tauca episode (17e15 ka, Heinrich 1). Quat.
Nún~ ez, 1987; Santoro, 1989; Nún ~ ez et al., 2005; Osorio et al., 2017). Sci. Rev. 28, 3414e3427.
The next step in developing this approach is to specify in greater Blard, P.H., Sylvestre, F., Tripati, A.K., Claude, C., Causse, C., Coudrain, A., Condom, T.,
detail the distinctive cultural traits and the defining ecological Seidel, J.L., Vimeux, F., Moreau, C., Dumoulin, J.P., Lave !, J., 2011. Lake highstands
on the Altiplano (tropical Andes) contemporaneous with Heinrich and the
characteristics of this Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene Andean younger Dryas insights from 14C, U-Th dating and d18O of carbonates. Quat. Sci.
megapatch. Furthermore, this zone may not be completely homo- Rev. 30, 3973e3989.
geneous: its archaeological variability must also be further Blard, P.H., Lave !, J., Sylvestre, F., Placzek, C.J., Claude, C., Galy, V., Condom, T.,
Tibari, B., 2013. Cosmogenic 3He production rate in the high tropical Andes
explored. (3800 m, 20" S): implications for the local last glacial maximum. Earth Planet.
Sci. Lett. 377e378, 260e275.
Borrero, L.A., 2005. The archeology of the Patagonian deserts hunter-gatherers in a
Acknowledgments
cold desert. In: Veth, P., Smith, M., Hiscock, P. (Eds.), Desert Peoples, Archaeo-
logical Perspectives. Blackwell Publishing, New York, pp. 142e158.
We thank Bonnie Lynn Pitblado, and Kurt Rademaker for Borrero, L., 2015. Moving: hunter-gatherers and the cultural geography of South
America. Quat. Int. 363, 126e133.
inviting us to participate in this special issue of QI, resulted from the
Castillo, C., Sepúlveda, M., 2017. Objetos “miscel! aneos” y dina !micas sociales en
“Symposium: The Role of High Altitude Landscapes in the Peopling contextos cazadores recolectores de la precordillera de Arica, extremo norte de
of the New World”. We would also like to thank Paola Salgado for Chile. Chungara Rev. de Antropol. Chil. 49, 159e174.
editing the figures. Kurt Rademaker and Mike Shott provided Capriles, J.M., Albarracin-Jordan, J., 2013. The earliest human occupation in Bolivia:
a review of the archaeological evidence. Quat. Int. 301, 46e59.
invaluable constructive feedback on an earlier draft. This work was Capriles, J.M., Albarracin-Jordan, J., Lombardo, U., Osorio, Daniela, Herrera, K.A.,
supported by CONICYT/Programa Formacio ! n de Capital Humano Maley, B., Goldstein, S.T., Domic, A.I., Glascock, M.D., Veit, H., Santoro, C.M.,
Avanzado project 72160203, Grants Sub-Committe Awards, Insti- 2016. High-altitude adaptation and late Pleistocene foraging in the Bolivian
Andes. J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 6, 463e474.
tute of Archaeology, University College London (DO, JS); FONDECYT Cardich, A., 1958. Los yacimientos de Lauricocha: nuevas interpretaciones de la
grants 1130808 (to MS) and 1160744 (to CMS, EMG, CL), 3140008 prehistoria peruana. Studia Praehistorica I. Centro Argentino de Estudios Pre-
(to JMC), 11150210 (to EMG), FONDAP 1511009 to (CR)2, CONICYT/ histo !ricos, Buenos Aires.
Cardich, A., 1964. Lauricocha: Fundamentos para una Prehistoria de los Andes
PIA, Anillo project SOC1405, CONICYT/PCI project PII20150081 (to Centrales. Studia Prehistorica III. Centro Argentino de Estudios Prehisto !ricos,
JMC, CMS, CL), PFB 23 to the IEB (CL) and ICM NC120066 (to CL and Buenos Aires.
RDP). Close, A.E., 1978. The identification of style in lithic artefacts. World Archaeol. 10 (2),
223e237.
Duran, J.-P., Soler, N., 2006. Variabilite ! des modalite !s de de !bitage et des productions
Appendix A. Supplementary data lithiques dans les industries mouste !riennes de la grotte de l'Arbreda, secteur
alpha (Serinya ", Espagne). Bull. de la Socie ! te
! Pre!historique Française 103,
241e262.
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http:// Dixon, E.J., 2001. Human colonization of the Americas: timing, technology and
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.07.010. process. Quat. Sci. Rev. 20, 277e299.
Erlandson, J.M., Graham, M.H., Bourque, B.J., Corbett, D., Ester, J.A., Stenck, R., 2007.
The kelp highway hypothesis: marine ecology, the coastal migration theory,
References and the peopling of the Americas. J. Isl. Coast. Archaeol. 2, 161e174.
Gajardo, R., 1994. La vegetacio !n natural de Chile: clasificacio !n y distribucio
! n geo-
Aldenderfer, M., 1998. Montane Foragers. Asana and the South Central Andean gra !fica. Editorial Universitaria, Santiago.
Archaic. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City. Gamble, C., 1998. Palaeolithic society and the release from proximity: a network
Aldenderfer, M., 1999. An Archaeological perspective on the human use of cold approach to intimate relations. World Archaeol. 29 (3), 426e449.
montane environments in Andean South America. Rev. Arqueol. Am. 17e19, Garreaud, R.D., Vuille, M., Clement, A., 2003. The climate of the Altiplano: observed
75e96. current conditions and mechanisms of past changes. Palaeogeogr. Palae-
Aldenderfer, M., 2006. Modelling plateau peoples. The early human use of the oclimatol. Palaeocol. 194, 5e22.
world's highest plateau. World Archaeol. 38, 357e370. Gayo, E.M., Latorre, C., Jordan, C.T.E., Nester, P.L., Estay, S.A., Ojeda, K.F., Santoro, C.M.,
Aldenderfer, M., 2008. High elevations foraging societies. In: Silverman, H., 2012. Late quaternary hydrological and ecological change in the hyperarid core
Isbell, W. (Eds.), Handbook of South American Archaeology. Springer, New York, of the northern Atacama desert (~21" S). Earth Sci. Rev. 113, 120e140.
pp. 131e144. Geyh, M.A., Grosjean, M., Nún ~ ez, L., Schotterer, U., 1999. Radiocarbon reservoir ef-
Amman, C., Jenny, B., Kammer, K., Messerli, B., 2001. Late Quaternary response to fect and the timing of the late-Glacial/Early Holocene humid phase in the
humidity change in the arid Andes of Chile (18-29" S). Palaeogeogr. Palae- Atacama desert (northern Chile). Quat. Res. 52, 143e153.
oclimatol. Palaeoecol. 172, 313e326. Grosjean, M., Van Leeuwen, J.F.N., Van Der Knaap, W.O., Geyh, M.A., Ammann, B.,
Andrefsky, W., 2005. Lithic: Macroscopic Approaches to Analysis. Cambridge Uni- Tanner, W., Messerli, B., Nún ~ ez, L., Valero-Garces, B.L., Veit, H., 2001. A 22 000
versity Press, Cambridge. 14C year BP sediment and pollen record of climate change from Laguna
52 D. Osorio et al. / Quaternary International 461 (2017) 41e53

Miscanti (23" S), northern Chile. Glob. Planet. Change 28, 35e51. 3, 57e100.
Haynes, G., 2013. Extinctions in North America's late glacial landscapes. Quat. Int. Nester, P., Gayo, E., Latorre, C., Jordan, T.E., Blanco, N., 2007. Perennial stream
285, 89e98. discharge in the hyperarid Atacama Desert of northern Chile during the latest
Herrera, K.A., Ugalde, P.C., Osorio, D., Capriles, J.M., Hocsman, S., Santoro, C.M., 2015. Pleistocene. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 104 (50), 19724e19729.
Variabilidad tecno-tipolo !gica de instrumentos líticos del sitio Arcaico Temprano Nún~ ez, L., Santoro, C.M., 1988. Cazadores de la puna Seca y Salada del a !rea Centro-
Ipilla 2, Puna de Arica, Chile. 2015. Chungara Rev. Antropol. Chil. 47 (1), 41e52. Sur Andina (norte de Chile). Estud. Atacamen ~ os 9, 11e60.
Hocsman, S., 2009. Una propuesta de aproximacio ! n teo! rico metodolo! gica a con- Niemeyer, H., Schiappacasse, V., 1963. Investigaciones Arqueolo !gicas en las Terrazas
juntos de artefactos líticos tallados. In: Barberena, R., Borrazzo, K., Borrero, L.A. de Conanoxa, Valle de Camarones (Provincia de Tarapac! a). Rev. Univ. 26,
(Eds.), Perspectivas Actuales en Arqueología Argentina. IMHICIHU, Buenos 101e153.
Aires, pp. 271e302. Nún~ ez, L., Grosjean, M., Cartagena, I., 2005. Ocupaciones humanas y Paleoambientes
Hogg, A.G., Hua, Q., Blackwell, P.G., Niu, M., Buck, C.E., Guilderson, T.P., Heaton, T.J., en la Puna de Atacama. Instituto de Investigaciones Arqueolo !gicas and Museo
Palmer, J.G., Reimer, P.J., Reimer, R.W., Turney, C.S.M., Zimmerman, S.R.H., 2013. Universidad Cato !lica del Norte, Taraxacum, San Pedro de Atacama.
SHCal13 southern hemisphere calibration, 0e50,000 years cal BP. Radiocarbon Osorio, D., Jackson, D., Ugalde, P.C., Latorre, C., de Pol-Holz, R., Santoro, C.M., 2011.
55, 1889e1903. Hakenasa cave and its relevance for the peopling of Andean altiplano. Antiquity
Hoffman, C.M., 1985. Projectile point maintenance and typology: assessment with 85, 1194e1208.
factor analysis and canonical correlation. In: Carr, C. (Ed.), For Concordance in Osorio, D., Sepúlveda, M., Castillo, C., Corval! an, M., 2016. Ana !lisis lítico y funcio-
Archaeological Analysis: Bridging Data Structure, Quantitative Technique, and nalidad de sitio de los aleros de la precordillera de Arica (centro-sur andino)
Theory. Westport Publishers, pp. 566e612. durante el período Arcaico (ca. 10.000-3700 an ~ os AP). Intersecc. Antropol. 17,
Houston, J., Hartley, A.J., 2003. The central Andean west-slope rainshadow and its 77e90.
potential contribution to the origin of hyper-aridity in the Atacama Desert. Int. J. Osorio, D., Capriles, J.M., Ugalde, P.C., Herrera, K.A., Sepúlveda, M., Gayo !, E.M.,
Climatol. 23, 1453e1464. Latorre, C., Jackson, D., De Pol Holz, R., Santoro, C.M., 2017. Hunter-gatherer
Inizan, M.L., Reduron-Ballinger, M., Roche, H., Tixier, J., 1999. Technology and Ter- mobility strategies in the high Andes of northern Chile during the late
minology of Knapped Stone. Translated by Jehanne Fe !blot-Augustins. CREP, Pleistocene-early Holocene transition (ca. 11,500-9,500 cal B.P.). J. Field
Nanterre. Archaeol. 42, 228e240.
Kelly, R., 1988. The three sides of a biface. Am. Antiq. 53 (4), 717e734. Patty, L., Halloy, S.R.P., Hiltbrunner, E., Ko €rner, C., 2010. Biomass allocation in her-
Kelly, R., 1995. The Foraging Spectrum. Diversity in Hunter-gatherer Lifeways. baceous plants under grazing impact in the high semi-arid Andes. Flora -
Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington and London. morphology, Distribution. Funct. Ecol. Plants 205, 695e703.
Kelly, R., 2003. Colonization of new land by hunter-gatherers: expectations and Petersen, L., Pellicciotti, F., 2011. Spatial and temporal variability of air temperature
implications based on ethnographic data. In: Rockman, M., Steele, J. (Eds.), on a melting glacier: atmospheric controls, extrapolation methods and their
Colonization of Unfamiliar Landscapes: the Archaeology of Adaptation. Rout- effect on melt modeling, Juncal Norte Glacier, Chile. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 116,
ledge, London, pp. 44e59. D23109.
Klink, C., Aldenderfer, M., 2005. A projectile point chronology for the South Central Placzek, C., Quade, J., Patchett, P.J., 2006. Geochronology and stratigraphy of late
Andean highlands. In: Stanish, C., Cohen, A., Aldenderfer, M. (Eds.), Advances in Pleistocene lake cycles on the southern Bolivian altiplano: implications for
Titicaca Basin Archaeology 1. Costen Institute of Archaeology, Los Angeles, CA, causes of tropical climate change. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 118, 515e532.
pp. 25e54. Placzek, C., Quade, J., Betancourt, J.L., Patchett, P.J., Rech, J.A., Latorre, C., Matmon, A.,
Lanning, E., 1967. Peru Before the Incas. Prentice-Hall, Inc, Englewood Cliffs, New Holmgren, C., English, N.B., 2009. Climate in the dry central Andes over
Yersey. geologic, millennial, and interannual timescales. Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 96,
Latorre, C., Betancourt, J.L., Arroyo, M.T.K., 2006. Late Quaternary vegetation and 386e397.
climate history of a perennial river canyon in the Río Salado basin (22" S) of Pyke, G.H., Pulliam, H.R., Charnov, E.L., 1977. Optimal foraging: a selective review of
northern Chile. Quat. Res. 65, 450e466. theory and tests. Quart. Rev. Biol. 52, 137e154.
Latorre, C., Santoro, C.M., Ugalde, P.C., Gayo !, E.M., Osorio, D., Salas-Egan~ a, C., De Pol- Placzek, C.J., Quade, J., Patchett, P.J., 2013. A 130 ka reconstruction of rainfall on the
Holz, R., Joly, D., Rech, J.A., 2013. Late Pleistocene human occupation of the Bolivian Altiplano. Earth Plan. Sci. Lett. 363, 97e108.
hyperarid core in the Atacama Desert, northern Chile. Quat. Sci. Rev. 77, 19e30. Quade, J., Rech, J.A., Betancourt, J.L., Latorre, C., Quade, J., Rylander, K.A., Fisher, T.,
Lavalle!e, D., 1994. Le peuplement pre !historique de la Cordille "re des Andes. Bull. la 2008. Paleowetlands and regional climate change in the central Atacama
Socie! te
! Pre!historique Française 91 (4/5), 264e274. Desert, northern Chile. Quat. Res. 69, 343e360.
Lavalle!e, D., Julien, M., Wheeler, J., Karlin, C., 1995. Telarmachay: Cazadores y Pas- Rademaker, K., Hodgens, G., Moore, K., Zarrillo, S., Miller, C., Bromley, G.R.M.,
tores Prehisto !ricos de los Andes (Travaux de !l Institut Français d!Etudes Andines Lead, P., Reid, D.A., Alvarez, W.Y., Sandweiss, D., 2014. Paleoindian settlement of
88). Instituto France !s de Estudios Andinos, Lima. the high-altitude Peruvian Andes. Science 346 (6208), 466e469.
LeFebvre, R.P., 2004. Hakenasa: The Archaeology of a Rock Shelter in the Altiplano Ravines, R., 1967. El abrigo de Caru y sus relaciones tempranas con otros sitios del
of Northern Chile, Graduate School Brunswik. PhD dissertation. Graduate Sur del Perú. Nawpa Pacha 5, 39e57.
School Brunswik, Rutgers The State University of New Yersey, New Yersey, Rech, J.A., Pigati, J.S., Quade, J., Betancourt, J.L., 2003. Re-evaluation of mid-Holocene
p. 226. deposits at Quebrada Puripica, northern Chile. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol.
Llanos, A.L., Riquelme, R.A., Herrera, E.A., Ebensperger, G., Krause Reyes, B.R.V., Palaeoecol. 194, 207e222.
Sanhueza, E.M., Pulgar, V.M., Behn, C., Cabello, G., Parer, J.T., Giussani, D.A., Reitz, E.J., Wing, E.S., 2008. Zooarchaeology, Second Edition. Cambridge Manuals in
Blanco, C.E., Hanson, M.A., 2007. Evolving in thin air: lessons from the llama Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
fetus in the altiplano. Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol. 158, 298e306. Rick, J., 1980. Prehistoric Hunters of the High Andes. Academic Press, Inc., London.
Luebert, F., Pliscoff, P., 2006. Sinopsis bioclima !tica y vegetacional de Chile. Editorial Rockman, M., 2003. Knowledge and learning in the archaeology of colonization. In:
Universitaria, Santiago. Rockman, M., Steele, J. (Eds.), Colonization of Unfamiliar Landscapes: the
Lyman, R.L., 1994. Vertebrate Taphonomy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Archaeology of Adaptation. Routledge, London, pp. 3e24.
Lynch, T.F., 1971. Preceramic Transhumance in the Callejo !n de Huaylas, Perú. Am. Sackett, J.R., 1982. Approaches to style in lithic archaeology. J. Anthropol. Archaeol. 1
Antiq. 36, 139e148. (1), 59e112.
Lynch, T., 1980. Guitarrero Cave. Early Man in the Andes. Academic Press, New York. Sa
!ez, A., Godfrey, L.V., Herrera, C., Chong, G., Pueyo, J.J., 2016. Timing of wet episodes
Maldonado, A., Betancourt, J.L., Latorre, C., Villagr! an, C., 2005. Pollen analyses from a in Atacama desert over the last 15 ka. The groundwater discharge deposits
50 000-yr rodent midden series in the southern Atacama Desert (25" 30'S). (GWD) from Domeyko range at 25" S. Quat. Sci. Rev. 145, 82e93.
J. Quat. Sci. 20, 493e507. Salvador, F., Monerris, J., Rochefort, L., 2014. Peatlands of the Peruvian Puna ecor-
Meltzer, D.J., 1981. A study of style and function in a class of tools. J. Field Archaeol. 8 egion: types, characteristics and disturbance. Mires Peat 15, 1e17.
(3), 313e326. Sandweiss, D.H., 2008. Early fishing societies in western south America. In:
Meltzer, D.J., 2003. Lessons in landscape learning. In: Rockman, M., Steele, J. (Eds.), Silverman, H., Isbell, W. (Eds.), Handbook of South American Archaeology.
Colonization of Unfamiliar Landscapes: the Archaeology of Adaptation. Rout- Springer, New York, pp. 145e157.
ledge, London, pp. 222e241. Santoro, C.M., Latorre, C., Salas, C., Osorio, D., Ugalde, P., Jackson, D., Gayo !, E.M., 2011.
Meltzer, D.J., 2004. Modeling the initial colonization of the Americas: issues of scale, Ocupacio !n humana pleistoce !nica en el Desierto de Atacama. Primeros resul-
demography, and landscape learning. In: Barton, C.M., Clark, G.A., Yesner, D.R., tados de la aplicacio !n de un modelo predictivo interdisciplinario. Chungara Rev.
Pearson, G.R. (Eds.), The Settlement of the American Continents: a Multidisci- de Antropol. Chil. 43, 353e366.
plinary Approach to Human Biogeography. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Sandweiss, D., McInnis, H., Burger, R.L., Cano, A., Ojeda, B., Paredes, R.,
pp. 123e137. Sandweiss, M., Glascock, M., 1998. Quebrada Jaguay: early maritime adaptations
Moreno, A., Santoro, C.M., Latorre, C., 2009. Climate change and human occupation in South America. Science 281, 1830e1832.
in the northernmost Chilean altiplano over the last ca. 11 500 cal. a BP. J. Quat. Santoro, C.M., Chacama, J., 1984. Secuencia de asentamientos precera !micos del
Sci. 24 (4), 373e382. extremo norte de Chile. Estud. Atacamen ~ os 7, 75e84.
Miotti, L.L., 2003. Patagonia: a paradox for building images of the first Americans Santoro, C., Nún ~ ez, L., 1987. Hunters of the Dry Puna and and the Salt puna in
during the Pleistocene/Holocene transition. Quat. Int. 109e110, 147e173. northern Chile. Andean Past. 1, 57e109.
Mujica, M.I., Latorre, C., Maldonado, A., Gonza !lez-Silvestre, L., Pinto, R., De Pol- Santoro, C.M., 1989. Antiguos cazadores de la puna (9000-6000 a.C.). In: Hidalgo, J.,
Holz, R., Santoro, C.M., 2015. Late Quaternary climate change, relict populations Schiappacasse, V., Niemeyer, H., Aldunate, C., Solimano, I. (Eds.), Culturas de
and present-day refugia in the northern Atacama Desert: a case study from Chile. Prehistoria, desde sus Orígenes hasta los Albores de la Conquista.
Quebrada La Higuera (18" S). J. Biogeogr. 42, 76e88. Editorial Andre !s Bello, Santiago, pp. 33e55.
Nelson, M., 1991. The study of technological organization. Archaeol. Method Theory Santoro, C.M., Osorio, D., Ugalde, P.C., Sepúlveda, M., Cartajena, I., Standen, V.G.,
 D. Osorio et al. / Quaternary International 461 (2017) 41e53 53

Gayo, E.M., Maldonado, A., Rivadeneira, M., Latorre, C., Arriaza, B., peatlands of the central Andes. Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 79, 245e255.
Rothhammer, F., de Souza, P., Carrasco, C., Nún ~ ez, L., 2016. Cazadores, recol- Troll, C., 1958. Las Culturas Superiores Andinas y el Medio Geogr! afico (traduccio! n de
ectores y pescadores arcaicos del Desierto de Atacama. Entre el Pacífico y los Carlos Nicholson). Instituto de Geografía, Facultad de Letras, Universidad
Andes, Norte de Chile (ca. 10.000e3.700 an ~ os a.p.). In: Aldunate, C., Falabella, F., Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima.
Sanhueza, L., Hidalgo, J., Uribe, M. (Eds.), Prehistoria en Chile desde sus Pri- Veit, H., May, J.H., Madella, A., Delunel, R., Schlunegger, F., Szidat, S., Capriles, J.M.,
meros Habitantes hasta los Inca. Editorial Universitaria, Santiago, pp. 117e180. 2016. Palaeo-geoecological significance of Pleistocene trees in the Lluta valley,
Schittek, K., 2014. Cushion Peatlands in the High Andes of Northwestern Argentina Atacama desert. J. Quat. Sci. 31, 203e213.
as Archives for Palaeoenvironmental Research. Dissertationes Botanicae 412. J. Villagra !n, C., Arroyo, M.T.K., Marticorena, C., 1983. Efectos de la Desertizacio
!n en la
Cramer in der Gebrüder Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart. Distribucio !n de la Flora Andina de Chile. Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 56, 137e157.
Sepúlveda, M., García, M., Cala !s, E., Carrasco, C., Santoro, C.M., 2013. Pinturas Vuille, M., Keimig, F., 2004. Interannual variability of summertime convective
rupestres y contextos arqueolo ! gicos de la precordillera de Arica (extremo norte cloudiness and precipitation in the central Andes derived from ISCCP-B3 data.
de Chile). Estud. Atacamen ~ os 46, 27e46. J. Clim. 17, 3334e3348.
Sepúlveda, M., Saintenoy, T., Cornejo, L., Dudognon, C., Espinoza, F., Guerrero- West, J.B., 2004. The physiologic basis of high-altitude diseases. Ann. Intern. Med.
Bueno, Z., Cerrillo-Cuenca, E., 2017. Rock art painting and territoriality in the 141, 789e800.
precordillera of Arica, northern Chile (South Central Andes). Spatial and Wiessner, P., 1983. Style and social information in Kalahari San projectile points.
archaeological approaches for the naturalistic tradition. Quat. Int. http:// Am. Antiq. 48 (2), 253e276.
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.02.005 (in press). Winchkler, G., 2006. Terminología del Ana !lisis Lítico en Arqueología. Diccionario de
Shott, M.J., 1996. An exegesis of the curation concept. J. Anthropol. Res. 52 (3), uso para la Descripcio !n de Objetos Líticos. http://www.winchkler.com.ar/.
259e280. Wobst, H.M., 1999. Style in archaeology or archaeologists in style. In: Chilton, E.S.
Shott, M.J., Ballenger, J.A., 2007. Biface reduction and the measurement of Dalton (Ed.), Material Meanings: Critical Approaches to the Interpretation of Material
curation: a southeastern United States case study. Am. Antiq. 72 (1), 153e175. Culture. Univ. Utah Press, Salt Lake City, pp. 118e132.
Squeo, F.A., Warner, B.G., Aravena, R., Espinoza, D., 2006. Bofedales: high altitude

View publication stats