UNIT-1

1. Describe briefly Hawthorne studies and its implications on organizational behaviour.

The Hawthorne studies were a series of experiments conducted between 1924 and 1932 at the Western
Electric Company's Hawthorne Works plant in Cicero, Illinois. The studies were conducted by a team of
researchers from Harvard Business School, led by Elton Mayo, and were aimed at understanding how changes
in working conditions and environmental factors affect worker productivity.

The experiments involved changing various working conditions such as lighting, rest periods, and incentives,
and then observing the effect of these changes on worker productivity. However, the researchers found that
productivity increased regardless of the changes made, even when the changes were reversed. This led the
researchers to realize that the increase in productivity was not necessarily due to the changes themselves but
rather due to the fact that the workers were being observed and felt valued as a result.

The Hawthorne studies had significant implications for the field of organizational behaviour (OB). Some of
the key implications are:

1. Social and psychological factors influence behaviour: The Hawthorne studies demonstrated that
social and psychological factors, such as group dynamics, communication, and morale, can have a
significant impact on worker behaviour and productivity. This led to the development of the human
relations approach to management, which emphasizes the importance of understanding and
addressing the social and psychological needs of workers.

2. Importance of communication and collaboration: The studies highlighted the importance of

communication and collaboration within organizations. The workers' productivity increased when they
felt that they were part of a team, which suggests that a positive work environment that fosters
collaboration can lead to increased productivity and job satisfaction.

3. Managers need to pay attention to workers' needs: The Hawthorne studies showed that managers
need to pay attention to the social and psychological needs of their workers. This includes providing
opportunities for social interaction, recognizing and rewarding good performance, and creating a
positive work environment.

4. Impact of observation and feedback: The studies demonstrated that observation and feedback can
have a significant impact on worker behaviour and productivity. Workers who felt that they were being
observed and valued showed increased productivity, which suggests that regular feedback and
recognition can be powerful motivators.

5. Importance of holistic approach to management: The Hawthorne studies emphasized the

importance of taking a holistic approach to management that considers the whole person, not just
their physical abilities. This led to the development of new management theories and practices that
focus on creating a positive work environment and fostering strong relationships between managers
and workers.

2. What are the major characteristics of diversity in present day organizations?

In present-day organizations, diversity refers to the differences and similarities among individuals in terms of
their demographic characteristics, such as age, gender, ethnicity, race, religion, sexual orientation, education,
socio-economic status, and cultural background. Some of the major characteristics of diversity in present-day
organizations are:

1. Demographic diversity: Present-day organizations are characterized by a greater diversity in terms

of age, gender, ethnicity, race, religion, and other demographic factors. This diversity brings different
perspectives, experiences, and backgrounds to the workplace.

2. Globalization: With organizations operating across borders and cultures, present-day organizations
are characterized by a greater diversity in terms of language, customs, and beliefs. This diversity can
present both opportunities and challenges for businesses.

3. Inclusion: Present-day organizations are characterized by a focus on creating an inclusive workplace

culture where everyone feels valued and respected, regardless of their differences. This includes
promoting fairness, equity, and diversity in all aspects of the organization.

4. Flexible work arrangements: Present-day organizations are characterized by a greater diversity in

work arrangements, including remote work, flexible schedules, and job sharing. This accommodates
employees' diverse needs and preferences, such as caring for children or elderly relatives.

5. Generational diversity: With multiple generations in the workforce, present-day organizations are
characterized by a diversity in terms of work styles, communication preferences, and values. This can
present both challenges and opportunities for collaboration and learning.

6. Cognitive diversity: Present-day organizations are increasingly recognizing the importance of

cognitive diversity, which refers to differences in thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making
styles. This diversity can lead to greater innovation and creativity, as well as better decision-making.

3. Explain the process of perception?

Perception refers to the process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret sensory information
to form a meaningful understanding of their environment. In the field of organizational behaviour (OB),
perception plays a critical role in shaping employee attitudes, behaviours, and performance. The process
of perception typically involves five stages, which are:

1. Receiving stimulus: The first stage of perception involves receiving sensory information from the
environment through the five senses (sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell). This information is
transmitted to the brain for processing. For example, an employee may hear a co-worker speaking
or see a work-related email notification pop up on their computer screen.

2. Selecting stimulus: The second stage of perception involves selecting certain stimuli to focus on
while filtering out others. This process is influenced by factors such as relevance, novelty, and
intensity of the stimuli. For example, an employee may choose to focus on an urgent email from
their supervisor while ignoring fewer pressing notifications.

3. Organizing stimulus: The third stage of perception involves organizing the selected stimuli into
meaningful patterns and categories. This can involve grouping similar stimuli together and
 separating dissimilar stimuli. For example, an employee may organize their work tasks into
categories based on priority or type of work.

4. Interpreting stimulus: The fourth stage of perception involves interpreting the organized stimuli
to assign meaning to them. This process is influenced by factors such as the individual's past
experiences, knowledge, and expectations. For example, an employee may interpret a co-worker’s
tone of voice as rude or dismissive based on past interactions or assumptions about the co-
worker’s personality.

5. Reacting to stimulus: The final stage of perception involves reacting to the interpreted stimuli
through actions, behaviours, or attitudes. This can include making judgments, forming opinions,
or taking action based on the perceived information. For example, an employee may decide to
respond to the urgent email from their supervisor immediately or to prioritize completing a
particular work task based on their interpretation of the information..

4. What is attribution and what are the errors of attribution?

In organizational behaviour, attribution refers to the process of explaining the causes of an individual's
behaviour or actions. Attribution theory was first introduced by psychologist Fritz Heider, who suggested
that people make causal attributions based on two types of information: internal (i.e., dispositional)
factors and external (i.e., situational) factors.

Internal or dispositional factors refer to the individual's personal traits, characteristics, and abilities, while
external or situational factors refer to factors in the environment or situation that may have influenced
the individual's behaviour.

Attribution errors are common in organizational behaviour and can have a significant impact on how
individuals are perceived and treated in the workplace. Here are few common attribution errors:

1. Stereotyping: Stereotyping occurs when individuals make assumptions about an individual or a

group of individuals based on preconceived beliefs or characteristics associated with that group.
For example, a manager may assume that all women are not suited for leadership roles, leading
to biased decisions regarding promotions or assignments.

2. Halo Effect: The halo effect is when an individual's overall positive impression of someone
influences their judgment of specific behaviours or actions. For instance, if a manager has a
positive opinion of an employee's work, they may assume that all of their work is of high quality,
even if there is evidence to the contrary.

3. Perceptual Difference: Perceptual difference occurs when individuals interpret information

differently based on their own background, experiences, and values. For example, two managers
may interpret the same data differently, resulting in different conclusions and decisions.

4. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: The self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when individuals hold expectations
about an individual's behaviour that influence the individual's behaviour and cause the
expectations to come true. For instance, if a manager has low expectations of an employee, they
may give them fewer opportunities to succeed, which may result in the employee
underperforming and confirming the manager's expectations.
 5. Expectancy Effect: Expectancy effect occurs when individuals' expectations about an individual
or a group's behaviour influence their own behaviour towards them, which in turn influences the
individual or group's behaviour to conform to those expectations. For example, if a manager
expects their employees to be lazy and unmotivated, they may inadvertently treat them in a way
that leads to lower motivation and performance.

6. Primacy Effect: The primacy effect is when individuals give greater weight to information that is
presented first when making attributions about individuals. For example, if a manager reads a
resume that lists impressive accomplishments first, they may be more likely to make a positive
attribution about the candidate's qualifications, regardless of the later information.

7. Recency Effect: The recency effect is when individuals give greater weight to information that is
presented most recently when making attributions about individuals. For example, if a manager
has a negative interaction with an employee right before a performance review, they may be more
likely to make a negative attribution about their overall performance, even if it was positive before
the interaction.

UNIT-2
1. Compare Maslow’s needs theory with Herzberg two-factor theory

Maslow's Needs Theory Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

1. Maslow's theory is based on a hierarchy of needs, which 1. Herzberg's theory is based on two categories of
includes five categories: physiological, safety, social, esteem, factors: hygiene factors (job context) and motivators
and self-actualization. (job content).

2. Hygiene factors are necessary to prevent

2. The needs are arranged in a pyramid, with the most basic dissatisfaction, while motivators are necessary to
needs at the bottom and the highest-level needs at the top. create satisfaction.

3. Motivators are related to job content and include

3. The lower-level needs must be satisfied before an individual factors such as achievement, recognition, and
can move on to the higher-level needs. advancement.

4. Hygiene factors are related to job context and

4. The theory suggests that individuals are motivated by include factors such as salary, working conditions, and
unfulfilled needs. job security.

5. The absence of hygiene factors can cause

5. The theory suggests that each individual has different needs dissatisfaction, but their presence does not necessarily
and priorities. create satisfaction.
 Maslow's Needs Theory Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

6. The theory has been criticized for being too

6. The theory has been criticized for being too general and not simplistic and not accounting for individual
accounting for individual differences. differences.

7. The theory suggests that once a need is satisfied, it no longer 7. The theory suggests that motivators continue to
serves as a motivator. provide satisfaction even after they have been fulfilled.

8. The theory does not account for the role of job satisfaction 8. The theory emphasizes the importance of job
or dissatisfaction in motivation. satisfaction in motivation.

9. The theory suggests that self-actualization is the highest-

level need, which involves fulfilling one's potential and 9. The theory suggests that motivators are related to
achieving personal growth. personal growth and achievement.

10. The theory has been influential in shaping the field of 10. The theory has been influential in shaping the field
psychology and management. of organizational behaviour and management.

2. Explain the sources of self-efficacy.

Self-efficacy is an individual's belief in their ability to perform a specific task or achieve a particular goal.
According to social cognitive theory, self-efficacy is influenced by four primary sources: mastery
experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and emotional and physiological states. Let's
explore these sources in more detail:

1. Mastery experiences: Mastery experiences refer to experiences in which an individual

successfully completes a task or achieves a goal. When individuals have repeated experiences of
success, their self-efficacy for that task or goal increases. For example, if an employee successfully
completes a difficult project, their self-efficacy for similar projects in the future may increase.

2. Vicarious experiences: Vicarious experiences refer to experiences in which an individual observes

others successfully completing a task or achieving a goal. When individuals see others succeed,
their self-efficacy for that task or goal can increase. For example, if an employee observes a co-
worker successfully negotiate a difficult client situation, their self-efficacy for similar situations
may increase.

3. Social persuasion: Social persuasion refers to feedback or encouragement from others that can
influence an individual's self-efficacy. When individuals receive positive feedback or
encouragement from others, their self-efficacy can increase. For example, if a manager provides
positive feedback to an employee after they complete a task, the employee's self-efficacy for
similar tasks may increase.

4. Emotional and physiological states: Emotional and physiological states refer to an individual's
emotional and physiological reactions to a task or situation. When individuals experience positive
emotions or physiological reactions in response to a task or situation, their self-efficacy can
 increase. For example, if an employee feels confident and energized when working on a particular
project, their self-efficacy for similar projects may increase.

In addition to these four primary sources, there are also several factors that can influence an individual's
self-efficacy. These include:

1. Previous success: An individual who has previously succeeded in a task or achieved a goal is
more likely to believe in their ability to do so again in the future. For example, if an employee has
successfully completed a series of challenging projects, their self-efficacy for future projects may
be higher.

2. Modelling: Modelling refers to the influence of observing others' behaviour on an individual's

self-efficacy. When individuals observe others successfully complete a task or achieve a goal, their
belief in their own ability to do so can increase.

3. Verbal persuasion: Verbal persuasion refers to feedback or encouragement from others that can
influence an individual's self-efficacy. When individuals receive positive feedback or
encouragement from others, their self-efficacy can increase. For example, if a supervisor provides
positive feedback to an employee, their self-efficacy for similar tasks may increase.

3. Explain Johari window and its implications

The Johari window is a model that helps individuals understand the different parts of themselves and
how they interact with others. It was developed by psychologists Joseph Luft and Harrington Ingham in
1955 and is named after their first names (Jo + hari). The model consists of four quadrants, each
representing a different aspect of an individual's personality.

The four quadrants of the Johari window are:

1. Open area: This quadrant represents the part of an individual's personality that is known to both
themselves and others. It includes information about their behaviour, attitudes, feelings, and
thoughts that are shared openly and freely.

2. Blind area: This quadrant represents the part of an individual's personality that is unknown to
themselves but is known to others. It includes information about their behaviour, attitudes,
feelings, and thoughts that are visible to others but not recognized by the individual themselves.

3. Hidden area: This quadrant represents the part of an individual's personality that is known to
themselves but is hidden from others. It includes information about their behaviour, attitudes,
feelings, and thoughts that they choose not to share with others.

4. Unknown area: This quadrant represents the part of an individual's personality that is unknown
to both themselves and others. It includes potential strengths, weaknesses, and other
characteristics that have not yet been discovered or explored.

The Johari window has several implications for individuals and organizations. By understanding the
different quadrants, individuals can become more self-aware and better understand their relationships
with others. They can identify areas of their personality that they may want to work on or that may need
to be shared with others in order to improve their communication and relationships.
For organizations, the Johari window can be used as a tool for promoting greater levels of openness and
transparency. By encouraging individuals to share information about themselves in the open area and
providing opportunities for feedback and discussion, organizations can build trust and promote greater
levels of collaboration and teamwork.

4. Explain various financial and non-financial motivating factors

Motivation is a critical element of organizational behaviour (OB), and managers can use both financial
and non-financial incentives to motivate employees. Here are some examples of financial and non-
financial motivating factors in OB:

1. Financial Motivating Factors:

 Salary: A competitive salary is important to attract and retain employees. A salary is often seen
as a reflection of an employee's value to the organization, and employees may be motivated to
work harder to earn a higher salary or bonus.

 Incentives: Incentives can be used to motivate employees who have a direct impact on the
company's revenue, such as salespeople or customer service representatives. Commission-based
pay or profit-sharing plans can be used to incentivize employees to work harder and achieve
better results.

 Benefits: Health insurance, retirement plans, and other benefits are often included in an
employee's compensation package. These benefits can be a strong motivator for employees,
especially those who place a high value on job security and financial stability.

2. Non-Financial Motivating Factors:

 Recognition and praise: Managers can use verbal recognition and praise to motivate employees.
This can be especially effective when done publicly, as it not only motivates the employee being
recognized but also sets an example for others.

 Opportunities for growth and development: Employees may be motivated by opportunities

for career advancement, learning new skills, and taking on new challenges. Offering training
programs, mentorship, and job rotation opportunities can keep employees engaged and
motivated.

 Work-life balance: A healthy work-life balance is becoming increasingly important to employees,

especially in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. Employers can offer flexible schedules,
telecommuting, or other policies that help employees balance their work and personal life.
  Positive work environment: A positive work environment that is free of conflict, has supportive
co-workers, and good communication can be a strong motivator for employees. Employees who
feel supported and valued are more likely to be motivated to work hard and perform well.

 Job security: Employees who feel that their job is secure and that their contributions are valued
are more likely to be motivated to work hard and perform well. Employers can offer job security
through regular communication, transparency, and a culture of trust.

 Sense of purpose: Employees who feel that their work has meaning and contributes to a greater
good are often more motivated to perform well. Employers can promote a sense of purpose by
connecting employees with the company's mission and values and creating opportunities for
community involvement or philanthropy.

UNIT-3
1. State the phases of decision-making process. (Answer is with explanation, you can just state them
if asked)

Decision making is a critical process in organizational behaviour (OB) that involves identifying and
choosing among various courses of action. In the context of OB, decision making typically involves
assessing and responding to complex and often dynamic situations involving people, processes, and
systems.

There are several models of decision making that can be applied in OB, but they typically involve the
following steps:

1. Define the problem: This phase involves identifying the issue or opportunity that requires a
decision to be made. It's important to clearly define the problem to ensure that the decision-
making process remains focused and on track.

2. Analyse: The second phase involves gathering and analysing relevant data and information
related to the problem. This could include examining trends, exploring potential causes, and
identifying stakeholders who may be affected by the decision.

3. Develop alternatives: Once the problem has been analysed, the next phase involves
brainstorming and developing different options or alternatives for solving the problem. It's
important to generate a range of alternatives to ensure that the decision maker has a variety of
options to choose from.

4. Evaluate alternatives: The fourth phase involves evaluating each alternative to determine its
potential risks, costs, benefits, and feasibility. This could involve using decision-making tools such
as cost-benefit analysis, risk assessment, or SWOT analysis.
 5. Select the best alternative: After evaluating the alternatives, the decision maker must choose
the option that best meets the criteria established in earlier phases. This could involve considering
factors such as effectiveness, efficiency, and stakeholder satisfaction.

6. Prepare an action plan: Once the best alternative has been selected, the next phase involves
developing an action plan for implementing the decision. This could involve identifying specific
tasks, assigning responsibilities, and establishing deadlines.

7. Define parameters for evaluation: To ensure that the decision achieves its intended outcome,
it's important to establish clear parameters for evaluating the decision's success. This could
involve defining key performance indicators or establishing benchmarks for measuring progress.

8. Implement: After the action plan has been developed, the next phase involves putting the plan
into action. This may involve coordinating resources, communicating the decision to stakeholders,
and monitoring progress.

9. Follow up/periodical meetings/feedback: The final phase involves monitoring the decision's
progress and making adjustments as necessary. This could involve holding regular meetings to
review progress, gathering feedback from stakeholders, and making changes to the action plan
if needed.

2. State the importance of feedback in communication.

Feedback is an essential element of effective communication in organizational behaviour (OB). Feedback

is the process of sharing information about a person's performance or behaviour with the intent of
improving future outcomes. Feedback can take many forms, such as verbal or written comments,
evaluations, and assessments.

Here are some of the key reasons why feedback is important in OB:

1. Facilitates learning and growth: Feedback can help individuals learn and grow by providing
insight into their strengths and weaknesses. By receiving feedback, individuals can identify areas
for improvement and take steps to develop new skills or enhance existing ones.

2. Improves communication: Feedback is a two-way process that involves both giving and
receiving information. When feedback is provided in a timely and constructive manner, it can
enhance communication between individuals and foster better understanding.

3. Enhances motivation: Feedback can be a powerful motivator for individuals to improve their
performance. When feedback is positive and highlights areas of strength, it can reinforce good
behaviour and encourage individuals to continue to perform at a high level.

4. Increases accountability: Feedback can help individuals take responsibility for their actions and
outcomes. When individuals receive feedback, they are more likely to take ownership of their
performance and take steps to improve.

5. Encourages innovation: Feedback can foster a culture of innovation by encouraging individuals

to take risks and try new approaches. When feedback is provided in a supportive environment,
individuals are more likely to take risks and explore new ideas.
 6. Improves decision making: Feedback can help individuals make better decisions by providing
insight into the consequences of their actions. By receiving feedback, individuals can evaluate
their decisions and adjust their approach as needed.

3. What are barriers to communication?

In organizational behaviour (OB), effective communication is critical to the success of individuals, teams,
and organizations. However, there are many barriers to communication that can impede the flow of
information and reduce its effectiveness. Here are some common barriers to communication in OB:

1. Language barriers: Differences in language or dialect can make it difficult for people to
understand each other. This can lead to misunderstandings and misinterpretations.

2. Cultural barriers: Cultural differences in values, beliefs, and communication styles can create
barriers to effective communication. For example, a direct communication style may be seen as
rude or confrontational in some cultures.

3. Physical barriers: Physical barriers such as distance, noise, and technology can make it difficult
to communicate effectively. For example, poor phone connections or slow internet speeds can
disrupt communication.

4. Emotional barriers: Strong emotions such as anger, fear, and anxiety can make it difficult for
people to communicate effectively. When emotions are high, people may not be able to listen to
each other or express themselves clearly.

5. Perceptual barriers: People have different perceptions and interpretations of the same
information. This can lead to misunderstandings and misinterpretations of messages.

6. Information overload: In today's fast-paced and information-rich environment, people can

become overwhelmed with too much information. This can make it difficult to process and retain
important messages.

7. Power differentials: Power imbalances between individuals or groups can create barriers to
effective communication. For example, subordinates may be reluctant to express their true
opinions to their superiors.

8. Inadequate feedback: Lack of feedback can make it difficult for people to know whether they
are communicating effectively. This can lead to misunderstandings and misinterpretations.

4. What are the strategies for coping with individual stress?

Stress is a common issue in organizational behaviour (OB), and it can have negative effects on individuals'
well-being and productivity. Coping with individual stress is essential to maintain a healthy and
productive work environment. Here are some strategies for coping with individual stress in the context
of OB:
1. Time management: Effective time management is critical to reducing stress because it helps
individuals prioritize tasks, set realistic goals, and avoid feeling overwhelmed by deadlines and
responsibilities.

2. Relaxation techniques: Relaxation techniques such as deep breathing, meditation, and yoga can
help individuals reduce stress and improve well-being by promoting relaxation and mindfulness.

3. Exercise: Regular exercise can help individuals reduce stress, boost energy levels, and improve
overall health. Exercise releases endorphins that can help reduce feelings of stress and improve
mood.

4. Social support: Having a support system can help individuals cope with stress. This includes
friends, family, and colleagues who can offer emotional support and practical assistance when
needed.

5. Mindfulness: Practicing mindfulness involves staying focused on the present moment and
accepting thoughts and feelings without judgment. This can help individuals reduce stress and
increase self-awareness.

6. Positive self-talk: Positive self-talk involves replacing negative thoughts with positive ones. This
can help individuals maintain a positive outlook, reduce stress, and improve self-confidence.

7. Seeking professional help: In some cases, stress can be severe and require professional help.
This may include counselling or therapy to address underlying issues and develop effective coping
strategies.