Biology – 24-01-2021

Glucose + glucose = maltose

Glucose + fructose = sucrose
Glucose + galactose = lactose

Starch is another glucose but more complex

Fiber is also another type of glucose but diff structure
Glycogen is also another type of glucose

Glucose is the main or the only molecule of carbohydrates that we can convert directly to
energy.
Fructose and galactose will also be converted into glucose when we digest it.

Polysaccharides has a long way to digest for the energy.

Monosaccharides is very fast to be digested for energy.
Disaccharides takes some time to be digester for the energy.

Fats and carbohydrates are the same because they both contain carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. The difference is that carbohydrates have more oxygen.

Carbohydrate that is in the cell walls = cellulose

Biology 31-01-2021

Fats

triglyceride = 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acid

most of the time, the trans fat is usually in the food that we luv.
The good fat is usually in the oil that is good for us.
Olive oil or virgin coconut oil = one of the best types of oil that we can consume.
Palm oil has bad fats, unfortunately.

Not all fats is good for our body but we need them. Its not about how much fat you consume,
its about what type of fat you consume.

If u eat less portion of fat but u eat the saturated and trans fat, its way worse.

Sometimes, some companies will lie about how much trans or saturated fat that they have.

Protein

Amino acid is the smaller molecule that creates protein.

When we eat proteins, our body will break it down and it’ll become amino acid. Since protein is made
of thousands of amino acids, our body cannot digest that much so our body will break it down to amino
acids so we can absorb it.

Nuts – mungbean, kuaci, almonds

Protein can also be converted into energy but its not the main function. The main function is to build
protoplasm and to create antibodies and hormones.
Antibodies – the thing that fights against viruses and bacteries in our body.

Protein is used to create the development and growth of our body.

Macro and Micro nutrients.

Macro – nutrients that we need in large amounts. Micro nutrients, contradictory to macro, is the
nutrients we need in small amounts.

Macro – water
Micro – minerals, vitamins

Biology 7-02-2022

Mention what are the functions of water. 2 functions

- Water is essential for photosynthesis.

- Water helps to control the body temperature.

Water percentage in our body = 60-70%

Mention how much water that we are suggested to consume in a day = 6-8 glasses or 2 liters

Mention what are the elements or atoms that is needed to build carbohydrates = carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen

Carbohydrates is the source of energy for our body.

3 types of carbohydrates = polysaccharides, monosaccharides and disaccharides.

Monosaccharides = glucose, fructose, galactose.

Disaccharides = maltose, sucrose and lactose

Polysaccharides = starch, cellulose, glycogen

Food we usually eat to get carbohydrates = rice, noodles.

Function of cellulose and glycogen = cellulose cell wall protects plant cells from bursting or
damage. Cellulose cannot be digested in our intestines. They serve as dietary fibres that
prevent constipation.

Glycogen is a storage form of carbohydrates in mammals and when needed, it is digested to

glucose to provide energy for cell activities.

Cellulose is the main material to build cell wall and glycogen is a storage form of
carbohydrates.

What is the difference between the atoms of fats and carbohydrates? Fats and
carbohydrates are the same because they both contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The
difference is that carbohydrates have more oxygen.

Fats is glycerol and fatty acid.

What is the main function of fats?

To provide substances needed for growth and healthy skin.

To protect our body.
Fats are a source and store of energy for our bodies.

We know good fat and bad fats, mention 3 types of fats and mention the good and bad fat.

- Unsaturated fat – good fat

- Saturated fat – bad fat
- Trans fat – bad fat

What makes the protein atoms different from carbohydrates and fats?

Mention 2 functions of protein.

It protects the body tissues by becoming antibodies that protects our bodies from certain
diseases.
Proteins are needed for the synthesis of new protoplasm for growth and repair of worn-out
body cells.

What source of protein do we eat as food? Beans, vegetables, meat, fish, milk and eggs.

What solution do we use to detect glucose? Benedict solution. (needs to be boiled)

What solution do we use to detect starch? Iodine. (just drop a few drops)

Sugar, starch, fiber.

Types of sugar = glucose, fructose, sucrose (monosaccharides), lactose, maltose, galactose
(disaccharides).
14-02-2022

4 nutrients = water, carbohydrates, protein, fat

functions

water = solvent for chemical reactions, to control the body’s temperature, helps reactions
such as photosynthesis, we need water to create new cells.

Carbohydrates = this is the main source of energy, it also can be used to build cell wall.

Fats = a stored energy for our body, as a protection layer of our body, on of the most
essential parts to create cell membrane.

Protein = to make new cells, to make antibodies to make the main material for our immune
system, for reactions to our body system which is to create hormones or enzymes.

To make new cells, new cells is for what? When u get injured, u loose cells so u need new cells
so u need new cells to replace broken cells.

Characteristics

Water = H2O

Carbohydrates = CHO, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. Noodles, rice, bread, fruits.

Monosaccharides, simple sugar= glucose, fructose, galactose.

Can make maltose, lactose, sucrose.

Glucose + glucose = maltose

Glucose + fructose = sucrose
Glucose + galactose = lactose

Starch = flour
Cellulose = to create cell wall
Glycogen = made from glucose, this is the energy storage that we usually keep in our muscles
for lack of sugar.

Disaccharides, simple sugar=

Polysaccharides, complex carbohydrates =

Fats = Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. Unlike carbohydrates, fats contain much less oxygen and
hydrogen. Fats can be taken from anything that’s greasy which are fried food, fatty meats,
any kind of nuts and cheese.
Molecules made out of 3 fatty acid molecules and 1 glycerol molecule.

Depending on the structure of the tryglicerite, it can become good and bad fat.

Saturated fat is easy to digest but trans and unsaturated fat are hard to digest so it can
block our blood vessels which can cause obesity.

Protein = carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur.

From these 5 molecules, it creates the smallest basic units called amino acids. Amino acids +
amino acids will create peptide. If we have a long chain of amino acids, we call it polypeptide.
In chem and biology, if it consists a lot of molecules, it becomes poly.

Protein, fats and carbohydrates have the same main atoms which is carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen.

Protein can be acquired from milk, eggs, any kind of meat and nuts.

How to detect glucose? By doing benedict’s test. For sugar, it is benedict.

How to detect starch? By doing an iodine test.

Use any kind of vessel then put the food sample, if its brown, it doesn’t have starch but if it
changes to purple, it has starch.

How to detect protein? By doing biuret test.

Biuret and benedict has the same colour which is blue. The way to have biuret test is almost
the same as iodine.

First, put the food sample in the test tube, then but the solution into the test tube, if it
turns purple then protein is there.

Notes

Water

Water is an essential component of protoplasm. About 70% of our body weight is water.
Hence, water is extremely important to life.

What are the functions of water?

- As a solvent for chemical reactions

Water is the solvent for many chemical reactions taking place in living things.
Plants need water for photosynthesis.
 - As a key component of tissues
Water is the key component in cells, tissue fluid, digestive juices and blood.

- Transporting dissolved substances

Water helps transport dissolved substances such as :
• Digested products from the small intestine to other parts of the body; and
• Waste products from the cells for removal from the body.

Water is important transport in plants.

In plants, water is used to transport :

• Mineral salts up the plants through xylem; and
• Food substances from the leaves to all parts of the plant through the phloem.

Controlling body temperature

Water is a component of sweat. When sweat evaporates from the skin surface, heat is
removed. The body is cooled down.

Water :
- Is a solvent for chemical reactions.
- Is essential for photosynthesis.
- Is an essential part of cells, digestive juices, blood, and lubricants.
- Transports food substances and excretory producs from one part of the body to
another.
- Transports mineral salts up the plants and food substances from the leaves to all
other parts of plant.
- Helps to control bod temperature.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate is an organic molecule made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen and ooxygen.

The hydrogen and oxygen atoms in carbohydrates are present in the ratio 2:1. For example,
- Glucose has the formula C6H12O6. (ratio of hydrogen to oxygen = 12H : 6O = 2:1)
- Sucrose (cane sugar) has the formula C12H22O11.

Carbohydrates may be classified as single sugars, double sugars, or coplex carbohydrates.

Single sugars (monosaccharides) = glucose, fructose, galactose.

Double sugars (disaccharides) = maltose, sucrose, lactose
Complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides) = starch, cellulose, glycogen

Sugars
Sugars are sweet and soluble in water. When dissolved in water, they will lower the water
potential solution. Sugars provide us with energy to do work.

Single sugars (monosaccharides)

Single sugars are small molecules. They cannot be digested into smaller molecules. They can
pass through cell membranes and be absorbed into the cell.s

Glucose = plants and animals

Fructose = plants
Galactose = milk sugar in mammals

Double sugars (disaccharides)

A double sugar molecule is made up of 2 single sugar molecules joined together. Therefore,
when one molecule of double sugar is digested, 2 molecules of sugars are produced.

Glucose + glucose = maltose. Maltose is found in sprouting grains and is produced when starch
is partially digested.

Glucose + fructose = sucrose. Sucrose is found in plants, especially sugar cane.

Glucose + galactose = lactose. Lactose is found in milk

Testing for reducing sugar = page 44

Complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides)

Complex carbohydrates are large molecules. A complex carbohydrate molecule is made up of

many sugar molecules joined together.

Digesting cellulose = herbivores like rabbits feed on plants. Their large intestine contains a
type of bacteria that can digest cellulose. These bacteria produce cellulose, an enzyme that
digests cellulose to glucose.

Test for starch = iodine test page 46

Functions of carbohydrates
- They are sources of energy for cell activities. Energy from carbohydrates is released
from respiration.
- Cellulose cell walls protect plant cells from bursting damage.
- Sugars present in nectar of flowers attract insects that help in cross-pollination.
 Carbohydrates =

- Glucose, fructose and galactose are single sugars.

- A double sugar is formed from 2 single sugar molecules joined together. Maltose,
lactose and sucrose are double sugars.
- A reducing sugar will produce a brick-red precipitate when boiled with Benedict’s
solution.
- Large molecules can be synthesized from small basic units.
- Starch, cellulose and glycogen are large molecules known as complex carbohydrates.
They are formed when glucose molecules are joined together.
- Starch is a storage form of carbohydrates in plants.
- Glycogen is a storage form of carbohydrates in mammals.
- Cellulose present in plant cell walls protects the cells from bursting.

Fats

Fats are the organic compounds made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Unlike carbohydrates, fats contain much less oxygen and hydrogen.

A fat molecule is made up of 1 glycerol molecule joined to 3 molecules of fatty acids. When
fats are digested, glycerol and fatty acids are produced.

Sources of fats

Fats are present in food such as butter, cheese peanuts. Fatty meat and full cream milk.

Lipids are compounds that are soluble in organic solvents such as chloroform and ethanol.
Examples of lipids include fats, waxes and steroids.

Bad fats are those that increase your risk of getting heart diseases. Such fats are
saturated fats. Good fats or unsaturated fats on the other hand, is important to help us
stay healthy.

Functions of fats

- Fats are a source and store of energy for our bodies.

- They are the main component of cell membranes.
- Fats stored under the skin insulate the body from excessive heat loss.
- Fats stored around certain organs protect them from damage.

How do we detect fat? Ethanol (alcohol) emulsion test. (page 48)

- Fats are compounds made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They
contain much less oxygen than hydrogen.
- A fat molecule is made up of 1 glycerol molecule joined to 3 molecules of fatty acids.
 - Fats are a source of energy for the body.
- Fats produce a white, cloudy emulsion in the ethanol emulsion test.

Protein

Proteins are organic compounds made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen. Sulfur may also be present.

Proteins are made up of small basic units called amino acids. They are joined together to
form proteins. The chemical bonds that join the amino acids are called peptide bonds.

Amino acids are joined to form polypeptides, which link up to form even longer chains of
amino acids. One or more such chains fold together to form a protein.

Polypeptides are in turn joined and folded together to form a large 3-dimensional protein
molecule.

When proteins are completely digested, amino acids are produced.

Only proteins contain nitrogen. Carbohydrates and fats do not contain nitrogen. Fishes are
rich sources of protein.

Why must proteins be digested?

- Proteins are large molecules. They cannot pass through cell membranes. They need to
be digested into smaller molecules to enter cells. Amino acids are small soluble
molecules. They can diffuse through cell membranes and be absorbed into our cells.

Amino acids contain the element nitrogen. Plants obtain nitrogen from nitrate ions in the soil.
They use nitrates to make amino acids and proteins. Animals obtain amino acids and proteins
from the food they eat.

Sources of proteins
Proteins are found in food such as nuts, peas and beans, vegetables, meat, fish, milk and
eggs.

How do we test for the presence of protein? Biuret test. (page 50)

Functions of proteins

Proteins are needed for the synthesis of:

- New protoplasm, for growth and repair of worn-out body cells;
- Antibodies that protect our bodies against certain diseases; and
- Enzymes and some hormones.