Carbohydrates - are biomolecules believed to be the most abundant of all organic compounds.

Majority of carbohydrates have a carbon-hydrogen-oxygen ratio of 1 : 2 : 1.The term carbohydrate literally means
“hydrated carbon. “

Types and functions of carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are of three types: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides are also called simple sugars because they are the monomers, or the single structural units, of
some complex carbohydrates that will be discussed later.They can be classified as aldoses or ketoses according to
the placement of chemicals in the structure.Aldoses are characterized by the presence of an aldehyde, usually at
the terminal, or the first carbon atom. Thus, monosaccharides with two carbon atoms are considered as dioses,
those with three carbon atoms are trioses and so on.One familiar example is the pentose ( an organic compound
composed of five carbon atoms).Glucose, a hexose is another important example of a monosaccharides.Another
example of a hexose is fructose, which is found in most plants such as sugarcane, sugarbeets, and corn.

The second type of carbohydrates is the disaccharides.They are composed of two monosaccharides joined
together through a process called condensation reaction.In this dehydration synthesis takes place, wherein water
is extracted upon combining thetwo molecules.The result of the condensation reaction is the formation of the
glycosidic bond, a type of covalent bond that links a carbohydrate molecule to another molecule.

Example of disaccharides

Sucrose (table sugar) comes from combining glucose and fructose.Many food industries use sucrose as sweeteners
to make candies, ice cream, cakes, cookies, breads, sauces, and presrved goods.

Lactose (milk sugar), a great source of nutrients of infants, is a combination of glucose and galactose.Lactose is also
used in many processed dairy products.Whey, a by-product of dairy production, contain lactose and is used in
making breads, cookies, cakes, doughnuts, and ice cream.In the body, an enzyme called lactase is necessary to
break down lactose.People who do not produce enough lactose to digest lactose are called lactose
intolerant.When they take in dairy foods, they experience nausea , Diarrhea, bloating, and abdominal cramps.

Maltose(malt or beer sugar) comes from two glucose molecules.It is the least sweet among the previously
mentioned disaccharides; thus, it is not a common sweetener.Maltose is more common in making beer.The
starches turn into maltose during the malting process.This adds sweetness to the beer, which counteracts the
bitterness.

The third type of carbohydrates is polysaccharides, which are composed of at least three
monosaccharides.Polysaccharides are not sweet.They do not form crystals when water molecules are
removed.The actual structure of certain tissues or cellular parts may depend on the polysaccharide’s molecular
structure, which is either branched or linear.A linear polysaccharide form a rigid structure and is insoluble in
water.A branched polysaccharide is soluble in water.

Pectin, an important type of polysaccharide, is a soluble fiber.Pectin is found in apples, oranges, grapefruits,
bananas, cabbages, and carrots.

Cellulose, an example of a structural polysaccharide, is found in the cell walls of plants.

Chitin, another example of a structural polysaccharide, is found in the cell walls of fungi and the exoskeletons of
some animals such as shrimp, crab, krill, scorpion, and many insects.Chitin has stronger hydrogen bonds between
bordering polymers, which is why it is harder and more stable than cellulose.

Ketoses, on the other hand, are characterized by having a carbonyl group, or a ketone, which is usually located at
the second carbon atom of the molecule.

Two sets of reaction in photosynthesis

Light- dependent reaction.This stage of photosynthesis requires light.During daylight hours, the chlorophyll in the
thylakoid membrane absorbs the solar energy.Photons energize the electrons, inducing them to move down the
electron transport chain.They release energy, which is captured by ATP molecules.Energized electrons are also
taken up by NADP+ to become NADPH.In this case, solar energy is thus converted to chemical energy.

Calvin cycle or the light-independent reaction.The Calvin cycle is named after Melvin Calvin (1911-1997), who
discovered the enzymatic reactions that reduce the carbon dioxide to a carbohydrate.This happens in the stroma
of the chloroplast.This stage, as opposed to the light-dependent reaction phase, can occur during both day and
night.It is not dependent on solar energy.

Lipids are biomolecules containing chains of hydrocarbons.Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that are made up
of carbon and hydrogen, and are insoluble in water.

Triglycerides generally known as fats, triglycerides contain a glycerol attached to three fatty acids.A fatty acid is
composed of a long chain of carbon atoms connected to a carboxylic acid.

Saturated fats contain only single bonds in the fatty acid chain.Because of this, they are normally solid at room
temperature.Unsaturated fats, mostly known as oils, contain one or more double bonds in the fatty acid chain.

Phospholipids are lipids with a phosphate group, as the name implies.Phospholipids have a structure similar to
fats, but with additional properties.

Steroids have four fused carbon ring.There are different types of steroids according to the functional group
attached to their skeleton.

Cholesterol is a sterol, one of the most common steroid forms.Cholesterol formation usually happens in major
organs such as the brain and blood vessels, where it gets deposited on the walls and linings of these organs.

Testosterone, a male sex hormone, is responsible for the development of secondary sex characteristic such as the
lowering of the pitch of the male’s voice and growth of facial and body hair.

Other forms of steroids are formed in the adrenal gland.They are known as the adrenocorticoid hormones.A
common example of an adrenocorticoid hormone is aldosterone,which maintains the reabsorption of sodium and
chloride ions in the kidneys and regulates the loss of potassium ions.

Cortisol, an example of a glucocorticoid, is another adrenocorticoid hormone that helps in the regulation of energy
reserves in the body.Cortisol removes fatty acis from lipid storage cells and amino acids from body proteins to be
used as energy.

Cortisone, or its similar synthetic derivatives, is used to treat infection-fighting white blood vessels from traveling
through the area of inflammation.

Waxes are ester, which are combined from certain alcohols and fatty acids.Because of the long hydrocarbon
chains, waxes are extremely hydrophobic, which means they do not react with water.

Cerumen, the earwax , prevents the entry of some materials into the ear canal.It is also capable of repelling and
even killing insects in certain cases.

Proteins are recognized as the most diverse among the biomolecules.They are believed to be the central
compound necessary for life , which is why they are also called life’s building blocks.

Amino acids contain an amino group and an acid group.The third group is called an R group, which helps
distinguish the amino acid from other, because its specific name and function in the body will depend on the sets
of chemicals that are in this group.

The essential amino acids are those that cannot be produced by our bodies, which is why they should be present in
our daily diet.The noessential amino acid are those that can be produced by our bodies.The conditional amino acid
are not vital but may become urgent during health crisis or stress.

Four levels of structures of protein

Primary structure the simplest structure of all the proteins, this is composed only of a linear sequence of amino
acids in a peptide chain.

Secondary structure this is a three-dimensional shape created by several hydrogen bonds.

Tertiary structure this refers to the three-dimensional shape of a peptide, which can either be fibrous or globular in
structure.

Quaternary structure this happens when proteins have more than one polypeptide.

Nucleic acid are the largest molecules among the previous organic compounds, being composed of several
nucleotide subunits. Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and at least one
phosphate group.

DNA and RNA

One important type of nucleic acid is the deoxyribonucleic acid (RNA). Just like DNA, RNA is active in the acquisition
of traits.Messenger RNA (mRNA) serves as a temporary copy of a gene in the DNA that directs the sequence of
amino acids during protein synthesis. Transfer RNA (tRNA) translate the sequence of nucleic acids in a gene to
create the correct sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) forms the peptide
bonds between amino acids in a polypeptide.

Metabolism and Metabolic Pathways

Metabolism is a series of chemical reactions in the body that converts food into energy.In the process of food
conversion, some forms of energy are released as by-products.Metabolism is important in maintaining the living
state of the cells and, thus, of the organism.

Catabolism this process involves the breakdown of molecules to release energy.For example, you have learned in
the previous module that foods contain biomolecules.In catabolic reactions, these biomolecules are broken down
to release energy.Some common example of catabolic reactions are the following:

 The breakdown of polysaccharides into monosaccharieds to genetic energy

 The breakdown of nucleic acids into nucleotides for transmitting genetic information
 The breakdown of proteins into amino acids, either to make new ones or to produce glucose in the
blood
 The breakdown of food in the stomach for the nutrients to be absorbed in the blood vessels

Anabolism means “building things or substances in the body.”This process requires and consumes energy to
allow the building processes to proceed.In anabolic reactions, our bodies use simple chemical and molecules
to synthesize a vast array of products and substances, such as biomolecules, so that they can serve important
functions.Common examples of anabolic reactions include the following:

 Building proteins from amino acids

 Cell reproduction, where cells multiply to increase tissue size
 MIneralization of bones from inorganic substances
 Production of hormones necessary for certain organs to perform their functions.

Enzymes

The chemical reactions that make up metabolism do not proceed by themselves.These reactions are switched on
and off, or sped up and slowed down, depending on the cell’s immediate needs and overall functions.An enzyme is
a molecule that helps speed up the processes in a chemical reaction.

Components of an Enzyme

A typical enzyme is composed of a protein called an apoenzyme and a nonprotein called a confactor.
An apoenzyme can be called as a proenzyme when it is inactive, which means either it is not attached to any
substance or the enzyme is in its original form.

The confactors, on the other hand, assist apoenzymes in their biological activities.Confactors have different types,
and each type behaves in a different way.
 Metal ion activators are not permanently bound to the apoenzyme.They supply positive charges to the
enzyme through covalent bonding.Examples of these metals include magnesium, manganese, sodium, iron,
potassium, and copper.These metals are actually the dietary minerals that are part of your daily nutritional
requirements.Without these, some of the required catalytic reactions may not proceed.
 Coenzymes are organic molecules that usually come from the vitamins that you take in every day.Like the
metal ion activators, they temporarily bind to apoenzymes.
 Prosthetic cofactors can be either metal ion or organic molecules.The only difference is that they bind to
apoenzyme permanently.

Activation Energy

Typically, molecules do not interact with one another unless they are triggered in some way.The amount of energy
required to stimulate the reaction is called the activation energy.The common analogy used in illustrating an active
site is the lock and key relationship.However, there are times when certain adjustments are also done by the
enzyme to achieve an optimum fit tor the substrate.This is called induced fit theory.

Factors Affecting enzymatic speed

For enzyme to be fully operational, they require specific conditions.In some instances, enzymatic reactions are
increased more than 10 million times if the conditions are favorable.The rate of reaction is the amount of product
that is produced per unit of time.

Temperature

As the temperature rises, molecules are more inclined to react because they have more kinetic energy.That heat
creates a more successful and more effective collision between the substrate and the enzyme.Every organism has
a certain temperature at which an enzyme’s catalytic activity is at its greatest.For humans, the optimal
temperature for human cell is around 37.5 oC.When this temperature is elevated, the enzyme structure starts to
undergo denaturation, or breaking down.

Substrate concentration

The substrate concentration refers to the amount of substrate molecules available for chemical reactions.For the
reaction to begin, molecules must collide.Substances concentration increases the enzyme activity because more
collisions take place between the substrate molecules and the enzyme .

Optimal pH

Like the other two factors, each enzymes also has an optimal pH level for it to reach its maximum reaction rate. If
the pH level continues increase, the enzymatic reactions begin to decline.Each pH value has a specific structural
configuration for the enzyme.

Enzyme Cofactors

Some enzymes need the addition of inorganic ions or coenzymes to help speed up the rate of reaction.These are
small organic molecules in trace amounts that can promote enzymatic activities.

Enzyme Inhibitors
These are instances when enzyme activity should be limited.The molecule that binds to the enzyme to decrease its
activity is called enzyme inhibitor.The end product itself may be used as the controlling enzymatic reactions
because once the body has completed the necessary chemical processes, enzymatic reactions have to stop.

ATP Mechanism

All cells have a small storage of highly charged ATP molecules, specifically located in the cytoplasm of the cell.The
adenosine and three inorganic phosphate groups are all bonded together in sequence.Each of the phosphate
bonds has great energy potential that can be used in any cellular activity.Particularly, the bond between the
second and third phosphate groups has the highest and most accessible energy.

Endergonic and Exergonic Reactions

All types of chemical reaction require the involvement of energy.In an endergonic reaction, energy is a basic
requirement for a chemical reaction to commence.In fact, a chemical reaction requires more energy than what you
can get.

Exergonic reactions, on the other hand, are spontaneous or favorable chemical reactions wherein the products are
a lower energy level than the reactants.In this case, the reactions release more energy than what was required
initially.

Coupled Reaction

ATP is a highly unstable molecule.It spontaneously dissociates into ADP and inorganic phosphate even when there
is no activity requiring energy.Thus, this energy is produced as free energy and is lost as heat.However, because
cells are efficient, they harness this free energy within the bonds through a strategy called energy coupling.

The Circadian Rhythm

Balanced in anabolism and catabolism is maintained by the circadian rhythm, which maintains regular or patterned
processes in the body within a 24-hour cycle.The circadian rhythm is disrupted when an organism changes certain
habits or lifestyles, such as sleeping at 2 A.M. or eating lunch at 3 P.M.

[==