Sources of Early Medieval India

BAH SEM III

 Textual sources
• Sanskrit literature, Kavya literature
• Banabhatta’s Harshacharita, Nandin’s
Ramacharita
• Vikramankadeva charita by Bilhana, Prithviraj
Raso by Chand Bardai
• Kalhana’s Rajatarangini
• Jaina texts in Maharashtri, Krishi Parashara in
Bengali, Jagaducharita in Gujarati
 Textual sources
• Hagiographies composed in apabhramsha
• Chinese travellers, Yijing and Huan tsang
• Arab travellers, Al-Biruni, Al-Masudi
 Inscriptions
• Interactions between Brahminical culture and
tribal chiefs
• Assam inscriptions
• the names of some of the dynasties,
• details of their origin myths,
• references to their worshipping
autochthonous deities such as Stambheshvari
• Land grants to brahmins
 Inscriptions
• Sati/hero stones
• Prashastis, overlord, maharajadhiraja,
samantas
Paliya/devakaulika
 Numismatics
• Kosambi et al paucity of coins
• Evidence to the contrary, cholas
 Kalhana’s Rajatarangini
• Kalhana, son of Lord Champaka, the minister
of King Harsha of Kashmir
• Text of Kavya genre, composed between 1148-
49 AD
• Kalhana had access to court records, but also
based on legends and inscriptions
• The text is a narrative poem on Kashmir from
the earliest times till 12th c AD
 Kalhana’s Rajatarangini
• Its textual sources are largely puranic and
mahatmaya literature, dealing more with myth
• Kalhana’s use of inscriptions is important since he
includes a range of them, from prashastis (odes)
to land grants and temple inscriptions
• Work stands out for its aims are that of historical
writing: chronology and succession of the kings of
Kashmir and provide a readable narrative on the
past
 Kalhana’s Rajatarangini
• History was the unfolding of dharma, the
upholding of institutions listed in the shastras
• Karma and fate would often become an easy
explanation to justify the problems in a ruler’s
present life
• King Harsha’s decline is explained using the above
• Divine retribution is another device to explain the
overthrow of evil kings, divine pleasure can be
acquired through piety
 Kalhana’s Rajatarangini
• Tone of the text is heavily moralistic and
didactic, times of crisis
• Kalhana draws upon the Brahmanical and the
Buddhist traditions of writing
• Puranas from the brahmanical tradition, no
consciousness of time, mythical figures,
prophetic overtones
• Important to preserve the varna ashrama
dharma
 Kalhana’s Rajatarangini
• Buddhist tradition is different and articulates time
clearly as revolving around the mahaparinirvana
• Focus on the individual and karma, Mahavamsa
and Dipavamsa
• Buddhism’s active proselytization missions
required accurate record keeping
• First three books carry the Puranic tradition
more, 4th book departs from this markedly, draws
more upon the Buddhist tradition
 Kalhana’s Rajatarangini
• Sandhimata’s resurrection, banished,
imprisoned, put to death by the king
• The witches bring his bones together, revive
him and he becomes king, fait accompli
• Presence of Central Asians like Chankuna who
cleaved waters of the Punjab, reference to
Moses
• Books 5-8 are more interested in the historical
narrative, fate and karma recede
 Kalhana’s Rajatarangini
• Motives like the personalities’ ambitions, their
personal weaknesses and strengths, king-
feudatory relationships, economic conditions
of Kashmir and role of the Brahmanas
• He explains the decline of King Harsha using
both fate as well as his own faults such as
weak for avoiding battles, lack of independent
judgment and appointed the wrong people on
important posts
 Kalhana’s Rajatarangini
• Kalhana lists Harsha coming under the
influence of scheming women as one of the
reasons for his decline
• Two factions dominated the court intrigues,
Tantrins and the Ekangas, 10th c., king makers
• Presence of Damaras, tribal name, feudal
landowners
• Land acquired through service tenures,
powerful in fertile parts
 Kalhana’s Rajatarangini
• Social status important enough to get married in
royal families as well as Rajput clans, opposition
to the king
• Presence of kayastha, scribes and recorders,
Kalhana’s disapproval of them since they
encouraged kings to oppress the subjects
• King Sankaravarman, 9th c. foremost among fools
and sons of slaves for heeding the advice of
kayasthas, they suggested he plunder the
temples and oppress subjects
 Kalhana’s Rajatarangini
• Kalhana v/s kayastha, occupational jealousy
• Critical of the purohita parishad, brahmin
organisation attached to certain temples and
places of pilgrimage
• Purohita parishads lorded over all the
property and the donation, had big political
connections, caste status softened the critique
• Brahmans fasting for the removal of an
oppressive king
 Kalhana’s Rajatarangini
• Accumulation of wealth kept the Damaras
powerful
• Inter marriage of officials, inadequately
guarded fortifications and villages having the
amenities of towns were signs of trouble for a
king
• Oppressive king deserves his misfortunes,
devotpatananayaka (officer appointed to
uproot divine images) appointed by Harsha
 Why Kashmir?
• Geographical isolation, stronger nationalism
amongst its people
• Persistence in Buddhism
• Influence of Greek, Turkish and Chinese
traditions, not via language but via people
• Kalhana’s own critical mind, especially in times
of a decline, outsider-insider perspective
 Early medieval in Archaeology
• The early medieval is studied almost
exclusively through documentary sources and
monumental remains
• Archaeological evidence tends to be used to
provide supportive evidence, a handmaid to
history
• Early medieval is the most poorly represented
archaeologically
 Early medieval in Archaeology
• Archaeological studies were restricted to the
important periods in colonial times
• Mauryan and Gupta periods in independent
India
• Feudalism model of RS Sharma, less and less
archaeological finds, decline in foreign trade,
habitation of urban centres
• Decline urbanism
 Early medieval in Archaeology
• Due to cessation of international trade,
economy became self sufficient, metallic
currency became scarce
• Used by feudalism to explain how all payments
by the state had to be made through the giving
of land or its revenue due to urban slump
• Incorrect since the archaeological material
being used came from upper layers of
excavations at sites with much earlier
foundations.
 Early medieval in Archaeology
• Used to identify only certain aspects like
urbanism, craft production etc
• Archaeology within the department of history
• Feudalism model heavily criticised for both
inscriptional and numismatic evidence
• No re-excavations of sites happened, debate
stretched for 3 decades with no progress
• Move towards anthropological theories such as
Stein’s segmentary state matured the debate
 Early medieval in Archaeology
• Approx 85 religious sites dating to the early
medieval period have been excavated
• Many more recorded through surveys and
excavations
• Archaeology limited to uncovering carved
remains, establishing foundations of the
monuments and fixing their chronology and
spatial extent
 Early medieval in Archaeology
• Primarily to document these while the
remains are interpreted art historically
• Most sites discovered so far have been towns
and urban centres
• Contradicts the historical version which put
focus on the village
• Important sites such as Kannauj have never
been excavated
 Early medieval in Archaeology
• Exacavations via the Wheeler Method also
known as the grid and balk method, vertical
excavation, limited application
• No radiocarbon analysis, only numismatic and
pottery analysis