Sivabalan 2021 J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 1831 012033 PDF

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International Conference on Robotics and Artificial Intelligence (RoAI) 2020 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1831 (2021) 012033 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1831/1/012033
A review on the characteristic of biomass and classification of

bioenergy through direct combustion and gasification as an
alternative power supply
K Sivabalan1,2, Suhaimi Hassan1, Hamdan Ya1 and Jagadeesh Pasupuleti2

1
Mechanical Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610 Seri
Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, 43000 Kajang, Selangor,
Malaysia
[email protected]
Abstract. Extinction of fossil fuel resources owing to excessive use has called up new
solution-based resources called 'biomass' which is more affordable to deliver and utilize, bring
less environmental damages such as greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, opened more
employment opportunities in both rural or suburban areas due to the abundant availability of
this resources throughout the world. About 44% of the energy required by the year 2030 and
about 14% energy sourced from biomass in 2016 based on the World Bioenergy Association's
data. Biomass can be sorted from various sources such as municipal solid waste (MSW),
agricultural crops, crop residues, and forest residues. The clear cut of biomass characteristics in
proximate analysis and ultimate analysis makes it possible to produce reliable energy
resources. Biomass is multi-faceted fuel; thereof, it produces biofuel, which can be used in
transportation and bioenergy to generate cleaner and affordable electricity throughout the
world. In that sense, in this article, the characteristics and functionality of different
thermochemical processes such as direct combustion and gasification have been discussed, and
the reliability and new findings in various aspects in the bioenergy field. Furthermore, the
advantages and disadvantages have been discussed to substantiate further the core objective of
renewable energy in producing better, cheaper, and harmless to the surrounding environment.
This study will give a brief understanding of the right way of using biomass and indirectly
reduce the usage of fossil fuel, thus reserving a better world for the future generation.
1. Introduction
Anything that burns off will turn into ashes, but a fossil fuel burns off to produce energy. The basic
rule of thumb behind non-renewable energy source-based vitality is more affordable to deliver and
utilize than power from sustainable sources. However, the cost of unrefined oil has reached
141usd/barrel toward the beginning of July 2008 in contrast with the value during the '80s and '90s,
whereby it is as low as 20usd/barrel. For example, as of late, petroleum products, oil, coal, and
flammable gas have comprised a definitive energy source on the planet, whereby roughly about 80%
of the overall energy utilization of more than 400 EJ every year as appears in Figure 1(Source: IEA
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of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.
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2019). This world energy demand expending issue has compelled digging unconventional energy
solutions to restore immense usage of conventional fuel.
Fig. 1 Global energy consumption from the year 1980 to the year 2050 (Adopted: IEA 2019)
The International Energy Outlook (2009) ventures that the world advertised energy utilization are
required to increment by 44% by 2030 because of expanded interest from the under-developing
nations such as India and China. Notwithstanding, it is foreseen that these wellsprings of energy will
be drained inside the following 40 years to quite a while from now, and it takes almost a millennial to
renew it. Also the environmental destruction such as "global warming, acid rain, and urban smog due
to the discharges from conventional fossil fuel sources; therein the world attempts to diminish carbon
outflows by 80% and move on the road in using an assortment of renewable energy sources (RES)",
which are little destructive to the environment such as "solar, wind, biomass," and others in an
imperishable manner [1]–[6].
1.1. World Energy
Renewable-based energy slanting since the late 1970s and U.S policymakers at both the government
and state levels have established an assortment of incentives, guidelines, and programs to encourage
cleaner, renewable energy agricultural-based sources. Based on the data projected by World Bioenergy
Association in the year 2016, the trajectory of biomass energy is still in the most significant rate of
about 14% in correlation with the total percentage of a sustainable power source, which is 18% from
the general absolute world energy utilization appeared in Figure 2 [6].
Fig.2 Different fuels contribution to total world energy consumption based on data from the World
Bioenergy Association [6]
2
Despite the fact that there is an assortment of sustainable power sources accessible on the planet,
energy derived from biomass is still making a benchmark due to little dependency on geographical
location and climate variation, which are proven diversification factors of biomass can grow in
heterogeneous conditions. The above facts have been conditioning with the 10% of global energy
supply contribution are from biomass [7], [8] as well as it is liquidating millions of tons of vital carbon
stocks amidst of a climate crisis which is already out of control and it is merely a belief that one day
80% of fossil fuel utilization will be supplanted by biomass globally.
Biomass ingests carbon dioxide (CO2) during the developing period and discharges it during ignition
in kilns. In this manner, biomass aid the process of reusing of (CO2) from the atmosphere and does not
contribute further to any of the greenhouse gaseous (GHG) such as CO2, methane (CH4), nitrogen
dioxide (N2O), and biomass expends the same amount of CO2 from the environment during the
development period whereby it discharges during incineration which in scientific terms addressed as
'carbon neutral' [9].
1.2. Biomass vs fossil fuels
There will be pros and cons in utilizing every type of fuel in the world. Such a criterion is not
ignorable in both biomass fuel and fossil fuels to produce prime energy source. Table 1 explains fossil
fuels and biomass advantages and disadvantages in power generation [10]–[16].
Table 1 the advantages and disadvantages of biomass and fossil fuel in power generation[10]–[16]
Fuel types Advantages Disadvantages
Biomass Various categories of fuel; such as crops, Most of the lignocellulosic material
municipal waste, sewage from animals, and has a high amount of moisture,
forest residues which needs to be evaporated before
it ignites and indirectly reduces the
efficiency of the boiler
Can use together with coal to produce less Individual material prep needed
toxic emission by specific ratios and recent such as densification (pelletization,
studies collaborated with solar PV briquette, agglomerating)
Production cost is much cheaper compared Limited usage in power generation
to fossil fuels as the derivatives or biomass due to the cascade principle (reuse,
residues can be used again to produce recycling, bioenergy, and disposal),
biofuels (2nd generation biofuels)
Fossil fuels High calorific value in comparison with Extinction of fossil fuel could cause
biomass fuel and can produce much an increase in price indirectly due to
efficient energy by burning it. the demand more than production in
the energy market
Accessible to energy access with no Excessive use of fossil could create
geographical limitations grave environmental issues such as
climate change due to CO2 emission
2. Cycle of biomass
Biomass is a mix of both 'bio + mass' words that imply animal and plant origin, incorporating algae,
trees, and crops. It demonstrates with the organic matter attained from plants which produced through
photosynthesis. The conversion of the sunlight into organic matter by the plant through photosynthesis
incorporates multi-faceted vegetations both above ground level and under terrestrial water vegetations
as well as natural waste, and when it is being burned in kilns, the energy transformed from chemical
energy into mechanical energy and finally to electrical power [17].
3
Agricultural crops, crop residue, and forestry products are the basic types of solid biomass[18],
these biomass utilized (CO2) from the atmosphere to assimilate carbon using energy from the daylight.
Creatures that ate up the plants may, in this way, convert biomass into excrement, but the underlying
absorption carries out by plants. The plant will be either decomposed by natural microorganisms or
will be burned in incineration if it is not consumed by herbivorous yet in a case on the off chance that
if it has naturally deteriorated than it discharges back the carbon in the form of (CO2) or methane
(CH4) gas to the atmosphere, decided upon the conditions and processes involved. These processes
will be continuous until the cycle gets interrupted on earth, known as the net carbon emission. Figure 3
illustrated the cycle of biomass energy, and equation (1) and equation (2) show the plant's conversion
process through photosynthesis[19].
Fig.3 The cycle of biomass energy
Water + CO2 + Sunlight C6H12O6 + O2 (1)
6H20 + 6CO2 + Radiant energy C6H12O + 6O2 (2)
In an ordinary definition of energy outlook, biomass accumulated in general from living organisms
such as plant resources and animals and wastes emerges from them. The usage of biomass as an
energy purpose will diversify the energy supply and reduce fossil fuels' dependency due to the
resource's bountifulness. According to Bhattacharyya, suburban cities in under-developed nations
using 64% of firewood for cooking and other heating purposes and another 24% depending on the
crop residues and dried cow dung due to its availability over the entire country [20]. This inefficiency
and unsustainable biomass resources use cause severe side effects in the long run due to indoor air
pollution exposure. It is also expected that biomass can be used to feed ruminant animals such as
cows, chicken, and others, creating new job opportunities in suburban and urban cities in the world.
3. Sources of biomass
Globally biomass sources available from various categories, but the primary four sources which
benefited the power industries are "agricultural crops, agricultural waste(crop residues), forest
residues, and municipal solid waste" [21], [22]. Aßmann et al. have been divided further into three
main classifications: solid in non-woody biomass and woody-biomass, liquid from processed waste,
gas from processed fuel, as depicted in Table 2 below [23].
4
Table 2. Sources of Biomass [25]

Processed waste (PW) Processed fuels (PF) Non-woody biomass Woody biomass
(NWB) (WB)
Sawmill wastes Charcoal (wood & Energy crops Shrubs
residues) (sugarcane)
Plant oil cake Briquette & densified Cereal straws Trees
biomass
Waste from fruits Biogas Tobacco, cassava, Bushes (coffee &
cotton, stems & roots tea)
Nutshells and flesh Plant oil from palm, Grasses Forest floor
rape & sunflower sweepings
Bagasse Producer gas Banana Palms
Cereal husk Methanol & Ethanol Soft plant stems Bamboo
Industrial wood, bark & Water plants
logs
3.1. Agricultural crop (energy crop)

A land without crops is just like a king without a crown. Natures have given a plethora of benevolence
to humankind to convert lands into food. Science innovation has opened another passage of energy
production through food crops. The farmland previously adopted for growing food crops has
substituted to a land of energy crops production. Quispe et al. has performed a study on agriculture
production and found that this agricultural crop variation is based on the type of soil, agronomic
handling, climate conditions, and other parameters [24]. Several agricultural crops can be used in
energy production, such as wheat, cotton, cassava, rice, palm fruits, and others; table 3 summarizes the
six world major agricultural crops from 2018 and 2019 [25].
Table 3. Listed summary of world major agricultural crop from the year 2018 to 2019[27].
Year World Total United China India Pakistan South Selected
Foreign States America Others
Million Metric Tons (MMT)
Wheat
2018 763.1 715.7 47.3 134.3 98.5 26.7 18.5 21.0
2019 733.4 682.2 51.3 132.5 99.7 22.5 19.5 19.0
Coarse grain
2018 1357.3 973 384.3 266.6 47.0 6.2 39.3 13.0
2019 1373.6 988.5 385.1 263.8 42.3 6.8 50.4 13.5
Rice
2018 495.1 489.4 5.7 148.9 112.9 7.5 0.9 0.5
2019 491.1 484.2 6.9 143.6 111.0 7.4 0.8 0.5
3.2. Agricultural waste (crop residues)

Farmers produced an enormous amount of agricultural waste or crop residues from their farming
activities, and it is begun directly from the beginning of the harvesting process on the farm. There are
six categories from 39 residues from 26 crops explained by Hiloidhari et al. in Table 4 [26]. These
horticultural wastages, which left untreated on the field, can cater to soil erosion and process a small
number of nutrients back into the farm-fields without upsetting the soil fertility; again, some farmers
from developing countries may openly burn it on the field causes loss of energy, which can be
transformed to yield vital energy for consumers[27].
5
Table 4. shows six main categories of crop group with residues produced from the crops[28]
Crop group Crop Residue RPR (HHV)heating value,

MJ/kg
Cereal Rice Straw 1.5 15.54
Husk 0.2 15.54
Wheat Shoot 1.5 17.15
Pod 0.3 17.39
Maize Cob 0.3 17.39
Shoot 2 16.67
Bajra Cob 0.33 17.39
Husk 0.3 17.48
Shoot 2 18.16
Barley Straw 1.3 18.16
Small millet Straw 1.2 18.16
Ragi Straw 1.3 18.16
Jowar Cob 0.5 17.39
Husk 0.2 17.48
Shoot 1.7 18.16
Oilseeds Mustard and Shoot 1.8 17

rapeseed Shoot 1.2 14.35
Sesame Shoot 1.47 14.35
Niger Shoot 1 14.35
Linseed Shoot 3 13.9
Safflower Shoot 1.7 16.99
Soybean Shell 0.3 15.56
Groundnut Shoot 2 14.4
Shoot 3 17.53
Sunflower
Pulses Tur (arhar) Shoot 2.5 18.58
Lentil Shoot 1.8 14.65
Gaur Shoot 2 16.02
Gram Shoot 1.1 16.02
Sugarcane Sugarcane Bagasse 0.33 20

leaves 0.05 20
Horticultural Banana Peel 3 17.4

Coconut Frond 4 10
Arecanut Husk 0.53 19.4
Frond 3 18.1
Husk 0.8 17.9
Others Cotton Shoot 3.8 17.4

Jute Husk 1.1 16.7
Boll 1.1 19.7
shell 2 18.3
Shoot
6
3.3. Forest residues

The definition of biomass in terms of forest biomass involves only the above-ground components of
plants or trees, as due to the reason lies behind it are substantially counted on the total forest living
trees and does not project too much on the logistical forest estimation [28]. This statement has been
further added in the "Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)" on the evaluation of forest resources
estimation lies within a diameter equal to or greater than 10cm only [29]. Therefore, forest
undergrowth and forest floor fine litter are disregarded under forest biomass material estimation.
A Forest residue generates woody biomass residues from timber logging. It is regarded that roughly
a quarter of total global forest land covering almost 5B hectares is of wooded land globally according
to world forest statistics by FAO. It is estimated that about 50% of these residues fall under developing
nations. There are two types of residues within the category: direct residues (whole trees, branches,
and leaves) and processed forest residues (sawdust and logs). The production of the forest residues
depends upon the selection of tree species and local geographical conditions beforehand. The
processed residues are further divided into primary and secondary forest resources [30].
3.4. Municipal solid waste

"Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)" discard has been a vital solicitude in most urban cities globally, and
it has reached an alarming stage. Burke et al. [33] has performed a study on the global solid waste
management (SWM) and expected that the rates of waste generation would be facing an alarming
stage of escalation from 1.3 billion tonnes (MSW) annually to 2.2 billion tonnes by 2025, which is
almost twofold in the next twenty years in low wage countries [31]. In addition, Burke et al. further
added that globally, the cost of (SWM) would show a sturdy growth from today’s annual of £165.56
billion to about £302.67 billion in the year 2025 [31].
MSW is a heterogeneous character of the waste in nature as it comprises households, including
food waste, healthcare, and industrial waste, which are not segregated accordingly and are all disposed
of into the same landfill [32]. This MSW has to be segregated before undergoing a specific
thermochemical or biochemical process to use it in the most sustainable ways formed by converting
waste-to-energy.
MSW can lead to one of the most pernicious local pollutants if left unattended, which will cause
serious public issues such as pollution of air, flooding, and public health deterioration such as
respiratory diseases (asthma), diarrhoea, and dengue fever. Apart from that, MSW can produce a large
amount of methane gas, causing short-term powerful GHG emissions in the surrounding atmosphere.
Lately, several methods have been introduced to cater to the disposal of MSW around the world, such
as follows:
1)Sorting Recycling
2)Incineration (Combustion) Heating/ Electricity/ Compost(fertilizer)
3)Anaerobic digestion Bioenergy/ Compost/ Electricity
4)Landfilling Bioenergy/ Compost
MSW can be collected and recycled into many useful end products or burn it in an incineration
boiler to produce power or go through anaerobic digestion to produce bioenergy, compost, or
electricity and landfilling to produce bioenergy or compost.
4. Composition of biomass
Biomass can be dissected into a structural composition and chemical composition to understand
further biomass availability and readiness for biochemical and thermochemical processes. It is a pre-
requisite in studying the biomass material before it can be transformed into biofuels, biogas, or rich
compost to be used as fertilizers in agricultural industries.
7
4.1. Structural composition

In general, the biomass structural analysis is significant for procedures improvement in delivering
different fuels and synthetic substances and investigating the ignition phenomenon. Apart from that,
the structural analysis assumes a substantial job in the presumption of the "higher heating value
(HHV)" as well. The structural composition has become one of the most talk-about criteria in biomass
fuel for any type of energy generation. Among all these structural compounds such as lipids, protein,
simple sugar, and starches, a varying amount of "cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin" has become
three core elements of biomass structural composition. The most inner part of cellulose (C6H10O5)
promotes a packing density that increases a biomass strength in biomass inner wall due to the nature of
establishing "intra-molecular and inter-molecular hydrogen bond," where it is weight up to "500,000
units monomers" [33]. The primary cell walls structure of biomass made up of heteropolysaccharides
such as hexoses and pentoses is a hemicellulose element that strengthens the whole unit [34]. Whereas
lignin is a three-dimensional (3D) element build primarily by carbon-oxygen and carbon-carbon
linkages[35]. The fraction of water and inorganic substances present in biomass too. "The compound
of cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin are called lignocellulose, which comprises around half of the
plant matter produced by photosynthesis and represents the most abundant renewable organic resource
on earth." "Cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin are strongly intermeshed in lignocelluloses and are
chemically bonded by non-covalent forces or covalent cross-linkages" as shown in Figure 4.
"Cellulose is the largest component of lignocellulosic materials, followed by hemicellulose and lignin.
Besides, cellulose and hemicellulose are macromolecules constructed from different sugars; lignin is
an aromatic polymer synthesized from phenylpropanoid precursors," which were illustrated as
structural composition shown in Table 5 [36].
Fig. 4. shows the structural

composition of lignocellulosic
biomass feedstock
Table 5. Structural analyses of a few typical biomass samples [36]

Feedstock sample Lignin Cellulose Hemicelluloses
Hazelnut 42.9 26.8 30.4
Wheat Shell 18.6 28.8 39.4
Olive husk 48.4 24.0 23.6
Almond shell 20.4 50.7 28.9
Walnut shell 52.3 25.6 22.7
Sunflower shell 17.0 48.4 34.6
4.2. Chemical composition

A composition of chemicals substances and elementary elements present in each biomass determines
its ability to produce a better fuel source in contrast with fossil fuel. An urgent need for substitution
and employment of biodegradable material as an alternative fuel instead of conventional fuel for the
age of power production is that biomass has high volatility contrary to traditional power sources. This
8
statement has been further proven from the biomass lower ignition temperature than fossil fuel sources
such as coal. Despite that, biomass holds significantly fewer carbon and oxygen, which directly
impacts being too high in polarity and lessens the molecules' heat content. This aspect will be
discussed further in the upcoming section in the "proximate and ultimate analysis" of biomass
materials.
4.2.1. Ultimate analysis

In viewing biomass fuel properties, the ultimate analysis is associated as a notable element. It assists
with evaluating the percentage of each element such as carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O),
nitrogen (N), chlorine (Cl), and sulphur (S) present in each sample of biomass and the effect of these
components towards the combustion in boiler and environmental outlook. Moreover, it assists in the
computational proportion of C, O, H heating value estimation of the biomass sample. Stummann et al.
has performed a catalytic hydropyrolysis of biomass using a Como catalyst's deactivation and found
biomass samples with a higher C and H percentage, notably proof of higher heating value [37].
"Biomass with higher nitrogen (N) and (S) will cause the production of toxic gaseous such as oxides
of nitrogen (NOx) and sulphur oxides (SOx) during the combustion which is the paramount cause of
acid rain and releases of particulate matter (PM)" [38]. The majority of biomass material contains
sulphur of less than 0.2%, with only certain biomass fuels, go as high as 0.5%-0.7%[17].
4.2.2. Proximate analysis

In considering the combustion behaviours of biodegradable feedstock in the boiler, the percentage of
"volatile matter, fixed carbon, and ash contents" is determined or evaluated through proximate
analysis. On occasion, biomass containing high moisture content needs extra heat or energy before it
can be ignited; thereof, this type of biomass material is better suited in producing biofuels. The low
melting point of the dissolved ash contents in biomass fuels causes fouling and slagging issues in the
boiler, and if left untreated, it might generate paramount combustion issues and deterioration of boiler
equipment and worst comes the worst, cost of maintenance will be incurred with time. Nevertheless,
the biomass material's high volatility will lead to numerous favourable circumstances with low
ignition temperature and retained ignition for a more extended period. Also, the heating value of
biomass material is determined by the "fixed carbon and volatile matter; an increase in any of this
element will increase the heating value" of the feedstock too. Table 6 shows seven different types of
biomass material with the proximate analysis[39].
Table 6. shows seven different types of biomass with the proximate analysis [39].
Biomass Moisture Volatile Ash Fixed carbon Gross calorific
(%) matter (%) (%) (%) value Kcal/kg
Saw dust 13.8 72.9 0.6 12.7 4028
Groundnut 10.1 68 2.8 19.1 4008
shell
Coconut husk 13.4 56.7 2.4 27.5 3800
Rice husk 7.2 61.8 16.4 14.6 3729
Sugarcane 4.5 77.1 2.4 16 4547
bagasse
Jatropha cake 7.3 65.1 8.3 19.3 4725
4.2.3. Higher heating value (HHV)

The total energy released by a kilogram of fuel when it is fully combusted expressed as (kJ/kg) shown
in Eq.(3) below is referred to as high heating value (HHV) [40]. The produced HHV value is a
function of chemical fuel elements. HHV can be exhibited in two methods as either HHV or lower
heating value (LHV). The contrast between both terms is the water vapour, which does not add to the
LHV calculation. From a broad perspective, not all biomass has the same amount of HHV, and this is
9
solely depending on the variation from one type of plant to another type of plants, such as sawdust and
bamboo leaves, as shown in Table 6 [39]. Stolarski et al. evaluated biomass quality in terms of the
heat content of a chosen woody biomass depending on the soil improvement practice and the
surrounding climate and in which it is grown and other growing parameters [41].
HHV (kJ/g) = 1.1783 H + 0.3491C - 0.0211 A - 0.0151 N - 0.1034 O + 0.1005 S (3)
5. Classification of biomass energy

The present innovation of energy from biomass derivatives is at the highest peak, carbon-neutral, yet
the sum of CO2, which pre-existed for a significant number of years in the environment from the past
fossil fuel activities, is as high as it is impossible to be absorbed back by soils and trees. Therefore, it
is critical to diminish the worldwide CO2 outflows by energy age advancements that are carbon
negative. This section gives an idea of changes in biomass into energy with a crucial remark to the
bio-refinery idea. The ongoing advancements in the zone are likewise featured, and the pros and cons
in each area are stipulated in upcoming sections.
Biomass energy is termed as 'Bio-energy,' and it is one of the infinite energy resources on our
planet, and it has been used as a source of energy from the beginning of the human race. The energy
derivatives from biomass and recent discoveries in technological advancement have extraordinary
possibilities in resolving the energy crisis looked specifically by developing nations. Biomass
advancement is an effective alternative method to discard open waste gathered in enormous amounts
and ways every day from the urban and rural sectors. Bioenergy can be divided into two subsystems,
which are biofuels and bio-power. In each of these bio-energy conversions, pre-treatment needed
thermochemically or biochemically to produce biofuels, bio-products, or bio-power to a grid system.
Figure 5 illustrated the biomass's conversion process to produce end products such as biofuels, bio-
products, and bio-power.
Figure 5. Illustration of biomass conversion into end products such as biofuels, bioproducts, and
biopower
5.1. Biofuels
The biomass can be remoulded into "other forms of energy such as liquid biofuels, gases (syngas,
hydrogen and others) and electricity accessible via the technologies and processes involved as in
thermochemical or biochemical ways [42]. The conversion of biological matters such as corn, sugar
cane, maize, and others, transformed into ethanol via fermentation, is called transportation biofuels,
whereas soybean, canola, vegetable oil, or waste fats are biodiesel formed of a biofuel[43]. Bio-fuels
can be divided further into four-generation groups, "such as first-generation (1G), second-generation
(2G), third-generation (3G), and lastly, the fourth generation" [44]. Biomass composition and calorific
values depend on the biomass nature and process involved[45].
This paper is not going in-depth on biofuel; instead, it focuses on bioenergy and its application. The
accompanying segment gives a review of the diverse biomass transformation advances created to date.
5.2. Biopower
The biomass consumption to generate energy could vary from one to another in terms of the end
product generated from each conversion, as depicted in Figure 6. It can be thermal energy generated
10
directly from biomass burning or the vent gases produced from the combustion. The generated heat
from the processes, as mentioned earlier, is utilized to produce steam, which indirectly can be
reutilized certainly as either process heat for specific material production industries or transformed
into power denoted as "bio-power" by supplying it via a steam turbine. In particular, biomass
conversion's key objective prior to its use is to improve the relatively low characteristic of the material
as fuel, as fuel made up of biomass material is still exceptionally low in energy density. This problem
can be catered easily by redesign to fit into the "high energy density fuel markets such as charcoal,
liquid fuels, and gaseous fuels." This bio-fuel conversion will be the new advancement in
bioconversion processes.
Figure 6. Biopower Classification and conversion into energy

In recent years, about half of all bio-power generation occurs within the forest products industry,
where mills use their non-marketable waste biomass to provide power and heat for their operations.
Table 7 forecasts the renewable energy growth comparison from the year 2017-2050[47]. Bio-power
can be subclassified into two major conversions: thermochemical conversion and biochemical
conversion[46]. Combustion, gasification, and pyrolysis are categorized as a primary energy source by
thermochemical conversion. In contrast, anaerobic fermentation, aerobic fermentation, and enzymatic
conversion are categorized under the secondary energy source, which chemically altered through
biochemical conversion to produce thermal energy, electrical energy, and biofuels. In this article, only
two thermochemical processes will be discussed, which are direct combustion and gasification.
Table 7. Breakdown of renewable energy growth from 2017–2050 [47]

Renewable energy with units Year Final Consumption (2012-
2017 2018-2050 2050) (ppt/yr)
Wind (GW/yr) 53 154 0.33
Solar PV (GW/yr) 99 210 0.21
Solar Thermal million m2 30 283 0.10
Bioenergy (GW/yr) 5 12 0.03
Geothermal (GW/yr) 0.6 7 0.03
Hydro (GW/yr) 25 17 0.05
5.2.1. Combustion
Combustion is the most straightforward route of the thermochemical reaction of a fuel with oxygen to
generate CO2, tar, water vapour, heat, alkaline ash particles and smoke as a by-product of the
reaction[48] shown in equation (4) [49].
CXOYHZNWSV + aO2 bH2O + cCO2 + dSOr + eNmOp + Energy (4)

During the primaeval age, the energy which has been employed in the agricultural products drying
method or to generate heat or steam can be obtained through direct combustion, and it is unbelievable
11
that roughly 90% of biodegradable material that has been used as energy derivatives are subjected
through this combustion route globally[50]. Direct combustion very common in Central and South
America used in agrarian process industries such as rice, coffee, sugar cane, and others[51]. In 1989, a
biomass-based power plant was first introduced in the United States with a 6GW power supply[52].
In the past, direct combustion using biomass as fuel has been viewed as a method to dispose of
organic waste. The use of these low-cost fuels indirectly resulting in a low-efficiency boiler, which
relatively has opened a new horizon towards the energy production technologies in today's power
generation advancement. Besides that, the rising organic waste price and local factors such as taxes,
fuel prices, and emission control standards (environmental legislation) have impacted the trading
between investment and efficiency.
The interaction between fuel, energy, and environmental aspects can be considered the three
fundamental combustion applications. The ignition of biomass fuel in the boiler causes combustible
vapours' volatilization, which burns like flames. This unpredictable degradation resulted from the
combustion comprises three divisions, such as the vaporous part of (CO, CO2, and H2), a condensable
portion of (H2O, aldehydes, ketones) and tar and alcohols part containing (furan, phenolic mixes, and
sugar deposits). In excess air, the leftover material, which remains a carbon char, will consequently be
burnt. The heat resulting from the combustion process can be used as a source for secondary
conversion processes to produce electrical energy, which again depends on some other factors.
Few internal factors contribute to biomass material's combustion efficiency, such as moisture
content, ash content, heat dissipation, and incomplete combustion. The content of biomass moisture
differs from one type to another type of biomass; for example, agricultural residues have the lowest
moisture content of 10-12% compared to wood residues and bagasse, which is as high as 50%.
Therefore, it is proven that moisture content less than 50% will be the best prominent for combustion
as the moisture content not only inhibit the combustion, but it can cause significant energy loss in the
form of latent heat of steam, as well as rendering the material purification which indirectly reduces the
net energy from the overall process. The presence of fixed carbon and volatile matter plays a vital role
in combustion processes explained in the previous section. It is innocuous if biomass is fully
combusted, leaving CO2 and water, but this would be an issue in incomplete combustion, which
leaves fly ash, smoke, and other poisonous gases impeding the earth. Figure 7 illustrated biomass
power plant combustion [53].
Figure 7. Illustrated combustion system in a biomass power plant [53]

Minimization of poisonous gas emission and convenience of their potential impacts are significant
worries in the structure of ecological acceptance of biomass boiler systems. The biomass combustion
system varies in the furnace's designation, which could be very efficient, typically recovering from
65% to 90% of its energy. "The net power cycle efficiency that can be achieved is about 23% to 25%"
[50]. Diversification of a few internal factors explained in the previous paragraph, and the emission
control requirements have considered the biomass combustion system explained in Table 8 [54].
12
Table 8. Biomass combustion types [54]

Combustion types Advantages Disadvantages
Grate furnaces Economical in terms of Non-homogenous combustion in fluidized
operational cost furnaces
Fair dust load in flue gas Unique designs need to mix with other
fuels such as wood fuels and herbaceous
fuel
Can tolerate a wide variation in The efficiency will drop in spare oxygen of
fuel quality (moisture, size of a 7-8 in volume%
particle)
Underfeed stokers Low cost of investment Applicable for feedstock with lower ash
content (woodchips and sawdust)
The straightforward system Only suitable for small scale with boiler
with acceptable load control capacity of < 6 MWth
due to continuous fuel feeding
Suspension Specific capacity is very high The moisture of feedstock should be within
burners or <15%
Drying of feedstock with size reduction
needed to decrease discharges and unburnt
residues
Bubbling Moving parts excluded in the Uneconomical, boiler capacity of more
Fluidized Bed hot combustion chamber than 20 MWh
furnaces
Can be used for any type of Uneconomical
biomass with a wide range of
moisture content
Raises efficiency due to low Agglomeration of bed due to high alkaline
excess oxygen up to 3-4 % by feedstock (straw)
volume of gas
Circulating High turbulence causes high Uneconomical, boiler capacity needs to be
Fluidized Bed specific heat transfers more than 30 MWth
furnaces
Can be used for any type of Agglomeration of bed due to high alkaline
biomass with a wide range of feedstock (straw)
moisture content
Deficient excess oxygen (1-2 % Flue gas has high dust content
by volume of gas) raises
efficiency
Sher et al. has performed a study on the combustion of biomass fuels in a 20 kWth fluidized bed
combustor in oxygen medium and found that combustion medium alteration could lessen CO emission
up to 80% and decrease in NOX emission too, which has been proven from her study of using 25% and
30 % volume of pure oxygen with three different types of biomass feedstocks [55]. Sher et al. further
investigate that even though a significant decrease in the toxic emission can be obtained from the
study, an oxy-fuel mixture ratio of O2 and CO2 oxidant must be kept to 30 volume % due to a decrease
in gas temperature from the overall operation [55]. Arranz et al. experimented on the pinewood pellets
combustion behaviour and characterization through experimental and compared with other biomass
pellets in South West Europe, resulting in another proven technology to reduce ashes production,
NOX, and SO2 [56]. This palletization process's only drawback is that the processed pellets could be
hydrophilic, which absorbed moisture and consequently swelled up, causing handling and storage
constraints, explained by Koppejan et al. [57].
13
The addition of a certain percentage of biomass mix with coal can be co-fired in the coal-fired
power plant is an added value of biomass combustion exclusive usage to power a steam turbine, which
has been a promising method the nearest future[58]. Adding a biomass mixing fuel with coal would
not only be a promising method in the combustion system but would instead causing disadvantageous
too in boiler operation. This con can be catered with pre-treatment called torrefaction, which was
studied by Eddings et al. [59] and Pahla et al. [60] from landfill food waste torrefaction to be used as
in biomass co-firing and pulverized coal with raw Pinion Pine/Juniper wood as biomass in co-firing
too, torrefied and pyrolyzed forms found that a percentage of biomass within 50-80% with remaining
5-10% of coal with insignificant changes in the handling equipment, however, if the percentage of
coal is more than 10% or if both coal and biomass are burning separately in parallel co-firing then
changes in burners, mills, and dryer are compulsory. Apart from that, biomass physical/"thermo-
chemical and chemical properties are important tools in the application of biomass co-firing" [61].
Nevertheless, deposition of ash on the boiler tubes Pisa & Lazaroiu [62] and the characteristic of ash
brings many complications later in the co-firing of biomass, which is proven by Zhou et al. [63] study
on "biomass ashes effect on characteristics of sintering on high/low bituminous coal ash" melting
point. Xing et al. [64],[41] evaluated pine ash and El Cerrejon coal properties in co-firing through an
experiment and has identified that increase in biomass co-firing ratio will increase the rate of fly ash
deposition and slag, which settle down on the convection surfaces. Table 9 below listed the advantages
and disadvantages of biomass combustion [65]–[67].
Table 9. Listed advantages and disadvantages of direct combustion[65]–[67]

Advantages Disadvantages
Waste wood material such as sawdust or wood Agglomerating, fouling, slagging, and
chips is transformed into pellets that can be corrosion of the by-product ash produced in a
used as a source in biomass power plant to very high-temperature boiler from the
produce electricity combustion in fixed-bed due to coalescence of
the molten particles
Net carbon emission can be significantly Harvesting the whole trees is not an effective
reduced in comparison with fossil fuels, way of providing low-carbon electricity
creating a clean development mechanism production.
(CDM) in diminishing greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions
Co-firing such as (straw with coal) will be Biomass fuel supply limited exceptionally
efficient in larger power plants whereby it economical biomass sources from waste wood
produces less emission of CO2, SOx, and NOx products or agro-processing operations
5.2.2. Gasification
Gasification is one of the oldest technologies in producing energy from biomass material and used in
common in the early 1920s to power a car in Sweden by wood gasifier due to abundant wood biomass
availability and lack of fossil fuel resources. Gasification has less carbon emission and NOX than
combustion due to lower temperature range operation, which is the root cause of producing lower
NOX. The design of wood gasifiers has been studied during World War Two from 1939 to 1945 to
optimize and enhance their performance[68]. De Lasa et al. [69] has performed "catalytic steam
gasification of biomass" and confirmed that this thermochemical process is well-known among other
thermochemical conversions for the reasons of cost-effectiveness and efficiency in using
lignocellulosic biomass conversion to bioenergy. Gasification is attained via incomplete combustion in
a very high temperature in an oxygen-lean confined space, accompanying by gaseous release or
syngas by-product, which primarily comprises CO, H2, CH4, CO2, H2O, and others are shown in
equation (5) below. The produced syngas from the thermochemical reaction can be altered into liquid
form via Fisher-Tropsch (FT) method or directly subjected to a combustion engine during the process
of gasification [70], [71] as shown in Figure 8 [72].
14
Figure 8. illustrated the gasification system [72]
Biomass H2(g) +CH4(g) +CO(g)+CO2(g) +NH3(g) +H2S(g) +H2O(l) +Tar(l) +C(s) + trace elements (5)
Factors such as the density of biomass fuel in distress and eradicated by introducing densification
techniques such as palletization. In that sense, the pre-treatment method not only caters to moisture
and bulk density of biomass feedstocks, but it has also reduced the transportation cost of the fuels.
However, this technique has its imperfection, such as swelling of biomass pellets due to moisture
absorption. Arranz et al. [56] has envisaged the problem of swelling through studies on the mineral oil
coated wood pellet and have proven that coated mineral oil wood pellet retained its shape up to the
1800s submerged in water in comparison with untreated wood pellet. Moreover, this process has also
shown that HHV's value increases significantly of the treated wood pellet by 0.9MJkg-1 and bulk
energy density by 1.4GJm-3 on average, which indirectly reduces the fuel's transportation cost Arranz
et al. [56].
Apart from that, different biomass used in gasification needed different operating conditions yet
still relied on the gasifier type used to get the desired by-product, especially the amount of tar in the
gas product. Gasification comprises three stages: drying, pyrolysis, and partial oxidation, which
overlap; thereof produces a combination of multiple reactions. Besides that, there are three different
types of gasifying mediums, such as oxygen, air, steam, or CO2, which gives different by-products
from the reaction shown in Table 10 [73]–[76]. Parthasarathy & Narayanan [77] has studied different
gasifying medium through the study of "hydrogen production from steam gasification of biomass" and
has found that oxygen has the highest value of high calorific syngas. In contrast, in steam and air
combination medium, it produces intermediates calorific value due to excessive H2 production than
air, which is proof that the gasifying medium plays an essential factor in the transformation of solid
char and hydrocarbon into CO and H2 Parthasarathy & Narayanan [77].
Table 10. Gasifying medium and heating values[73]–[76]

Gasifying medium Heating value MJ Effect
Nm-3
Air (Nitrogen) 4–7 Dilute syngas with the
low calorific value
Air (Oxygen) 28 High calorific syngas
value
Steam/steam 10-18 Syngas with intermediate
&oxygen calorific value
Besides that, few other factors contribute to the end product production, such as gasifier pressure
and temperature, residence time, the existence of a catalyst, and gasifier design. Based on the chemical
reaction and temperature ranges, the gasification process is divided into primary, secondary, and
tertiary reaction stages, shown in Table 11 [78]–[80]. Narváez et al. [81] have proven that an increase
15
in temperature will aid in the production of gaseous by-product in gasification where; this has been
demonstrated in a recent study of bubbling fluidized bed gasification temperature changes from 700
℃ to 850 ℃ with less tar formation of only 26% and economically expedient because of lower cost
for gas cleaning. In general, the residence time has a significant effect on the tar composition rather
than tar yield, which is proven by a slight increase with less than the 20s; it would increase the H 2 and
CO concentration and vice versa for CH4 and CO2 content from the overall gasification process.
Table 11. Gasification stages[78]–[80]

Reaction Temperature By-product Characteristic of by-
stages °C product
Primary < 500 Oxygen vapour, liquid, H2O, Monomer with a low
and CO2 molecular weight
Secondary 700 - 850 H2, water vapour, CO, CO2, Tar from this stage
gaseous ole-fins, phenols and contains mixed
aromatics from primary oxygenates, alkylphenols,
vapour and liquid by - phenolic ethers,
product heterocyclic ethers, and
polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbon
Tertiary 850 - 1000 H2, CO, and CO2 are formed
along with water vapour,
polynuclear liquid tar, and
polynuclear aromatic
The sum of biomass to be prepared is an additional consideration; for instance, "fixed bed systems
are reasonable for marginal capacities while fluidized and entrained bed systems are befitting for
medium-sized and large-scale capacities, respectively." Even though there are few varieties of
gasifier[82] in the market such as fluidized bed, fixed bed, and spouted bed [83]–[85]which well
suited the gasification system but these technology application does not contribute any values in the
gasifier system due to limited operational condition that need to be met to run the system such as high
temperature and pressure. Hence, García et al. [86], Choudhary et al. [86], and Sharma et al. [87] have
studied the essence of gasification is to operate in the lower range of temperature, which grows the
realization of practical catalyst application such as oxides, hydroxides, nickel throughout the process
and therein lays the suitability of converting a lower calorific value of lignocellulosic material into
rich H2 gas, decrease liquid and tar yield and to eradicate problems such as agglomeration, sintering,
erosion, decomposition, and corrosion. Corella et al. have reported that about 1.3% wt tars formation
decrement can be seen from the initial amount of 6.5 with calcined dolomite addition in
gasification[87]. Rapagnà et al. have experimented by adding olivine as a catalyst could be a more
practical alternative due to its attrition resistance potential compared to dolomite, making it more tar
reduction of up to 90% [88]. Apart from that, Ni-based catalyst addition, not favourable in the
gasification process due to its fast deactivation of the catalyst, which can be catered by temperature
levitating to a certain degree. Moreover, the formation of tar from the process cause limitation in the
gasification system too in blockages of filter, which can be in the form of ceramic or metallic and fuel
lines[89].
The gasification system choices are "biomass feed-stock characters function such as particle size or
density, moisture, inorganic content (ash), and toxicity." Also, "supercritical water gasification
(SCWG) can be used in higher moisture content" biomass material. It is proven feasible in one of the
studies conducted by Tock et al. [90] where banana peel can be processed via gasification to produce
80.52MW in the absence of drying process, which could be costly and the yield of H2 will be higher
compared to CO and less tar formation; thereof corrosion and gas treatment complication can be
circumvented too. Apart from that, plant size is another matter of concern, especially in biogas volume
and gasification designation cost production. Mann has found that in hydrogen production through
16
gasification, a small plant (30tons/day) is vital to produce (21,594 m3/day), which can be feed for 500
automobiles [91]. Besides that, a giant plant needs higher costs, and biomass prices directly contribute
to the hydrogen market price. Density and particle size engaged a substantial part or aspect in the
gasification system by sustaining heat transfer rate, less tar, and high gas yield. Kumabe et al. have
found that during co-gasification in Mulia Coal, the particle size reduction ranges from (0.5 - 1.0mm)
has a significant amount of sulphur reduction compared to the particle's initial size (106µm) [92]. The
production of methanol through gasification might not be economically feasible due to the gaseous
separation process complication using special equipment[93]. In fact, this could be the cause of
methane production via steam changing familiar than through the gasification process. "Every
gasification system has its pros and cons and, therefore, feedstock with a character appropriate for a
gasifier should be employed to ensure high-quality syngas, cost-effective and efficient operation, and
minimum environmental impact," which has been listed in Table 12 below [83]–[85].
Table 12. Listed advantages and disadvantages of gasification bed [83]–[85]

Advantages Disadvantages
More variation in gasifier design such as Gasification needs a catalyst for the process
fluidized bed, fixed bed, and spouted bed
Gasification can provide both power and The obtained syngas needs to be cleaned and
heat and useable syngas which can be treated before the desired product
transformed into chemicals
Lower NOX, CO, and particulate emissions low calorific value (LCV) of gas produced
6. Conclusions
Expecting a fruit on the next day of planting a seed is against the natural nature's cell turnover
capability. The same thing goes for implementing biomass as one of the energy supplies depends on
the acceptance of humankind and the reliability of the source with negligible environmental damages.
After all, humankind only starts to view supplementary sources after seeking goodness from various
points of view, such as comprehensive energy security, fluctuation of fossil fuel price, environmental
legislation and subsidies from government agencies, new job opportunities, and others.
The production of bioenergy still a most controversial topic in the world due to uncertainty of how
reliable this technology could be and, at the same time, replacing current fossil fuel usage for
electricity or biofuel productions. Even though the expanding usage of raw material has been
implemented with its thermochemical properties, it produces other drawbacks such as slagging and
fouling in the direct combustion system and temperature, pressure, and catalyst constraints in the
gasification system. Again, this implementation will lead to scholars' paradox in finding ways by
introducing co-firing solutions with fossil fuel to reduce the problem mentioned above; thereof, it
causes price decrement. Moreover, a binding agent such as algae of 20% has been proven durable with
a negligible reduction of the feedstock's original energy content and alters fuel's physical properties to
reduce transportation costs. In contrast, both government and non-government agencies have
introduced policies and subsidies throughout the world to reduce the import dependency of fuels,
promote a cleaner environment, create new employment in rural areas, create additional income for
farmers, and sustain health benefits. Thus, the decision-making process has landed on our palms now
to decide whether to pick it or to drop it.
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A review on the characteristic of biomass and classification of

K Sivabalan1,2, Suhaimi Hassan1, Hamdan Ya1 and Jagadeesh Pasupuleti2

1.1. World Energy

1.2. Biomass vs fossil fuels

Fig.3 The cycle of biomass energy

Water + CO2 + Sunlight C6H12O6 + O2 (1)

6H20 + 6CO2 + Radiant energy C6H12O + 6O2 (2)

Table 2. Sources of Biomass [25]

3.1. Agricultural crop (energy crop)

3.2. Agricultural waste (crop residues)

Crop group Crop Residue RPR (HHV)heating value,

Oilseeds Mustard and Shoot 1.8 17

Sugarcane Sugarcane Bagasse 0.33 20

Horticultural Banana Peel 3 17.4

Others Cotton Shoot 3.8 17.4

3.3. Forest residues

3.4. Municipal solid waste

4.1. Structural composition

Fig. 4. shows the structural

Table 5. Structural analyses of a few typical biomass samples [36]

4.2. Chemical composition

4.2.1. Ultimate analysis

4.2.2. Proximate analysis

4.2.3. Higher heating value (HHV)

HHV (kJ/g) = 1.1783 H + 0.3491C - 0.0211 A - 0.0151 N - 0.1034 O + 0.1005 S (3)

5. Classification of biomass energy

Figure 6. Biopower Classification and conversion into energy

Table 7. Breakdown of renewable energy growth from 2017–2050 [47]

CXOYHZNWSV + aO2 bH2O + cCO2 + dSOr + eNmOp + Energy (4)

Figure 7. Illustrated combustion system in a biomass power plant [53]

Table 8. Biomass combustion types [54]

Table 9. Listed advantages and disadvantages of direct combustion[65]–[67]

Figure 8. illustrated the gasification system [72]

Table 10. Gasifying medium and heating values[73]–[76]

Table 11. Gasification stages[78]–[80]

Table 12. Listed advantages and disadvantages of gasification bed [83]–[85]

India Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 32 504–12

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