Information Technology

UNIT-I
Introduction:
Computer Definition - Characteristics and Limitations of Computer, Hardware —Generations of
Computer, Classification of Computers, Applications of Computer, Basic Components of PC,
Computer Architecture - Primary and Secondary Memories- Input and Output Devices- Operating
System- Function of Operating System- Types of Operating System- Languages and its Types.

Computer Definition:
Computer is an electronic device that accepts data as Input, stores it, processes it at high speed
according to the instructions given by the user and gives the result as output consistently,
accurately in user required format.
The Word computer is derived from the Greek word “Compute”. It means to perform or
calculate. So a Powerful computer can handle 3 to 4 Million Instructions per Second (MIPS).

Characteristics of a computer
Computers have become part of our life. We use computers on daily basis, in our school, at
home, at office. Why we are so dependent on computers? Because they have made our lives
easier, they provide us entertainment, they can store our valuable data for as long as we want it to
keep.
Following are the characteristics of computers:
Speed: Being an electronic device, computer works at high speed. They can perform millions of
calculations in less than a second. Even an ordinary computer works hundreds of times faster than
a human being. Using a computer we can save lot of time.
Storage: This is the most important characteristic of computer. These can store large volumes of
data in a very small place. The storage capacity of even a very small computer is so large that it can
store the information contained in thousands of pages. Data can be easily stored & retrieved form
a computer. The storage capacity of a computer is measured in bytes. One byte means eight bits or
characters.
Accuracy: Computers are highly accurate. Computers are electronic instruments so they are less
prone to make mistakes than human beings, because the data that is entered is verified several
times.

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Reliability: Computers are extremely reliable machines. They perfectly follow all our instructions
and work accordingly. We do not have to supervise the working of a computer. Once the program
and data are feed into the computer, it follows the programs and performs calculations.
Diligence: Computers do not get tired of work. They can work continuously for hours without a
work
break. Though they work continuously; their efficiency does not get reduced.
Versatility: Computers are extremely versatile. Though computers were first designed as
calculating machines, they slowly evolved into machines capable of doing several different things.
Today computers are being used not only in engineering and scientific fields but everywhere
including the field of arts.
Creativity: Computers do not have creativity. They cannot create music or paint like human beings.
They cannot use items or other instruments like human being.
Programmability: Computers can be programmed in different ways. A single computer can be
programmed to perform several functions and tasks.
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
The word Generation in general indicates a state of improvement in the product development
process. Here it refers to the different advancements of new computer technology.
First Generation : 1940-1956
Second Generation : 1956-1963
Third Generation : 1964-1971
Fourth Generation : 1971-1989
Fifth Generation : 1989- Present
First Generation - 1940-1956:
1956: Vacuum Tubes
First generation computers used a very large number of “Vacuum tubes
tubes”
for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. These computers are very
big in size that they often required an entire room to be installed. Hence
these are mainly used for scientific purpose.
purp But due to its disadvantages
like generating a lot of heat, consuming lot of electricity, very expensive
the next generation component has been introduced.
Examples of First Generation are UNIVAC (Universal
Automatic Computer) and ENIAC (Electronic Numerical
integrator and calculator)

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Second Generation - 1956-1963:

1963: Transistors
Second generation computers were manufactured using
“Transistors” rather than “Vacuum tubes”. Transistors are
invented in 1947 but they are used for manufacturing computers only in
the late 1950s.Transistors were far superior to vacuum tubes. Computers
manufactured using transistors were smaller, faster, cheaper, and more energy,-efficient
energy, and
reliable than their first-generation
generation predecessors.
Third Generation - 1964-1971:
1971: In
Integrated Circuits
The development of the Integrated Circuit (I.C) was the hall mark of the
third-generation
generation computers. Several electronic components such as
transistors, resistors, and capacitors were miniaturized and placed on
silicon chips, called integrated
ated chips, which drastically increased the
speed and efficiency of computers.
Integrated chips are smaller, less expensive, more reliable and faster
in operation, consume less power, and generate less heat than the
components used earlier. The third-generation
third computers were also
more powerful than their predecessor.
Fourth Generation -1971-Present:
Present: Microprocessors
The “Microprocessor” launched the fourth generation computers, with
thousands of integrated circuits built into a single silicon chip. During the
fourth generation, semiconductor memories what were very fast used
and HDDs (Hard Disk drive) also became cheaper, smaller in size and
larger in capacity.
During this period, many new operating systems were developed,
including, MS-DOS, MS-Windows,
Windows, UN
UNIX and Macintosh operating
system.
Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond):
Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) “Artificial Intelligence” computers are completely based
on the new concept of artificial intelligence [A.I]. Although such computers are still in
development, there are certain applications such as voice recognition that are widely being used
today. Higher speed, more storage, ability to solve more complex and logical problems. Use of
speech recognition technology that can interact with humans.

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Earlier, Computers are also classified based on the sizes; they are
a) Micro Computers b) Mini Computers
c) Mainframe Computers d) Super Computers.
Micro Computers: -
Low cost small digital computers are known as microcomp
microcomputers.
uters. The word
length of microcomputers may be 8 bit or 16 bits or 32 bits. Microcomputers
general purpose
are widely used in industrial control, instrumentation, general-purpose
computations, commercial appliances, office automation, automobiles, and so
on.
Mini Computers: -
Mini Computers are bigger than microcomputers. It will accept the medium
level jobs. These are more powerful, faster and costlier than microcomputers.
These computers processing speed may lie in the range of 10 – 30 MIPS.
These computers cost lies between several lakhs. Mini computers are used in
industries, government organizations, universities etc.
Mainframe Computers: -
Mainframe Computers are bigger than mini computers. It will accept Large
Level jobs. Mainframe computers are more powerful, faster and costlier than
minicomputers. These computers processing speed lies in the range 30 – 100
MIPS. These computers cost lies between several crores.
Mainframe computers are used in large industries; large business and government organizations
research organizations etc.
Super Computers:
Super Computers are bigger than mainframe computers. It will accept big jobs. Super computers
re powerful, faster and costlier than mainframe computers. These
are more
computers processing speed lies in the range 400 – 10,000 MIPS. The
RAM capacity lies in the range of 1 GB or more. These computers cost lies
between several corers. Super computers are used for solving very
sophisticated problems and to process massive amount of data. They are
used for weather forecasting; for weapons research and development;
sending rockets into space and so on.

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BASED ON THEIR WORKING / DATA:

Computer systems may be classified according to the data they are designed to process or they may
be classified according to their size and capabilities.
There are three types of computer under this category. They are:
1. Analog computer 2. Digital Computer 3. Hybrid Computer

Analog Computer:
These are computers that measure the continuous physical magnitude or
electrical states.
For example: pressure, temperature, voltage, volume, etc.
For instance a petrol pump at the filling station uses an analog device to
measure the quantity of petrol and the quantity of the pumped fuel to the
nearest one tenth of a liter. A speedometer in a vehicle is another example of analog computer.
Analog computers are used for scientific, engineering & process control purposes.
Digital Computers:
These are computer designed to processed data in discrete numerical
form which are represented by discrete signal using binary code,
numbers, letters, and symbols are represented by codes based on the
binary number system consisting of two digits .i.e. 1,0 the digital
computer must convert all data to binary form. Generally, results from
digital computer are more than the results from analog computers. They are used for counting and
calculating numbers. Examples are calculator, adding machine, counting machine, etc.
Hybrid Computers (Analog + Digital):
A hybrid computing system is one in which desirable characteristics
of both the analog and digital computers are integrated. In an
intensive care unit, analog computers may measure the patient’s
heart rate, temperature, etc. The measurements may then be
converted into numbers and supplied to the digital part of the
system which will thereafter regulate the flow of certain medications.
They can be used for both counting and measuring. In fact, they are very useful in the control of
manufacturing and processing.

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APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
Computers are now part of our lives, they play important role in business, education, health care
etc. Some of the applications of computers are,
Business: A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility
which has made it an integrated part in all business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for −
 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employee database
 Maintenance of stocks, etc.
Banking:
Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.
Banks provide the following facilities −
 Online accounting facility, which includes checking current
balance, making deposits and overdrafts, checking interest
charges, shares, and trustee records.
 ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for customers to
deal with banks.
Education: The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the
education system.
 The computer provides a tool in the education system known
as CBE (Computer Based Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number
of computer students.
Military: Computers are largely used in defense. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military
also employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where
a computer has been used are −
 Missile Control
 Military Communication

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 Military Operation and Planning

 Smart Weapons
Communication: Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that
is received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for
whom it is meant. Some main areas in this category are −
 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing
Government: Computers play an important role in government
services. Some major fields in this category are −
 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Computation of male/female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting
Sports: In sports, computers are used to compile statistics, identify weak players and string players
by analyzing statistics, create training programmers and diets for athletes, and suggest game plan
strategies based on the competitor’s past performance.
Hospitals: Hospitals use computers to record every information about patients, from the time of
their admission to exit.
Ex: The date, time, reason for being admitted, the doctor being consulted, all prescribed
medications, doctor visits, other hospital services, bills etc.,
Travel and Tourism: Computers are used to prepare tickets, monitor the routes of trains, aero
planes, and guide planes to a safe landing etc.
Movies: Computers are used to create sets, special effects, animations, cartoons, imaginary
characters, video, and commercials etc.
Weather forecasting: Computers are also used for mathematical equations along with data about
air pressure, temperature, humidity, and other values etc.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DIGITAL COMPUTER

A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics. They can solve highly complicated
problems quickly and accurately. A computer as shown in Fig., performs basically five major
computer operations or functions irrespective of their size and make. These are
1) It accepts data or instructions through input,
2) It stores data,
3) It can process required data by the user,

4) It gives results as production, and

5) It controls all functions inside the computer
Computer consists of Three Units
 Input Unit
 Central Processing Unit
 Output Unit
INPUT UNIT
Input unit accepts data and programs from the user through various input devices and makes that
data available for processing to other units of the computer. The data input to a computer can be
in the form of numeric (digits), alphabetic (text), alphanumeric, audio, video etc. To input
different kinds of data in to the computer, different kinds of input devices can be used, such as
keyboard, mouse, trackball and joystick. Input data can also be images, voice, video clippings etc.

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CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

Any type of work done by the computer is called as process. All types of processes are done by
the processor in CPU. It is like heart of the computer. CPU is the combination of three main
units. They are a) Memory Unit, b) Control Unit, and c) Arithmetic and Logic Unit.
a) MEMORY UNIT
The function of memory is to store data, programs or instructions. As the computer is an
electronic device that understands only ‘0’s ‘1’s, it stores the data and instructions in ‘ON’
(1) or ‘OFF’ (0) states. The Memory unit of the computer holds data and instructions that
are entered through the input unit, before they are processed. It preserves the intermediate
and final results before these are sent to output devices. It also saves the data for further
use. The memory of computer is classified into two categories. They are Primary memory
and secondary memory.
b) CONTROL UNIT
This unit controls all units of the computer either internally (MU, ALU) or externally
(Input & Output Units) connected to the computer. The control unit instructs the input
unit, where to store the data after receiving it from the user. It controls the flow of data and
instructions from the storage unit to ALU. It also controls the flow of results from the ALU
to the storage unit. The control unit is generally referred as the central nervous system of
the computer.
c) ARITHMETIC LOGICAL UNIT
All arithmetical calculations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and logical
like comparisons and decision making can be done in ALU. Whenever calculations are
required, the control unit transfers the data from storage unit to ALU. Once the
computations are done, the results are transferred to the Memory unit by the control unit
and then it will be sent to output unit for displaying the final results.
OUTPUT UNIT
Output is the final result that the users receive from the computer. The output unit of a computer
provides the information and results to the user after computation through output devices. The
output devices are of 2 types
Soft copy output devices Ex. Monitor, Speaker.
Hard copy output devices Ex. Printer, plotter.

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Soft copy devices are used to prepare the soft copies. Prepared soft copies are used for temporary
reference and it will save the stationary and printing cost. Whereas the hard copy devices are used
to prepare hard copies.
Prepared hard copies are used for further references and it will waste the stationary and printing
cost for unnecessary output is taken. Some devices are both input and output devices.
Example: Hard disk, Floppy disk, Magnetic disk etc.
Secondary Storage Devices: These devices are used to store large amount of data permanently.
There are several kinds of secondary storage devices. They are magnetic Tapes, magnetic disks,
CDs etc.
Peripheral Devices: The devices that are connected to CPU externally are called Peripheral
devices. (OR) Input and output devices are also called as peripherals devices.

MEMORIES
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory
is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address, where varies from zero to memory size minus one.
Ex: if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 =65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535

Primary and Secondary Memories

Primary Memories: -
The primary memory of computer is called as main memory. The main memories are fast
memories. It is used to store programs and data. The memory location of main memory is
accessed directly by the CPU. Main memory uses semi-conductor technology. These memories

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are very costlier. It has random access property and small access time. The capacity of primary
memory is limited. Each storage locations have unique address by which it can be identified.
Primary memories are further divided into two types.
They are a) RAM and ROM
Secondary Memories:
The secondary memories are also called as auxiliary memories. These memories are used for bulk
storage of programs, data & other information. It is non-volatile memories i.e. it stores the
information permanently. It has much larger capacity than primary memories. It stores system
software, assemblers, compilers, useful packages, large data files etc.
The secondary storage devices like magnetic tapes and disk units are used for storing large
amounts of information needed by CPU. The magnetic memories such as hard disks and floppy
disks are most commonly used secondary memories in computers. The information storing
procedure in secondary memories are more complex than main memory.
Differences between Primary & Secondary Memories
Primary Memories Secondary Memories
1. Primary Memories are volatile 1. Secondary Memories are non-volatile memories
Memories i.e. (temporary Memories). i.e. (Permanent Memories)
2. Primary memories are costlier 2. Secondary memories are cheaper
3. The Primary memory accessing speed is 3. The Secondary memories accessing speed is
high slow.
4. The contents of main memory are 4. The contents of secondary memory is accessed
accessed directly by the CPU indirectly by the CPU.
5. Primary Memory is also called as Main 5. Secondary Memory is also called as Auxiliary
Memory Memory.
6. Primary Memories are Limited. 6. Secondary Memories are unlimited.
7. Main memories use semi-conductor 7. Secondary Memories uses Magnetic
technology. Technology.
8. The information storing procedure is 8. The information storing procedure is very
very easy. complex.
9. Memory locations are identified with 9. Memory locations are identified with the help of
the help of its unique address. side, track, sectors etc.
10. Main Memory has random access 10. Secondary memory have sequential and random
Property. access property.
11. Examples: RAM and ROM 11. Examples: Magnetic Tape, Floppy Disk etc.

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CACHE MEMORY
Cache Memory: This is an intermediate form if storage
between the ultra-fast
fast registers and RAM. The CPU uses cache
memory to store instructions and data that are repeatedly
required to execute programs, to improve the overall system
speed and to increase the
he performance of the computer. Some
memory caches are in built in the architecture of
microprocessors.
For Ex: The Intel 80486 microprocessor has an 8K memory cache, and the Pentium has a 16K
cache.
Working of the Cache Memory: When a program is being executed and the CPU wants to read
data or instructions, the following steps are performed.
 The CPU first checks whether the data or instruction is available in the cache memory. If it is
ere the CPU reads the data or instructions from the main memory into the
not present there
processor registers and also copies it into the cache memory.
 When the same piece of data/instruction is needed again the CPU reads it from the cache
memory instead of the main memory.
memory
 Cache is present in several places in a computer. Most hard drives and network cards have
cache present to speed up data access.
 Without cache, the computer would be a much slower device.

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INPUT & OUTPUT DEVICES

Input / Output devices are used to communicate with the computer. Input devices bring
information INTO the computer and output devices bring information OUT of a computer
system. These input/output devices are also known as peripherals.
Following are different categories of Input and output devices.
INPUT DEVICES
The devices which are used to give data and instructions to the computer are called Input Devices
 Standard input devices:
Keyboard  Mouse  Track pad
 Light Pen  Touch Screener  Game Controllers
 Optical input devices:
 Bar code reader  Image scanners & Optical Character Recognition
 Audio input devices:
 Micro phones  Video capture card  Speech Recognition
 Video Input devices:
 PC Video Camera  Video capture card

OUTPUT DEVICES
The devices which are used to display the results or information are called Output Devices.
There are two types of output devices. They are:
1) HARDCOPY OUTPUT DEVICES 2) SOFT COPY OUTPUT DEVICES
 Printers Monitors
Impact CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
Dot matrix Flat Panel
Line
Band
Non-Impact
Laser
Inkjet

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STANDARD INPUT DEVICES

Keyboard:
 It is a text based input device that allows the user to input alphabets, numbers and other
characters.
 It consists of a set of keys arranged on a board.
 Keyboard is the most widely used input device.
 The keyboard consists of approximately 110 keys.
 These
ese are divided into Four portions they are
Alphabetical portions (a to z)
Numerical keypad (0 t0 9)
Functional keys (F1 to F12)
Arrow keys
Mouse:
 The mouse is a small device used to point to a particular
particular place on the screen
and select in order to perform one or more actions.
 It can be used to select menu commands, size windows, start programs etc.,
 The most conventional kind of mouse has two buttons on top: the left one being used most
frequently.
Joystick:
 The joystick is a vertical stick which moves the graphic cursor in a direction the
stick is moved.
 It typically has a button on top that is used to select the option pointed by the
cursor.
 Joystick is used as an input device primarily used with video
video games, training simulators and
controlling robots.
Light Pen:
 It is a pen shaped device used to select objects on a display screen.
 It is quite like the mouse (in its functionality) but uses a light pen to move the
pointer and select any object on the screen by pointing to the object.
 Users of Computer Aided Design (CAD) applications commonly use the light
pens to directly draw on screen.

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Touch Screen:
 A touch screen is a computer display screen that serves as an input device.
When a touch screen is touched by a finger or stylus, it registers the event and
sends it to a controller for processing.
 A touch screen may contain pictures or words that the user can touch to interact with the
device.
 Common examples of touch screen include information kiosks, and bank ATMs.

Trackball
 A trackball is a computer cursor control device used in many notebook and
laptop computers.
 The trackball is usually located in front of the keyboard toward the user.
 Essentially, the trackball is an upside-down mouse that rotates in place within a
socket. The user rolls the ball to direct the cursor to the desired place on the screen and can
click one of two buttons (identical to mouse buttons) near the trackball to select desktop
objects or position the cursor for text entry.

Optical Input devices

For a long time, computer scientists have the goal of enabling computers to “see”.
Computers may never see in the same way that human do, but new technologies allow
computers to use light as a source of input.
These tools fall into the category of Optical Input Devices.
a) Scanner:
 Scanner is an input device used for direct data entry
from the source document into the computer
system.
 It converts the document image into digital form so
that it can be fed into the computer.
 Capturing information like this reduces the
possibility of errors typically experienced during
large data entry.
 Hand-held scanners are commonly seen in big stores to scan codes and price
information for each of the items.

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b) Barcode Readers:
 The most widely used input device after the keyboard
and mouse is a bar code reader.
 The most common type of bar code reader is the
flatbed model, which is commonly found in
supermarkets and department stores.
 These devices convert a bar code, which is a pattern of
printed bars on products, into a code that the computer
can understand.
 The bar code reader emits a beam of light on bar code image. A light-sensitive
detector identifies the bar code image.

Audio Input Devices:

Audio input devices allow a user to send audio signals to a computer for processing, recording,
or carrying out commands. Devices such as microphones allow users to speak to the computer
in order to record a voice message or navigate software.

Audio input devices are also used to record live music to a computer. Many software packages
offer extensive sound editing for musical enthusiasts. MIDI-in settings allow musical
instruments such as synthesizers and drum machines to be recorded to tracks. Using a
microphone, a person can add acoustic instruments and voice. Tracks can be edited and
mixed to build songs.

Video Input Devices

An input device is any device that sends data from an outside source into a processing system
such as a computer or television. A video input device is any device that sends video. There are
several types of video input devices that allow you to play video from an external device on a
video display.

Example:

Media Players

Media players are devices that play any sort of media. These include physical media players
such as VCRs, DVD players and Blu-ray players, as well as digital media players such as DVRs

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o players such as the Roku Netflix player and other Netflix

and streaming video Netflix-supported
devices.

Digital Cameras

Digital cameras can also function as video input devices. Most digital cameras, including still
cameras and video cameras, include video output ports such as composite
composite or HDMI ports;
these ports allow you to connect the camera to a TV to view the photos and videos form the
camera. Digital cameras can also be connected to a computer to transfer photos and videos.

HARD COPY OUTPUT DEVICES

The hard copy devices are used to prepare the hardcopies (Paper Output). Prepared hardcopy
is used for further reference and it will waste the stationary and printing cost for unnecessary
output is taken.
Examples: 1.PRINTER 2. PLOTTER
PRINTERS:
A printer is a device which allows a user to print items on paper, such as letters and pictures.
Mostly a printer prints under the control of a computer. Many can also work as a copying
computer.
machine or with a digital camera to print directly without using a computer.
Printers are of 2 types a) Impact b) Non-Impact
Non Printers
a) Impact Printers: An impact printer creates an image by using pins or hammers to press an
inked ribbon against the paper. The most common type of impact printers are:
 Dot matrix printers
 Line printers
 Band printers.

Dot matrix printers

A dot matrix printer creates an image by using a mechanism
called a print head, which contains a matrix of short pins
arranged in one or more columns. On receiving instruction
from the PC, the printer can push any of the pins out in any
combination. By pushing out pins in various combinations, the
print head can create alphanumeric characters.

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The speed of dot matrix printers is measured in characters per second (CPS). The slowest
dot matrix printer creates 50 to 70 characters per second; the fastest print more than 500
cps.
Advantages of dot matrix printer
1) Can print on multi--part forms or carbon copies
2) Low printing cost per page
3) Can be used on continuous form paper
4) Reliable and durable
Disadvantages of Dot matrix printer
1) Noisy and Limited print quality
2) Low printing speed
3) Limited color printing
Line Printers:
A line printer is a special type of impact printer. It
works like dot matrix printer but uses a special wide print
head that can print an entire line o
of text at one time. Line
printers do not offer high resolution but are incredibly fast;
the fastest can print 3,000 lines of text per minute.
Band Printers:
A band printer features a rotating band embossed
with alphanumeric characters. To print a charact
character, the
machine rotates the band to the desired character, then a
small hammer taps the band, pressing the character against a
ribbon. A good-quality
quality band printer can generate 2,000 lines
of text per minute.
b) Non-Impact Printers
Non-impact
impact Printers use other means to create an image.
impact printers are Ink jet printers and laser printers
Examples for the non-impact
Ink Jet Printers:
 Ink jet printers create an image directly on the paper by spraying
ink through tiny nozzles.
 The ink jet printers can print two to four pages per minute.

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 Many ink jet printers use one cartridge for color printing and a separate black cartridge for
black-and-white printing.
 This feature saves money by reserving colored ink only for color printing.
Advantages of inkjet printers:
1) Low cost, High quality of output, capable of printing fine & smooth details
2) Capable of printing in vivid color, good for printing pictures
3) Good for Small Offices
4) High-Quality Photos
5) Less Expensive than Laser Printers
Disadvantages of inkjet printers
1) Print head is less durable, prone to damage
2) Expensive replacement ink cartridges
3) Not good for high volume printing
4) Ink is sensitive to water, even small drop of water can cause blurring
5) Expensive Ink Cartridges required
Laser Printers:
Laser printers are more expensive than ink jet printers, their print
quality is higher, and most are faster.
As their name implies, a laser is at the heart of these printers. Just as
the electron gun in a monitor can target any pixel, the laser in a laser
printer can aim at any point on a drum, creating an electrical charged.
Then with pressure and heat, the toner is transferred off the drum onto the paper.
A color laser printer works like a single color model, except that the process is repeated four times
and a different toner color is used for each pass. The four colors used are Cyan, Magenta, Yellow
and Black.
Advantages of Laser printers
1) High resolution and High print speed
2) Laser printers are known for being fast.
3) Printout is not sensitive to water
4) Good for high volume printing
5) For basic, monochrome print jobs, some laser printers can produce upwards of 40 pages
per minute.

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Disadvantages of Laser printers

1) More expensive than inkjet printer
2) These are less capable of printing bright colors
3) The cost of toner replacement and drum replacement is high
4) Warm up time needed
5) However the increased speed will be reflected in the price tag, so it is important to weight
the cost against user needs.
Plotters:
A plotter is a computer hardware device much like a printer that
is used for printing vector graphics.
Instead of toner, plotters use a pen, pencil, marker, or another
writing tool to draw multiple, continuous lines onto paper rather
than a series of dots like a traditional printer. Though once widely
used for computer-aided design, these devices have more or less been phased out by wide-format
printers.
Plotters are used to produce a hard copy of schematics and other similar applications.
Advantages of plotters
1) Plotters can work on very large sheets of paper while maintaining high resolution.
2) They can print on a wide variety of flat materials including plywood, aluminum, sheet steel,
cardboard, and plastic.
3) Plotters allow the same pattern to be drawn thousands of times without any image
degradation.
Disadvantages of plotters
1) Plotters are quite large when compared to a traditional printer.
2) Plotters are also much more expensive than a traditional printer.

SOFT COPY OUTPUT DEVICES

Soft copy devices are used to prepare the soft copies. Prepared soft copies are used for temporary
reference and it will save the stationary and printing cost.
Monitors:
The monitor is the most commonly used output device on most personal computer systems.
Two basic types of monitors are used with PCs.

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The first is the typical monitor that we see on a desktop computer, which looks like a television
screen and works the same way. This type of monitor uses a large vacuum tube, called a Cathode
Ray Tube (CRT).
The second type, known as Flat-panel
Flat display,, is used primarily with portable but is becoming an
increasingly popular feature with desktop computers.
All monitors can be categorized by the way
display colors:
1) Monochrome Monitors
2) Gray scale Monitors and
3) Color Monitors.

CRT Monitors:
A CRT monitor contains millions of tiny
red, green, and blue phosphor dots that
glow when struck by an electron beam that
travels across the screen to create a visible image. The illustration below shows how this works
inside a CRT.
The terms anode and cathode are used in electronics as synonyms
for positive and negative terminals. For example, you could refer
to the positive terminal of a batteryas the anode and the negative
terminal as the cathode.
In a cathode ray tube, the "cathode" is a heated
he filament. The
heated filament is in a vacuum created inside a glass "tube." The
"ray" is a stream of electrons generated by an electron gun that naturally pour off a heated cathode
into the vacuum. Electrons are negative. The anode is positive, so it attracts the electrons pouring
off the cathode. This screen is coated with phosphor,, an organic material that glows when struck by
the electron beam.
There are three ways to filter the electron beam in order to obtain the correct image on the
en: shadow mask, aperture grill and slot mask. These technologies also impact the
monitor screen:
sharpness of the monitor's display.

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Flat Panel Monitors:

Flat panel Monitors are gaining popularity because of their light
weight. Notebooks use Flat Panel monitors that are less than 1 inch
thick.
There are several types of Flat Panel monitors, but the most
common is Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitor. The LCD
monitor creates images with a special kind of liquid crystal that is normally transparent but comes
opaque when charged with electricity. If we have a handheld calculator or a digital watch, it
probably uses a liquid crystal display.
Differences between CRT and FLAT PANEL MONITORS
CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT) FLAT PANEL
CRT monitors are of larger in size and occupy Flat panel monitors do not require a lot of desktop
more area space
The visible area of CRT monitors ranges from Flat panel monitors offer viewable areas from 14
14 inches to 21 inches. inches to 18 inches.
There is no such facility to hang CRT monitors For the sake of convenience, the flat panel monitor
because of the shape and structure of these can be hang on a wall
monitors.
CRT monitors came up this drawback to some These monitors have a restricted viewing angle.
extent because of better viewing angle.

Because of the structure of these monitors, there Because of the flat screens, they do not cause any
will be little distortion in the picture, reducing distortions in the picture.
the clarity.
CRT monitors consume a great amount of These monitors do not consume a lot of energy
electricity to keep the screen refreshed because of their tiny transistors.
CRT monitors emit low-level radiations These type of monitors do not emit any radiation

CRT monitor is not much expensive compared Flat panel monitors are much more expensive than
to flat panel monitors. CRT monitors.

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PC PROJECTOR
A projector is an output device that can take images generated by a computer or Blu-ray player and
reproduce them onto a screen, wall, or other surface. Typically, the surface projected onto is large,
flat, and lightly colored. For example, you could use a projector to show a presentation on a large
screen so that everyone in the room can see it. Projectors can produce either still (slides) or
moving images (videos). A projector is often about the size of a toaster and weighs only a few
pounds.

OPERATING SYSTEM
An operating System (OS) is an interface between users and computer hardware. It provides users
an environment in which a user can execute programs conveniently and efficiently. In technical
terms, it is software which manages hardware. An operating System controls the allocation of
resources and services such as memory, processors, devices and information.

FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM

Today most operating systems perform the following important functions:
1. Processor management, that is, assignment of processor to different tasks being performed by
the computer system.
2. Memory management, that is, allocation of main memory and other storage areas
to the system programmers as well as user programmers and data.
3. Input/output management, that is, co-ordination and assignment of the different output and
input device while one or more programmers are being executed.
4. File management, that is, the storage of file of various storage devices to another. It also allows
all files to be easily changed and modified through the use of text editors or some other files
manipulation routines.
5. Establishment and enforcement of a priority system. That is, it determines and maintains the
order in which jobs are to be executed in the computer system.

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6. Automatic transition from job to job as directed by special control statements.

7. Interpretation of commands and instructions.
8. Coordination and assignment of compilers, assemblers, utility programs, and other software to
the various user of the computer system.
9. Facilities easy communication between the computer system and the computer operator
(human). It also establishes data security and integrity
Types of Operating Systems
Operating system is an interface between user and computer. Four major types of OS are:
1. Real-time OS,
2. Single-user/single-tasking
tasking OS OR Batch Processing OS,
3. Single-user/multitasking
user/multitasking OS,
4. Multi user/multitasking OS/ Multi Programming OS.

1. Real-Time Operating
rating System:
A real time OS is a very fast & relatively small OS that is also called as embedded OS. This is built
into the circuitry of a device and is not loaded from a disk drive. A real time OS is needed to run
time applications; it may support multiple simultaneous tasks or it may support single tasking.
real-time
Real time equipments are needed to run medical diagnostics equipment, life-support
life systems,
machinery, etc.

2. Single User/Single Tasking OS/

OS/ Batch
Batch Processing
Processing OS:
OS:
An OS that allows a single user
er to perform just one task at a time is a single-
single-user/single tasking OS.
To a user, a “task” is a function such as printing a document, writing a file to disk, etc. MS-DOS
MS is
one example of a single tasking OS, the Palm OS etc. Although such OS are limited
limite by this
characteristic, this is still used because this type of OS requires very little space on disk and do not
require a powerful and expensive computer.
computer
3. Single-User/Multitasking
User/Multitasking OS:
user/multitasking OS is one that allows a single user to perform two or more functions at
A single-user/multitasking
once. It takes a special OS to keep two or more tasks running at once.

4. Multi-User/Multitasking
User/Multitasking OS/Multiprogramming OS
user/multitasking OS system is an operating system that allows multiple users to use
A multi-user/multitasking
programs that simultaneously running on a single network server called a terminal server.

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Languages and its Types:

Computer programming language,
language, any of various languages for expressing a set of detailed
computer. Such instructions can be executed directly when they are in the
instructions for a digital computer.
computer manufacturer-specific
specific numerical
num form known as machine language,
language after a simple
substitution process when expressed in a corresponding assembly language,
language or after translation
level” language. Although there are many computer languages, relatively few
from some “higher-level”
are widely used.
First Generation of Programming Language
 The first generation of programming language, or
1GL, is machine language.
 This is a set of instructions and data that a computer's
central processing unit can execute directly.
 Machine language statements are written in binary
code, and each statement corresponds
c to one machine action.
Second Generation of Programming Language
 The second generation programming language, or
2GL, is assembly language.
language
 This language is the human
human-readable notation for the
machine language used to control specific computer
operations.
 Using these programmers writes instructions using
symbolic instruction codes that are meaningful
abbreviations or mnemonics.
 An assembler is a program that translates assembly language into machine language.
Third Generation of Programming Language
 The third generation of programming language,
3GL, or procedural language uses a series of
English-like
like words that are closer to human
language, to write instructions
instructions.
 High-level
level programming languages make complex
programming simpler and easier tto read, write and
maintain.

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 Programs written in a high-level

high level programming language must be translated into machine
language by a compiler or interpreter.
 PASCAL, FORTRAN, BASIC, COBOL, C and C++ are examples of third generation
programming languages.
Fourth Generation of Programming Language
 The fourth generation programming language or
non-procedural
procedural language, often abbreviated as
4GL, enables users to access data in a database.
 A very high-level
level programming language is often
referred to as goal
goal-oriented programming
language because it is usually limited to a very
specific application and it might use syntax that is
never used in other programming languages.
 SQL, NOMAD and FOCUS are examples of fourth generation programming languages.
Fifth Generation of Programming Language
 The computer made in the fifth generation was created with
the help of logic programming and massively parallel
computing.
 This generation of computers was based upon parallel
processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence)
software.
 Artificial intelligence has the ability to illustrate the means and method of making
computers think the same as human beings.
 In this generation, all kinds of hig
high-level languages such as C and C++, .Net, Java and
more are used.

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