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Anglo-Chinese School (Independent)

Year 6 (2016) IBDP Chemistry HL Summary

No Define the Definition


following
Stoichiometric Relationships
1. Mole It is a fixed number of particles and refers to the amount, n, of substance.
Avogadro’s 6.02 x 1023 mol-1 , MCQ- 6.0 x 1023 mol-1
constant Units for molar mass is g mol-1
Molar mass(M)
2. Isotopes atoms of the same element / atoms with same number of protons/atomic number/Z;
Do not award mark if no mention of atom or element.
(but) different numbers of neutrons/mass number/A;
3. Atomic Number Number of protons in an atom
Mass Number Number of neutrons and protons in an atom
4. Relative atomic ratio of average mass of an atom to the mass of C-12 isotope / average mass of
mass, Ar an atom on a scale where one atom of C-12 has a mass of 12 / sum of the
weighted average mass of isotopes of an element compared to C-12. Award
no mark if element is used in place of atom
5. Relative molecular the average mass of a molecule compared to 1/12 of (the mass of) one atom of
12
mass, Mr C / compared to C–12 taken as 12; OR

6. Empirical and Of a compound; It is the simplest ratio and the actual number of atoms present in
Molecular formula a molecule.
7. Avogadro’s Law Equal volume of gases at the same temperature and pressure contains the same
number of moles. Hence the mole ratio of reacting gases can be deduced from
the volumes of the gases. STP – 273 K and 100 kPa SATP – 298 K and 100kPa
Atomic Structure & Trends in Ionization energy

8. Atoms A positively charged dense nucleus composed of protons and neutrons


(nucleons) with electrons that occupy the space outside the nucleus.
9. Absorption absorption spectrum: energy required to move/excite (electrons) from
spectrum and an lower/ground state to higher energy level/excited state;
emission spectrum emission spectrum: radiation emitted by electrons from higher/excited state to
lower/ground energy level; OR
absorption spectrum: continuous spectrum with dark regions/lines corresponding
to energies absorbed;
emission spectrum: regions/lines corresponding to energies given out/emitted;
Limit of convergence at higher frequency corresponds to the Ionization energy.
10. Main energy level Denoted by n, and can hold a maximum number of electrons, 2n2
or shell
11. Sub-levels Contains a fixed number of orbitals; Detailed model of the atom – describes the
division of the main energy level into s, p, d and f sub-levels of successively
higher energies.
12. Orbitals Regions of space where there is a high probability of finding the electrons.
13. Equations C = νλ C= speed of light 3.00 x 108 ms-1, λ = wavelength in m, ν – frequency in
s-1
E = hν E – energy in J , h – Planck’s constant 6.63 x 10-34 J s ν – frequency in s-
1

Periodicity & Transition metals

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14. Periodic Table Arranged in 4 blocks associated with the four sub-levels, s, p, d, and f
15. Periodicity repeating pattern of (physical and chemical) properties;
Group Group- vertical column; number of outershell /valence electrons
Period Period -horizontal row; number of occupied (electron) shells
16. Electronegativity Relative measure of an atom’s attraction for electrons in a covalent bond/shared
pair;
17. First ionization the energy needed to remove one mole of electron(s) from one mole of an
energy atom(s) in the gaseous state; Eg: Mg(g) → Mg+(g) + e- (gaseous state symbols
needed)
18. Second ionization M+(g) → M2+(g) + e-
energy
19. Electron Affinity Enthalpy that occurs when an electron is added to a gaseous atom or ion;

20. Transition element An element that forms ions with incompletely filled d-orbitals.
Zn is NOT transition element.
21. Ligand species / neutral molecules / anions which contain a non-bonding pair of
electrons; eg NH3 able to form coordinate/dative covalent bonds.
Chemical Bonding / Structure/ Bonding Theories
22. Ionic Bond Electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged particles.
23. Covalent Bond Electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of electrons and the positively
charged nuclei.
24. Metallic Bond Electrostatic attraction between the lattice of positive ions and delocalized
valence electrons
25. Bond polarity This results from the difference in electronegativities of the bonded atoms.
Nuclei of two different atoms exert different attractive forces on the bond-pair
electron, + and − end of the polar bond, hence a dipole moment. → This
results from the difference in electronegativities of the bonded atoms.
26. Lewis Structures Diagram that shows all the valence electrons in a covalently bonded species.
(dots . or lines –)
27. Formal charge(FC) To decide which Lewis structure is preferred from several.
The FC is the charge an atom would have if all atoms in the molecule had the
same electronegativity. FC = (the number of valence electrons) -½(number of
bonding electrons) – (number of non-bonding electrons) The Lewis structure
with the FC closest to zero is preferred.
28. Bond Order This is a measure of the number of electrons involved in the bonds between two
atoms. It can be an integer or have fractional values for resonance hybrids.

In resonance hybrids for a X-Y bond is


Total number of bonding pairs  total number of X-Y bond positions
29. Delocalization Spreading out of electrons over a molecule/ion
Resonance When an ion/molecule have more than one position for a double bond.
Two or more Lewis structures represent the ion/molecule
30. VSEPR theory Electron pairs/domains around the central atom repel each other resulting in an
arrangement that they are as far apart as possible.
Lone pair-lone pair repulsion  lone pair-bond pair repulsion  bond pair-bond
pair repulsion.
31. Intermolecular Include London(dispersion) forces, dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonding
forces
32. Van der Waals Includes London (dispersion) forces, dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole and
forces London(dispersion) forces.
33. Hybridization mixing/combining of atomic orbitals to from degenerate( equivalent energy)
hybrid orbitals on the same atom

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34. Sigma bond (σ) end-to-end /axial overlap with electron density between the two atoms / along
the inter-nuclear axis
pi bond (π) sideways overlap of parallel orbitals with electron density above and below the
inter-nuclear axis
Energetics or Thermochemistry

35. Heat It is a form of energy.


36. Temperature (K) Measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles. Unit is K – Kelvin

37. Exothermic System releases/gives out heat energy to the surroundings.


Bond-forming more energy release than energy absorbed in bond breaking
exothermic ∆Ho (−)
38. Endothermic systems absorbs /takes in heat energy from the surroundings.
Bond breaking more energy absorb than bond formation ∆Ho (+),
∆Ho enthalpy absorbs heat alone is not sufficient for mark
change of reaction ∆Ho is measured in kJ mol-1
ΔH = ∑ΔHBE(bonds broken) - ∑ΔHBE(bonds made)

Standard conditions 100 kPa or 1 x 105 Pa and 298K


39. Average bond energy change to break/make one mol of bonds (in a molecule) in gaseous state;
enthalpy averaged from a range of similar compounds;
calculations involving bond enthalpies may be inaccurate because they do not
take into account the intermolecular forces and are valid for gases.
40. Standard states Refers to the normal, most pure stable state of a substance measured at 100 kPa,
298K
41. ∆Hof The enthalpy change for the formation of 1 mol of a compound form from its
elements in their standard states under standard conditions.
∆Hof of elements is zero Eg methanol, ½O2 (g) + C(s) +2H2 (g) → CH3OH (l)
 ΔH  
products   ΔH f reactants 
Θ Θ
f

42. ∆Hoc The enthalpy change for the complete combustion of 1 mol of a compound in
excess oxygen under standard conditions
Eg. CH3OH (l) + 2O2(g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O(l)
∆Hocombustion usually < 0 exothermic
 ΔH   
reactants   ΔH c products Note – different from the rest .
Θ Θ
C
The best is to construct the energy cycle and apply Hess’s Law.
43. Hess’s Law Total energy is conserved in chemical reactions.
44. ∆Hoatomization It is the enthalpy change that occurs when one mole of gaseous atoms is formed
from the element in its standard states. Hatθ values are always positive > 0
eg. Na (s)  Na (g)
45. ∆Hohydration
It is the enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous ions forms one mole of hydrat
ions in water. eg. Na+(g) → Na+ (aq) ∆Hohydration = −424 kJ mol-1
Cl-(g) → Cl- (aq) ∆Hohydration = −360 kJ mol-1 This energy depends on the attracti
between the ions and the polar water molecules ,
r is the ionic radii - ∆Hohydration < 0 exothermic
q q
Hydration enthalpy  +
r r
46. ∆Holattice
(IB definition) It is defined as the standard enthalpy change when one mole of a
solid ionic compound is separated into gaseous ions under standard conditions.

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(q  q )
Lattice enthalpy  ∆Holattice > 0 endothermic
(r   r )
E.g. NaCl (s) → Na+ (g) + Cl- (g) ΔHlatticeθ = +788 kJ mol-1
47. ∆Hosolution
It is the enthalpy change when one mole of a solute is dissolved in a solvent to
infinite dilution under standard conditions. eg. NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
ΔHsolnθ of sodium chloride = +788 −424−360 = +4 kJ mol-1
∆Hsoln = ∆Hlatt + ∆Hhyd Note- ∆Hosolution can be exothermic or endothermic.

48. ∆HoElectronaffinity It is the enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous electrons is added to one mole
1st and 2nd E.A. of gaseous atoms to form one mole of negatively charged ion.
E.g. Oxygen 1st E.A. O(g) + e  O (g) exothermic
2nd E.A. O (g) + e  O2 (g) endothermic
49. ∆Honeutralization It is the enthalpy change when one mole of water when an acid reacts with an
alkali under standard conditions.
50. Born Haber Cycle An energy cycle based on Hess’s Law and has a combination of enthalpies that
can be used to determine the enthalpy of formation on an ionic compound,
∆Holattice.
51. Entropy - S It refers to the distribution of available energy among the particles and related to
the degree of disorder of a system; Entropy of gas>liquid>solid
52. Gibbs Free Energy ∆Go = ∆Ho −T∆So in predicting the spontaneity and calculation of various
∆Go conditions of enthalpy and temperature and relate ∆G to the position of
(databooklet) equilibrium.

Chemical Kinetics

53. Activation energy, minimum energy needed for reactants to react/start/initiate on collision/ to bring
Ea about a reaction/allow energy difference between reactants and transition state
54. Rate of reaction decrease in concentration/mass/amount/volume of reactant with time / increase
in concentration/mass/amount/volume of product with time / change in
concentration/mass/amount/volume of reactant/product with time;
DO NOT accept substance
Use graph - tangent drawn at given time to determine the gradient of the concentration –
time graph
55. Rate determining The slowest elementary step that determines the rate of the reaction. This step
step -RDS has the highest activation energy in the overall mechanism.
56. Molecularity Molecularity of an elementary step is the number of reactant molecules /
particles in that step of the reaction; unimolecular / molecularity of 1 and :
bimolecular / molecularity of 2;
57. Order of reaction The power of a reactant’s concentration in the rate equation / sum of powers of
concentration / rate = k [X]n or it is the number of particles taking part in the
rate-determining step.
where n = order of reaction; n can be an integer or a fraction and k is the rate
constant which is dependent on temperature only and its units is determined by
the order of reaction.
58. A in the It is the constant that relates to the geometric requirements of the reaction /
Arrhenius orientation of reactants on collision;
equation k = A e−Ea/RT ln k versus 1/T – straight line graph with a gradient of −Ea/RT
and intercept of ln A
OR taking two points on the graph - ln k1/k2 = Ea/R(1/T2 – 1/T1)
59. Half-life of time for reactant concentration to halve; [1]Accept time for mass to halve.
reaction

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60. Catalyst It alters the rate of reaction by providing an alternative route with a lower Ea
heterogeneous It alters the reaction mechanism and introduce step(s) with lower Ea.
and homogeneous heterogeneous: different state / phase from reactants;
homogeneous: same state as reactants;
Chemical Equilibrium
61. Dynamic For a closed system:
equilibrium Rate of the forward reaction is equal to the Rate of the reverse reaction /
forward and reverse reactions occur and the concentrations of the reactants
and products do not change;

Equilibrium e.g. of reaction a W + b X cY + d Z


constant or Kc =
expression - Kc
Kc is temperature
dependent ONLY
62. Reaction This is a measure of the relative amount of products and reactants present
Quotient(Q) during a reaction at a particular point in time. Q is the equilibrium expression
with non-equilibrium concentrations.
Position of equilibrium changes with concentration, pressure and
temperature.
63. Le Chatelier’s At equilibrium, any change to the system will result in the system trying to
Principle counteract the change. Eg. changes in concentration can be explained by the
equilibrium law
64. Position of Position of equilibrium corresponds to a maximum value of entropy and a
equilibrium minimum value of Gibbs free energy. For a reversible reaction, the relationship
of equilibrium constant K and the Gibbs free energy change is related by
∆G = − RT ln K

Acids and Bases


+
65. Brønsted-Lowry Acid -proton / H / hydrogen ion donor;
acid /base Base -proton / H+ / hydrogen ion acceptor;

66. Conjugate acid- They differ by a H+ / hydrogen ion. Eg HPO42- , H2PO4-


base pair
67. Amphiprotic Species act as both Brønsted-Lowry acid and Brønsted-Lowry base

68. Amphoteric Substance can react with an acid or with a base.

69. Monoprotic acid One replaceable hydrogen atom per molecule;


70. pH pH= −log [H+] and [H+] = 10-pH pH is a number – no units
measured using a pH meter or indicator eg universal indicator
A change of one unit of pH is a tenfold change in the value of [H+].
pH + pOH = pKw = 14
71. Ionic product Kw = [H+] [OH-] = 1 x 10-14 at 298 K pH of pure water = 7.00 at 298K
constant Kw Kw increases with increases in temperature e.g. at 323 K Kw = 5.5 x 10-14
72. Relationship for At a specified temperature - Ka is the dissociation constant for the acid and Kb I s
conjugate acid base the base dissociation constant
pair Ka x Kb = Kw pKa = −log Ka pKb = −log Kb
The relationship between Ka and pKa and Kb and pKb is inverse.
73. Strong/ Strong - fully dissociate/ionize;
Weak acid Weak - partially dissociates/ionizes in water;
A strong acid is a good proton donor and has a weak conjugate base.
Rain water naturally acidic ~ pH 5.6 so acid deposition pH < 5.0

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74. Strong/ Strong – fully dissociate/ionize;
Weak base Weak – partially dissociates/ionizes in water;
A strong base is a good proton acceptor and has a weak conjugate acid.
75. Lewis acid (a species that) accepts electron pairs
76. Lewis base (a species that) donates electron pairs
77. Nucleophile and Nucleophile is a Lewis base and Electrophile is a Lewis acid.
Electrophile
78. Buffer solution, a solution which resists change in pH / changes pH very slightly when small
amounts of acid or base are added;

Acid buffer solution mixing a weak acid with a solution of its salt containing its conjugate base OR
by neutralization of a weak acid with a strong base (pH curves).
Interpret the buffer region for the pH curves of strong/weak acids and
strong/weak bases (Note: calculations –Medicinal chem D4 option only)
79. pH curves Only for monoprotic acids:
- Intercept with the pH axis
- Equivalence point
- Buffer region
- Points where pKa = pH or pKb = pOH
80. Indicators HIn H+ + In- The colour change take place range is pKa ± 1
(weak acid HIn) OR Colour X Colour Y
(weak base InOH)
InOH In+ + OH- The colour change take place range is pKb ± 1
Colour 1 Colour 2

81. Hydrolysis of salts Salts formed from neutralization of:


Hydrolyzes is reacts Strong acid and strong base – neither ion hydrolyzes and pH = 7
with water Weak acid and strong base – anion hydrolyzes and pH > 7
Strong acid and weak base – cation hydrolyzes and pH < 7
Weak acid and weak base – both cation and anion hydrolyzes and pH
depends on the pKa and pKb values (cannot generalize)

Oxidation and Reduction - Redox Processes


82. Oxidation Loss of electrons by a species; Increase in oxidation number

Reduction Gain of electrons by a species ; decrease in oxidation number


83. Oxidizing agent electron acceptor /it is reduced; Cl2 chlorine gas or F2 fluorine gas

Reducing agent Electron donor/ it is oxidized; KI, potassium iodide, H2 – hydrogen gas
84. Activity series Ranks metals in order of the ease with which they undergo oxidation.
85. BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand is the amount of oxygen used by the aerobic
microorganisms in water to decompose the organic matter in the water over a
fixed period of time ( ~5 days) at a fixed temperature (~ 200C)
used as a measure of the degree of pollution in water sample
Winkler method (a series of redox reactions) is used to measure BOD.
86. Voltaic (Galvanic) This cell generates an electromotive force(EMF) resulting in the movement of
Cell electrons from Anode (−) to Cathode (+) via the external circuit. EMF is cell
Cathode and anode potential (Eo)
Anode (oxidation occurs); more reactive metal
cathode (reduction occurs) ; less reactive metal
Know the cell diagram convention.
87. Standard hydrogen It consists of an inert platinum electrode in contact with 1 mol dm-3 hydrogen ion
electrode (S.H.E.) and hydrogen gas at 100 kPa and 298K. Eo for SHE is zero V

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88. Standard electrode This is the potential(voltage) of the reduction half-equation under standard
potential Eo conditions measured relative to the S.H.E. The solute concentrations is 1 mol
dm3 or 100kPa for gases.

89. Spontaneous cell ∆Go = −nFEo n = number of moles , F is Faraday’s constant – 96500 C mol-1
Eo > 0 ∆Go is negative , spontaneous reaction
Eo < 0 ∆Go is positive , non-spontaneous reaction
Eo = 0 ∆Go = 0
90. Electrolytic Cell Cathode (−) while Anode (+) Note: reverse of voltaic cell
Anode – oxidation occurs and cathode – reduction occurs
 Electrolysis of molten salt e.g. sodium chloride breaks it down to its
elements.
 Electrolysis of aqueous solutions water can be oxidized to oxygen at the
anode and reduced to hydrogen at the cathode.
 Current density (unit : A -Amperes) duration ( seconds) and the charge of
the ion affects the amount of products formed at the electrodes
 Electroplating involves the electrolytic coating of an object with a metallic
thin layer.
Organic Chemistry

91. Functional group functional group: atom or group of atoms responsible for the characteristic
reactions of the molecule;
phenyl, hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, carboxamide,
aldehyde, ester, ether, amine, nitrile, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl
92. Characteristics of a same general formula;
homologous series successive members differ by a common structural unit;
similar chemical properties;
gradual change in physical properties;
same functional group;
93. Homolytic fission bond breaking in which each product takes one electron from the bond;
e.g. free radical substitution of chlorine with alkanes.
94. Hydrocarbon a compound containing carbon and hydrogen only
95. Saturated containing only single (carbon to carbon) bonds / no multiple bonds;
96. Un-saturated a hydrocarbon that contains at least one C=C (or ) /carbon-carbon double
hydrocarbon bond (or triple bond)/carbon to carbon multiple bond;
Do not accept just “double bond”. These alkenes and alkynes undergo
electrophilic addition reactions (sometimes conditions of temperature, pressure
and catalyst required). Use of bromine water as a test for unsaturated
hydrocarbon.
97. Electrophilic An electrophile is an electron-deficient species that can accept electron pairs
addition reactions from a nucleophile. Electrophiles are Lewis acids. The electrophile is produced
by heterolytic fission.
98. Markovnikov’s rule Used in the electrophilic addition reaction of unsymmetrical alkenes to predict
the major and minor products with electrophiles from halogens, hydrogen
halides and interhalogen compounds.
99. Carbocation Tertiary carbocation is most stable followed by secondary then least stable is
intermediate primary carbocation. This is due to the positive inductive effect of the alkyl
groups.
100 Primary/ secondary primary carbon - has two or more H atoms or 1 alkyl group;
/tertiary secondary carbon - has one H atom or 2 alkyl groups;
halogenoalkane tertiary carbon - has no H atom or 3 alkyl groups;
OR alcohol apply to nitrogen in amines

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101 Arenes Benzene is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon compound and has a delocalized
structure of π bonds with each carbon to carbon bond order of 1.5. Benzene is
susceptible to reactions with electrophiles.
102 Electrophilic Benzene undergoes substitution rather than addition reactions and this is
substitution chemical evidence for its structure. ONLY Mechanism of nitration , NO2+
Reactions electrophile using concentrated HNO3 and H2SO4
103 Reduction reactions Carboxylic acids (COOH) is reduced to primary alcohols via the aldehyde –
LiAlH4. Ketones reduced to secondary alcohols - sodium borohydride NaBH4
104 Nucleophilic Substitution - replacement of atom / group (in a molecule);
substitution Nucleophile a species with a lone pair of electrons / species attracted to an
reactions (SN) electron-deficient carbon atom; e.g. of nucleophile – :OH , H2O: :NH3
105 SN1 Unimolecular; involves a carbocation intermediate
Heterolytic fission occurs for the C–X bond X – F, Cl, Br, I (leaving group)
Predominant mechanism for tertiary halogenoalkanes;
Rate = k [halogenoalkane]
Better rates with protic polar solvents (with -OH or -NH bonds) water , ethanol
106 SN2 Bimolecular; involves a concerted reaction with a transition state;
Predominant mechanism for secondary halogenoalkanes;
Rate = k [halogenoalkane][nucleophile]
Stereospecific with an inversion of configuration at the electron-deficient-carbon
Better rates with aprotic polar solvents eg propanone or ethanenitrile
107 Structural isomers compounds with the same molecular formula and different arrangements of the
atoms or functional groups
eg positional and functional isomers
108 Stereo isomers compounds with the same molecular formula but the atoms are attached in the
same order but differ in their spatial or 3-D arrangement.
109 Configurational A type of stereoisomer where the molecules can be interconverted only by
Isomers breaking the covalent bond
110 Optical Isomers A type of configurational isomer where there is chirality of an asymmetric
carbon atom.
111 Cis-trans A type of configurational isomer where there is restricted rotation about the π
(Geometric) C=C bond or around the atoms in a cyclic ring. The position of the atoms or
Isomers groups must be described with respect to a reference plane.
Cis -refers to the same groups (atoms) on the same side of the double bond or
ring
Trans – refers to the same groups (atoms) on different sides of the double bond
or ring
112 E/Z Isomers A type of configurational isomer where there is restricted rotation about the π
bond. All the groups attached to the double bond are different and there are no
‘same groups’ to position with respect to a reference plane.
E isomer – two highest priority group on opposite sides
Z isomer - two highest priority group on same sides
Priority C3H7 > C2H5 > CH3 > H and Br > Cl > F
113 Conformational A type of stereoisomer where the molecules can be interconverted only by
Isomers rotation of about the σ covalent bond
114 Index of Hydrogen C cHh NnOoXx IHD = ½(2c+2–h –x+n)
Deficiency (IHD)
Measurement and Data Processing
115 Random Errors Direction of the error relative to the true value of the measured quantity can be
more (+) or less (-).
Repeated measurements and taking the average of consistent readings will
improve accuracy. Random errors affect the precision of the results.

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116 Systematic Errors Error or deviation is either (+) or (-) relative to the true value of the measured
quantity. Usually, this is a result of systematic / method/ wrong instrument use
or calibration of instrument / human errors.
117 Accuracy of results The closeness of the agreement between the result of a measurement and a true
(scientific literature) value of the quantity.
118 Precision of results The closeness of the agreement between independent test results obtained by
applying the experimental procedure under stipulated conditions.
119 IR spectroscopy Used to identify bonds in a molecule.
Frequency of the radiation is in wavenumbers unit cm-1
120 Mass spectrometry To determine the relative atomic and molecular masses. Separation of positive
ions based on mass/charge ratio. The fragmentation pattern can be used as a
fingerprint technique to identify unknown substances or evidence of the
arrangements of atoms in a molecule.
121 1
H(proton) NMR Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy is used to show the chemical
spectroscopy environment of isotopes of hydrogen in a molecule to give the vital structural
information. Resonance is the energy (frequency of radiowave) measured that is
required for the hydrogen nuclei to flip over and spin in the opposite direction.
122 Chemical The different hydrogen(proton) environment in a molecule.
environment The electron density shields the hydrogen nucleus from the external applied
magnetic field and differences in electron distribution produce different energy
separations between the two spin states (high and low)
123 Chemical shift δ The position of the NMR signal relative to the TMS (trimethylsilane) standard.
124 Integration trace This indicates the relative number(ratio of) the hydrogen atoms in the different
chemical environments.
125 Spin-spin coupling The splitting of the signals occurs as the effective magnetic field experienced by
a hydrogen nuclei is modified by the magnetic field due to the neighboring
protons. A characteristic splitting pattern of the signal is seen on the spectrum.
126 X-ray A technique based on X-ray diffraction to map out the distances between the
crystallography particles in substance. It is used to identify and elucidate the structure.

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Mark allocation in IB Chemistry Paper

1. Remember that many candidates are writing in a second language. Effective


communication is more important than grammatical accuracy.

2. Occasionally, a part of a question may require an answer that is required for subsequent
marking points. If an error is made in the first marking point then it should be penalized.
However, if the incorrect answer is used correctly in subsequent marking points then
follow through marks should be awarded. Indicate this with ECF (error carried forward).

3. Only consider units at the end of a calculation. Unless directed otherwise in the mark
scheme, unit errors should only be penalized once in the paper. Indicate this by writing –
1(U) at the first point it occurs and U on the cover page.

4. Significant digits should only be considered in the final answer. Deduct 1 mark in the
paper for an error of 2 or more digits unless directed otherwise in the mark scheme.

e.g. if the answer is 1.63:


2 reject
1.6 accept
1.63 accept
1.631 accept
1.6314 reject

Indicate the mark deduction by writing –1(SD) at the first point it occurs and SD on the
cover sheet.

5. If a question specifically asks for the name of a substance, do not award a mark for a
correct formula, similarly, if the formula is specifically asked for, do not award a
mark for a correct name.

6. If a question asks for an equation for a reaction, a balanced symbol equation is usually
expected, do not award a mark for a word equation or an unbalanced equation unless
directed otherwise in the mark scheme.

7. Ignore missing or incorrect state symbols in an equation unless directed otherwise in


the mark scheme.

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General advice from IB examiners for Chemistry Paper

1. Read the question carefully to ensure that they answer appropriately to avoid
missing or incomplete answers. Students should be familiar to the command terms
that appear in the assessment statements and in the exam papers.

2. Write legibly in ink within the box. If you run out of space, attached
continuation sheets.

3. Practice writing a variety of equations (including ion-electron half-equations and


redox equations), paying careful attention to balancing and the inclusion of charges
and electrons where appropriate.

4. Remember that in equations, the formulas of non-metallic elements usually need a


subscript (eg N2 rather than N) Use, where appropriate, symbols that distinguish
between isotopes (eg 35Cl - 37Cl)

5. Practice setting out calculations in a logical and legible way, including a few words
or phrases to indicate what process is being used, showing each step, and emphasizing
the final answer by underlining. This is useful because of error carried forward in the
later part and full marks awarded if method is correct.

6. Consider the units and the appropriate number of significant figures for the final
answer in calculations.

7. Students need to practice data response question which involves different facets of
experimental work, uncertainty measurements, hypothesis and linking different topics
across the curriculum.

8. Carefully distinguish between the different types of bonding and the use of the
terms atom, molecule and ion in appropriate situations.

9. Carefully distinguish between the different types of bonding and intermolecular


forces and their importance in explaining features such as boiling point and solubility.

10. Practice drawing Lewis (electron dot) structures and 3-D diagrams of an
appropriate size, and clearly showing the electron pairs.

11. Remember to include vital details in precise definitions. Candidates find it difficult
to difficult to explain exactly what they meant.

12. Practice writing the structures of addition polymers in organic chemistry.

13. For enthalpy calculations, a common mistake for the first point seen on many papers
was students writing ΔH = mcΔT, instead of Q = mcΔT = 1463 J.

14. Candidates should be advised to show how they make their deductions rather than
present the examiner with the numerical answer.

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15. + or − sign in-front of oxidation number.

16. Include a positive charge at the formulae of fragment ions formed in the mass
spectrometer.

17. Label diagrams clearly using a line −− or arrow →.

18. For mechanisms in organic chemistry the use of curly arrows with accurate starting
and ending points to represent electron transfer.

From IBO Chemistry examiner’s report – Paper 2 HL Chemistry (May 2016)

The areas of the programme and examination that appeared difficult for the candidates

- Answering the open-ended Nature of Science (NOS) type of question


- The reaction of phosphorous (V) oxide with water
- Pre-combustion and post-combustion methods of minimizing SO2 levels
- Reduction of nitrobenzene to phenylamine
- Naming of ethane-1,2-diol
- Recognition that fragments in a mass spectrometer have a positive charge
- The analysis of resonance structures
- Molar enthalpy changes of solution
- Splitting patterns in 1H NMR spectra
- Mechanism for the nitration of benzene including drawing the curly arrows with
accurate start and ending points
- Unit conversions ( power of 10 , mega, milli, micro)
- Le Chatelier’s Principle explanation must be clear
- Classification of amines as primary, secondary or tertiary.

From IBO Chemistry examiner’s report – Paper 3 HL Chemistry (May 2016)

Paper 3 – Section A

- NOS lies at the heart of the new programme. Candidates need to be exposed to NOS
on as constant basis throughout the delivery of the curriculum as this is an integral
part of the new IB chemistry curriculum. Otherwise, candidates may struggle with
some of the questions on the examination papers which have a NOS focus.

- It is imperative that laboratory work lies at the centre of the IB chemistry programme.
Ideally candidates should be exposed to a rich experimental experience in the
laboratory where suitable facilities are available. Where this is not the case other
resources such as simulated experiments should be sourced.

- Candidates need to be aware of the scientific method and need to be challenged on


hypothesis type questions.

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Paper 3 – Option D Medicinal Chemistry

- It is critical that core chemical principles are brought to the fore in all the four
options. The core chemistry should always underpin applied topics in medicinal
chemistry. This is a major feature of the new curriculum.

- Candidates should be advised to attempt to answer ALL parts of an option.

- Candidates continue to struggle with questions that require explanations,


interpretations or multiple steps. Candidates need to fully understand the various
command terms throughout the year with students to ensure that they understand how
to answer questions. Lack of understanding of many command terms by candidates
was certainly a feature of this session.

- Candidates should always look at the associated marks allocations in questions.


Candidates should not have to use extra continuation sheets if they tailor their answers
to the space provided. This session far too many candidates wrote lengthy answers
and used continuation sheets which were not required.

- Legible handwriting should be encourages and there was certainly a noticeable


number of scripts this session where examiners struggled greatly in trying to decipher
what was in the responses.

- Students need to practice in writing balanced equations for the conversion of reactants
into products. The use of state symbols should be encouraged as best practice.

- The correct use of significant figures should be encouraged including how significant
figures are dealt with or logarithmic entities where the mantissa needs to be
considered.

- Many candidates still use class names for organic molecules instead of functional
group names. The distinction between the two is a feature in the new syllabus so there
should be emphasis on this sub-topic.

- Bond connectivities should be emphasized - incorrect bond connectivities were


widespread this session for this paper.

Glossary of terms in Option D (Section D1 to D6) 2016

Acquired resistance

Resistance that a microorganism acquires to a drug to which it was previously susceptible.

Active conformation
The conformation (shape) adopted by a compound when it binds to its target binding site.

Active principle
The chemical in a mixture which is mainly responsible for that mixture’s biological properties.

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Agonist
A drug that produces the same response to a receptor as the natural messenger.

AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome.

Alkaloids
Natural products extracted from plants that contain an amine functional group.

Allosteric
Refers to a protein binding site other than the one used by the normal ligand, and which affects
the activity of the protein. An allosteric inhibitor binding to an allosteric binding site induces a
change of shape in the protein which disguises the normal binding site from its ligand.

Analgesics
Drugs used to alleviate the sensation of pain.

Antacids
Substances, basic in nature, used to reduce acidity or increase the pH of the gastric juices in
the stomach with the aim of relieving indigestion.

Antagonist
A drug which binds to a receptor without activating it, and which prevents an agonist or a
natural messenger from binding.

Antibiotic/ Antibacterial
A drug or a semi-synthetic substance derived from a microorganism, usually a bacterium, and
able in dilute solution to inhibit or kill another microorganism, usually a bacterium.

Antibody
A glycoprotein generated by the body’s immune system to interact with an antigen present on
a foreign molecule. It marks the foreign molecule for destruction.

Antigen
A region of a molecule that is recognized by the body’s immune system and which will interact
with antibodies targeted against it.

Antipyretic
A drug that reduces fever

Antiviral
Natural or synthetic substance that kills viruses directly or prevents their replication.

Antrum
Part of the pyloric region situated at the bottom part of the stomach.

Bacteriophage
A virus capable of replicating in a bacterial cell.

Bacterium

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A single celled organism lacking a nucleus.

Bacilli
Bacterial cells that are rod shaped.

Beta lactams
Structures that contain a four-membered β-lactam ring and are commonly used as antibacterial
agents.

Bioavailiabilty
Refers to the fraction of drug that is available in the blood supply following administration.

Blood brain barrier


Blood vessels in the brain are less porous than blood vessels in the periphery. They also have
a fatty coating. Drugs entering the brain have to be lipophilic in order to cross this barrier.

Broad spectrum antibiotic


An antibiotic that is effective against a wide range of strains of bacteria.

Bronchodilator
An agent which dilates the airways and can combat asthma.

Capsid
The protein coat of a virus.

Cell membrane
A phospholipid bilayer surrounding all cells that acts as a hydrophobic barrier.

Central nervous system


The nervous tissue of the brain and the spinal column.

Cocci
Bacterial cells that are spherical in shape.

Conjugation
In the chemical sense it refers to interacting systems of π bonds. In the microbiological sense,
it refers to the process by which bacterial cells pass genetic information directly between each
other.

Cyclo-oxygenases
Enzymes that are important in the production of prostaglandins.

Cytoplasm
The contents of a cell.

De novo drug design


The design of a drug or lead compound based purely on molecular modelling studies of a
binding site.

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Dependence
A compulsive urge to take a drug for psychological or physical needs.

Depressant
A drug that reduces excitability and calms or sedates a person by producing functional slowing
of the brain or spinal cord.

Designer drug
A drug with properties and effects similar to a known hallucinogen or narcotic but having a
slightly altered chemical structure, created in order to evade restrictions against illegal
substances.

De-solvation
A process that involves the removal of surrounding water from molecules before they can
interact with each other, for example a drug with its binding site. Energy is required to break
the intermolecular interactions involved.

Diuretic
A substance that leads to an increase in the discharge of urine.

Drug (see medicines)


A chemical or pharmaceutical intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, treatment, or prevention
of disease. It usually interacts with macromolecular targets (usually proteins) and produces a
biological response. It can alter incoming sensory inputs, moods and emotions and
physiological state of the person.

Drug metabolism
The reaction undergone by a drug when it is in the body. Most metabolic reactions are catalysed
by enzymes, especially in the liver.

Effective dosage (ED50)


The size of dosage that will typically cause a noticeable desired effect in 50% of the population.

Efflux
A process by which drugs are expelled from a cell through the action of cell membrane carrier
proteins.

Fast tracking
A method of pushing a drug through clinical trials and the regulatory process as quickly as
possible. Applied to drugs that show distinct advantages over current drugs in the treatment of
life-threatening diseases or for drugs that can be used to treat diseases that have no current
treatment.

First pass effect


The extent to which an orally administered drug is metabolized during its first passage through
the gut wall and the liver.

Food and drug administration (FDA)


The drugs regulatory authority in the USA.

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Fusion inhibitors
Agents that inhibit the fusion of HIV with the cell membrane of host cells.

Helicobacter pylori
A bacterium that can survive in the stomach and cause damage to the stomach lining, leading
to ulcers.

Henderson Hasselbach equation


An equation that is used to determine the extent of ionization of an ionizable drug at a particular
pH.

Histamine
An amine found in all body tissues. It induces capillary dilation, increased gastric acid secretion
and contraction of smooth muscle. It is involved in allergies.

Hydrophilic
Refers to compounds that are polar and water soluble. Literally means water loving.

Hydrophobic
Refers to compounds that are non-polar and water insoluble. Literally means water hating.

Hydrophobic interactions
Refers to the stabilization that is gained when two hydrophobic regions of a molecule or
molecules interact and shed the ordered water ‘coat’ surrounding them. The water molecules
concerned become less ordered, resulting in an increase in entropy.

In vitro studies
Testing procedures carried out on isolated macromolecules, whole cells, or tissue samples.

In vivo studies
Studies carried out on animals or humans.

Induced fit
The alteration in shape that arises in a macromolecule such as a receptor or an enzyme when a
ligand binds to its binding site.

Inhibitor
An agent that binds to an enzyme and inhibits its activity.

Intramuscular injection
The administration of a drug by injection into muscle.

Intraperitoneal injection
The administration of a drug by injection into the abdominal cavity.

Intravenous injection
The administration of a drug by injection into a vein.

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Medicines (see drug)
Drugs or pharmaceuticals that produce a therapeutic or healing effect are called medicines.

Lactamases
Bacterial enzymes that hydrolyse the β-lactam ring of penicillins and cephalosporins.

Lead compound
A compound showing a desired pharmacological property which can be used to initiate a
medicinal chemistry project.

Lethal dosage (LD50)


The quantity or dose of a drug that will typically cause 50% of the population to die.

Ligand
Any molecule, such as a drug, capable of binding to a binding site of a receptor (usually a
protein),

Lipophilic
It refers to compounds that are fatty and non-polar in character. Literally means fat loving.

Lysis
Destruction of the cell membrane or of a bacterial cell wall, releasing the cellular contents and
killing the cell. This often occurs during viral infections.

MRSA
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcusaureus; strains of S. aureus that have acquired resistance
to methicillin(a penicillin).

Narcotic
A drug that doses dulls the senses, relieves pain, and induces profound sleep but in excessive
doses causes stupor, coma, or convulsions.
Narrow spectrum antibiotic
An antibiotic that is only effective against a small number of bacterial strains.

Neuraminidase
An enzyme present in the flu virus that catalyses the hydrolysis of a sialic acid molecule from
host glycol conjugates and which is crucial to the infection process.

Nucleocapsid
Consists of a viral capsid and its nucleic acid contents. Viral enzymes may be present.

Opiates
A drug, hormone, or other chemical substance having sedative or narcotic effects similar to
those containing opium or its derivatives.

Opioid
Any compound, peptide or otherwise, which, while not containing the fundamental morphine
structure, possesses some affinity for any, or all, of the opioid receptor subtypes.

Opportunistic pathogens

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Pathogens which are normally harmless but which cause serious infections when the immune
system is weakened.

Pain
An unpleasant sensory or emotional experience usually associated with actual or potential
tissue damage.

Parietal cells
Cells lining the stomach which release hydrochloric acid into the stomach.

Penicillin
An antibiotic derived from the mould Pencillium notatum. They produce their effects by
disrupting synthesis of the bacterial cell wall.

Peptidases
Enzymes which hydrolyse peptide bonds.

Parenteral
A drug taken into the body or administered in a manner other than through the digestive tract,
as by intravenous or intra-muscular injection.

Pharmacodynamics
The study of how ligands (drugs) interact with their target binding site and produce a
pharmacological effect.

Pharmacokinetics
The study of drug absorption, drug distribution, drug metabolism, and drug excretion.

Pharmacophore
The atoms and functional groups required for a specific pharmacological activity, and their
relative positions in space.

pKa
A measure of the acid–base strength for a drug or a functional group.

Placebo
A preparation of an inert chemical that contains no active drug, but should look and taste as
similar as possible to the preparation of the actual drug. Used to test for the placebo effect
where patients improve because they believe they have been given a useful drug, regardless of
whether they received it or not.

Placebo effect
A positive or psychosomatic response of a person that occurs when he is given an ineffective
or inert chemical or treatment.

Plasmid
Segments of circular DNA that are transferred naturally between bacterial cells. Useful in
cloning and genetic engineering.

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Potency
The amount of drug required to achieve a defined biological effect.

Prodrug
A molecule that is inactive in itself, but which is converted to the active drug in the body,
normally by an enzymatic reaction. Used to avoid problems related to the pharmacokinetics of
the active drug and for targeting.

Prokaryotic cells
Simple bacterial cells that contain no organelles or well-defined nucleus.

Prostaglandins
A group of organic compounds derived from essential fatty acids and causing a range of
actions, including inflammation at the injured site (associated with pain).

Protease inhibitors
A group of antiviral agents which inhibit protease enzymes.

Proton pump inhibitors


A series of drugs which inhibit the proton pump responsible for releasing hydrochloric acid
into the stomach.

Retrovirus
RNA-viruses that use a viral reverse- transcriptase enzyme to generate viral DNA from viral
RNA within a host cell.

Reverse transcriptase
A viral enzyme present in HIV that catalyses DNA from an RNA template.

Reverse transcriptase inhibitors


A group of antiviral compounds that inhibit the viral enzyme reverse transcriptase.

Screening
A procedure by which compounds are tested for biological activity.

Self assembly
The process by which molecular units assemble into a structure without the aid of enzymes or
other structures, for example the assembly of protomers to form a viral capsid.

Semi-synthetic product
A product that has been synthesized from a naturally occurring compound.

Side effects
A secondary and usually adverse, unwanted or undesired effect of a drug.

Statins
Drugs that inhibit the enzyme 3-hydroxy-3- methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase and lower

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cholesterol levels in the blood supply.

Stimulants
A drug that temporarily arouses or accelerates physiological activity and prevents sleep.

Structure-based drug design


The design of drugs based on a study of their target binding interactions with the aid of X-ray
crystallography and molecular modelling.

Subcutaneous injection
The administration of a drug by injection under the surface of the skin.

Sympathomimetic drug
A drug that mimics adrenaline in the body that acts on the sympathetic nervous system.

Synergistic effect
The condition in which the result of the combined action of two or more drugs is greater than
the sum of their separate, individual effects.

Therapeutic Window
The range of a drug’s plasma concentration between its therapeutic level and its toxic level.

Therapeutic Index
The ratio of a drug’s undesirable effects with respect to its desirable effects. The larger the
therapeutic index, the safer the drug. The therapeutic index compares the drug dose levels
which lead to toxic effects in 50% of cases studied to the dose levels leading to maximum
therapeutic effects in 50% of cases studied.

Tolerance
The capacity of the body to become less responsive to a substance (such as a drug) with
repeated use or exposure. A higher dose of the drug is needed for the same desired effect.

Virion
The form that a virus takes when it is not within a host cell.

Virus
Non-cellular infectious agents consisting of DNA or RNA wrapped in a protein coat. They
equire a host cell to multiply.

Withdrawal symptoms
The symptoms that arise when a drug associated with physical dependence is no longer taken.

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