Basics of Oil Analysis

3rd Edition

BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION
Analysts, Inc. is proud of our pivotal role in the development of commercial oil analysis into what is now recognized as one of the most effective proactive maintenance tools available. For over half a century, scientific lubricant inspection and testing has been used to help diagnose the internal condition of oil-wetted components and provide valuable information about lubricant serviceability. The first test methods used for this purpose included such simple procedures as smelling used oil for the sour odor of excess acid, checking visually for obvious signs of contamination, or placing a drop of sample on absorbent paper to detect contaminants and monitor additive effectiveness. As basic research and technology expanded, progress in lubricant testing kept pace. An increasingly large number of tests were developed to assess lubricant physical properties and detect contaminants. In 1946 the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad research laboratory successfully detected diesel engine problems through wear metal analysis of used oils. A key factor in their success was the development of the spectrograph, a single instrument that replaced individual wet chemical tests for detecting and measuring chemical elements such as iron or copper. The spectrograph is able to measure a number of different elements simultaneously, making the analysis practical from a lab production standpoint. This practice was soon accepted and used extensively throughout the railroad industry. By 1955 oil analysis had matured to the point that the United States Naval Bureau of Weapons began a major research program to adopt wear metal analysis for use in aircraft component failure prediction. These extensive studies formed the basis

for a Joint Oil Analysis Program (JOAP) involving all branches of the U.S. Armed Forces. The JOAP results proved conclusively that increases in component wear could be confirmed by detecting corresponding increases in the wear metal content of the lubricating oil. In 1958 Pacific Intermountain Express (P.l.E.) was the first trucking company to set up an in-house used oil analysis laboratory to control vehicle maintenance costs. In 1960 Edward Forgeron founded Analysts, Inc., the first independent commercial laboratory to originate a complete oil analysis diagnostic service available to all areas of business and industry. This extensive history makes oil analysis the oldest of the commercial proactive maintenance technologies. Our present-day oil analysis technology is built on the firm foundation of these early efforts. The importance of using a combination of physical and spectrochemical tests to monitor lubricant and component condition is now universally accepted. This acceptance has been the proving ground for a spectrum of analysis instruments unimagined a generation ago. Oil analysis test procedures are established and reviewed by such agencies as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). A variety of laboratory and personnel certifications has emerged. Oil analysis is a widely discussed topic in a number of trade magazines, and is a focus of seminars and trade shows. We feel confident that the emerging oil analysis instruments and techniques of the future will back our continuing commitment to proactive maintenance through used oil analysis.

Mark Smith

Technical Administrator

BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

APPLYINGOILANALYSIS
Oil analysis is an integral part of the maintenance plan for power generation and manufacturing plants, over-the-road trucking fleets, off-road construction equipment, aircraft, refrigeration systems, processing and chemical plants, etc.. Any piece of equipment that has a lubricating system is a potential candidate for oil analysis. A successful oil analysis program requires an organized and sustained effort. No TPM (Total Productive Maintenance), lean manufacturing or Six Sigma initiative will reach its goal without the processes to sustain improvement. Both the user and the laboratory must work closely together to lay the groundwork for the program and achieve the desired results.

A failure to grow lines of communication between client and lab quickly shortens the life expectancy of an oil analysis program

OUTLINE FOR AN EFFECTIVE OIL ANALYSIS PROGRAM

An extremely wide range of systems can be placed on an oil analysis program.

1. Determine your primary objectives

Oil analysis can be applied to equipment and lubricant utilization, maintenance and management:

Utilization
Decrease unscheduled downtime Increase overall component lifespan Control lube consumption and oil disposal costs Assist product selection, comparison and verification

Maintenance
Identify and measure lube contamination along with component wear for targeted corrective action Reduce in-service failures and field repairs Establish proper lubricant service intervals

Management
Improve reliability, product quality and productivity Improve cost control for equipment, labor and materials Eliminate needless inspections or repairs Control spares and replacement costs
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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

2. Carefully consider your best choice for an oil analysis provider

All oil analysis laboratories claim they are 'qualified'. Although certifications and requirements that a 'qualified' used oil analysis laboratory must meet are now much more defined than in the past, one thing has not changed: You, the oil analysis user, must choose which laboratory best satisfies your needs. For example, Analysts has been featured in numerous magazine articles, advertisements, and other published materials. These 'second opinions' are excellent sources of reference about our service. However, the best guide to choosing a laboratory and sorting between the many claims these companies make, is experience. Chances are, someone in your field is already using one or more of the labs you are considering. Talk with them. They'll confirm how we define 'qualified'. Choose a well-established laboratory Analysts, for example, has been in continuous and evolving operation since 1960 - long enough to have developed complete, time-tested procedures for purchasing, analysis, reporting, client contact and support. We offer a wide selection of sampling materials, including our patented Bellows sampling container, QSS sampling valves, and other supplies and make sure that these materials are in stock when you need them. We provide the additional descriptive literature and training assistance needed to enhance your oil analysis program.

As you look at price, quality, support and experience, don't forget to evaluate the laboratory instrumentation and methods

Choose a well-equipped laboratory Each Analysts laboratory is thoroughly computerized, and most of our modern, well-maintained instruments are automated and directly interfaced with the lab's information management system. We adhere to published, proven testing procedures and use only the highest quality chemicals. We encourage our clients to visit our lab facilities to see this for themselves. Choose a laboratory with a well-trained, experienced staff Analysts marketing and technical personnel are respected members of the reliability community. More of our staff members are STLE Certified Lubrication Specialists or Oil Monitoring Analysts than all our competitors combined! We recognize the specific technical requirements for your application and answer your questions fully. We have an organized approach for establishing you as a client and can give you sound, practical suggestions for overcoming any problems you might encounter in establishing and maintaining your Analysts' oil analysis program. Choose a laboratory with recognized quality control Analysts, Inc. has one of the strongest certified and registered ISO 17025 quality programs in commercial oil analysis. By attaining the ISO 17025 certification, Analysts demonstrates on a daily basis our commitment

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS to quality in every aspect of our business. In addition, Analysts' quality program meets the requirements of 10 CFR 50, Appendix B the federal specification for quality programs in nuclear power plants. All of our data analysts have one or more of the STLE CLS and OMA certifications, and most of our technical staff members also hold these and other credentials. With our program of documentation, training, procedures and follow-up, Analysts is recognized as the leader in quality and service within the industry. Examine example reports for reliable recommendations and easy to read format Clearly stated results and recommendations are vital to the success of your oil analysis program. Analysts' reports are concise and informative. Our recommendations are specific, complete and easy to understand. The recommendations reflect a real knowledge of the operating and wear characteristics of the component sampled. Test results indicating the need for a major inspection are double-checked prior to notifying you. Most of our staff of data evaluators and chemists are members of professional and technical societies, and our established position in the commercial oil analysis field ensures ready access to lubricant and component manufacturers' data.

A sample's transit time from sampler to lab is often the largest part of the actual "turnaround" of a sample

Expect rapid turnaround of analysis reports Analysts meets and beats the frequently advertised 24- to 48hour turnaround for routine samples. We notify you immediately if critical conditions are detected, and make our reports available online. We provide 'rush' handling if you require an immediate response, and after-hours special openings can be arranged in case of emergency. Look for specialized summary reports To assist our clients to manage and control their oil sampling program, we will provide any of a series of eight specially designed program management and summary reports. These reports consolidate sampling activity to compile information such as Critical Condition (Units), Condition Analysis Statistics, Summarized Sampling Activity and Summarized Sample Conditions. The reports are available on a monthly basis. Look for a full range of information management tools and options Analysts maintains a comprehensive Web site at www.analystsinc.com. Analysis reports can be received via e-mail attachment directly from our laboratories. This site also offers a complete Web-based oil analysis management system, developed in response to proactive reliability management needs. In addition to online program management, through our Windows-based oil analysis application LOAMS (Lube Oil Analysis Management System), your entire oil analysis program can be managed from a standalone personal computer. LOAMS will download and store sample data, print reports locally, graph sample data, print sampling schedules by component and export data in formats that can be directly imported into other software programs.

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3. Build the foundation for your program

Frequently there is an assumption that an oil analysis program can be hurriedly established simply by taking a few samples and sending them to the nearest, cheapest laboratory. Nothing could be further from the truth.

Sampling Point Sur vey

Before you begin sampling, a necessary first step is to identify the systems you want to sample, and collect relevant technical reference information on those systems. Next, determine any history of operating or wear problems, and the criticality of any particular system (the impact of downtime and repair upon your business process).

Selecting Tests

Fight the urge to believe the myth that all you have to do to set up an oil analysis program is to pick the nearest, cheapest lab and send them some samples

Different combinations of physical and spectrochemical tests are used to measure the properties of the lubricant itself and determine levels of contaminants and chemical elements suspended in the lubricant. The application and goals of the oil analysis program help determine the number and type of tests that should be performed. Analysts has developed standardized 'packages' or combinations of routinely performed tests. These packages are designed to cover the general testing needs of broad service classifications such as industrial, construction, over-the-road trucking or aviation. Since each package consists of tests that the lab is already prepared to perform in volume, significant savings are realized when a package is selected rather than a random group of tests. Additional non-routine tests can be performed on request. Analysts will assist you in selecting the proper combination of tests prior to beginning your sampling program. The physical analysis concentrates on measuring certain physical characteristics of the lubricant. These tests also detect and measure contaminants and oil breakdown by-products, as well as their general effect on the lubricant properties. The spectrochemical analysis identifies and measures selected metallic elements present in the lubricant as microscopic particles. Test results are reported in parts per million (ppm) by weight. The relative concentrations of these elements are used to monitor wear rates, detect contaminants and determine additive levels.

Proper Sampling Int ervals

When beginning a routine oil analysis program, the usual practice is to sample the entire group of units/components as part of the criticality assessment to establish initial baseline data and quickly spot any components with serious problems. Once this process is complete, the client and laboratory then agree on an initial routine sampling interval. This interval is based on
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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS the results of the preliminary work, component manufacturer guidelines, client maintenance procedures and service scheduling and Analysts' experience with similar components and applications. Once the program is fully established, the routine sampling interval may be adjusted. Obtaining a representative sample is one of the most important parts of a scheduled oil analysis program. If a sample does not represent the true condition of the lubricant and component at the time of sampling, the reliability of both the test results and their interpretation is affected.

Using the "Pareto (80/20) rule", the 20% of your systems that cause 80% of your problems should be targeted first for sampling and corrective action

Once determined, routine sampling intervals should remainasconstantaspossible.

Obtaining a Repr esentative Sample

This is undoubtedly one of the most important parts of a scheduled oil analysis program. If a sample does not represent the true condition of the lubricant and component at the time of sampling, the reliability of both the test results and their interpretation is affected.

Samplingacomponentwhileitisrunningorwithin30 minutes after shutdown gives the most representative sample. This ensures that wear products and lubricant contaminants are thoroughly mixed with the lubricant and that the heavier wear particles have not settled out. Areas where lubricant flow is restricted or where contaminants and wear products tend to settle or collect should be avoided as sampling points. We recommend the following sampling points in order of preference:
A petcock or other sampling access installed PRIOR to the oil filter (using Analysts' QSS or similar valve) An oil dipstick tube or other service opening (using the Bellows or a vacuum pump) The sump or reservoir drain

Thereservoirdrainisoftentheeasiestsamplingpoint, butitissopronetosamplingerrorthatwediscourage it.

In special cases, samples may be taken from lube filters. The lab should be advised prior to testing if this occurs. Once a proper sampling point and method is chosen for a particular component, oil samples from that component should always be taken from the same point with the same method.

4. Establish consistent oil analysis baseline information

In a busy operations and maintenance schedule, no one
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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS wants extra paperwork and record keeping. But, if an oil analysis program is to furnish anything more than test data, the user must provide supporting information on the machines, components and lubricants in service. Initial equipment registration can be easily accomplished by furnishing the laboratory with a consolidated equipment list based on your sampling point survey, or by completing an individual registration form for each sampled system. In either case, the sampling point ID and current operating data is sent with each sample. In completing our oil analysis forms and sample container labels, the following brief definitions are helpful: UNIT l.D. NUMBER - A unique reference number for an entire functional unit. Examples include an aircraft registration number, company asset or inventory identification or a vehicle serial number. COMPONENT - The overall type of oil-wetted Systemsuch as engine, hydraulic, or gearboxfrom which the sample is taken. Other designations such as 'left', 'number 3', 'rear' or an actual description of the component's usesuch as fan drive, winch or swingare also needed for clear identification. Our forms provide checkboxes for common sampling positions. NOTE: In industrial applications the 'unit' and 'component' often refer to the same mechanical system. In this case the description of the sampled system will be recorded as the 'unit'. TIME SINCE NEW OR SINCE LAST OVERHAUL - The operating hours or miles since the sampled compartment was first put into service, or since the last overhaul or rebuild was performed. Since normal wear rates change over the lifetime of a component and break-in may resemble abnormal wear, this information is needed as an ongoing reference for interpretation. This data may be obtained directly from an equipment or component service meter, or from general operating records. TIME SINCE OIL CHANGE - The number of hours or miles of component use between the time the oil was last changed and the time the sample was taken. This information is essential to time-based trending. OIL TYPE - The manufacturer, product name, and SAE or ISO viscosity grade for the oil that was sampled. Since a manufacturer may sell more than one blend of the same viscosity
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Recording operating time on oil is absolutely essential to time-based trendingthe most accurate way to pinpoint abnormal wear conditions

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS product, the complete name is very important in determining which testing reference oil to use. OIL CONSUMPTION or MAKEUP OIL - The amount of oil added to maintain a correct oil fill level in the sampled component. Complete oil changes should not be reported as makeup oil or identified as 'new oil'. A sample may not be processed immediately if the client name, unit and component identification, or sample date are not provided. If you have sampled a particular machine before and do not ensure that the unit and component identifications match what you originally provided, testing may be delayed while the needed information is established, or the results may not be filed correctly with other samples from that machine. In addition to this "must provide" data for each sample, you should report any recent maintenance, changes in performance or unusual operating conditions. If you sample at the same time that you perform other routine maintenance and servicing activities, you should record that information also and submit it with the sample. Specific individuals should be assigned long-term responsibility for this portion of the program. If this is not feasible, then a particular department should be designated for involvement. Once this responsibility is established, a system of record keeping and correct sample identification should then be developed and initiated.

The 'Severity' rating is based on our overall assessment of the machine and fluid condition, not on any single condition or customer-assigned item of importance

5. Use the lab interpretation of the test data properly

Our lab interpretation typically separates the overall component and fluid condition--as related to the relative severity of contamination and wear--into four main classifications. Normal- Physical properties of the fluid are within acceptable limits, and no signs of excessive contamination or wear are present. MonitorSpecific test results are outside acceptable ranges, but are not yet serious enough to confirm abnormal conditions or justify diagnostic action. Caution is advised. The initial stages of an abnormality often show the same pattern of results as temporary conditions such as extended usage or overloading. AbnormalLubricant physical properties, contamination, and/or component wear is clearly unsatisfactory, but not critical. A confirming resample should be submitted. Additional diagnostic procedures may be needed to confirm each condition. Corrective

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS actions are necessary to prevent reduction of service life or overall loss of performance.

CriticalLubricant physical properties, contamination and/or component wear is clearly serious enough to require immediate diagnostic and corrective action to prevent major long-term loss of performance or component failure in service. Increases in operating hazard are likely. Short-term loss of performance may already be present. Largescale repairs may be required. You may be advised to remove the unit/component from service until a confirming resample is tested and other diagnostics confirm that repairs are necessary.
(Some customers / programs elect to drop 'Monitor').

These assessments are relative and are assigned using both trend analysis and condemning limits. When trend analysis is used (primarily in the case of wear elements), threshold values are developed to identify the boundary areas between normal and abnormal results. For wear metals, these threshold values vary for different types of component, but are usually specific and consistent for each individual model of a given application. The values do not provide sharp lines of 'normal/abnormal' interpretations; instead, they indicate ranges of increased likelihood that a problem has developed to a particular point. Generally, the lubricant and component condition can be considered 'normal' as long as the wear, contamination and lubricant deterioration levels remain within the established normal' ranges. Regardless of the threshold values, however, any sharp increase in wear metals or major shift in physical properties can signal beginning problems. Therefore, the threshold values cannot be used as 'go/no-go' criteria. A great deal of caution, judgment, experience and client technical input must be used in applying threshold values properly. Clients are contacted immediately by telephone on all samples where our interpretation detects a critical condition. Further, computer generated fax and/or email copies of all critical or abnormal samples are dispatched upon completion of our evaluation. On these reports the lab will recommend specific maintenance actions designed to correct not only the indicated problems but also the causes of these problems. When many components are involved in your analysis program, a spreadsheet system is helpful in summarizing each component's oil analysis status. Columns for the date of sampling for each compartment, and incoming reports by the overall sample status will give you action points at a glance. Both of our oil analysis management applications, the Analysts Online and LOAMS systems, automatically format oil analysis data in this layout. Each report should be read as soon as possible for action items. Analysis copies should be attached to work orders or instructions. Access to electronic
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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS versions of the report(s) should be given to appropriate personnel.

6. Provide the lab with proper feedback.

The interpretation guidelines' accuracy is verified by comparing the lab test result-based predictions with actual conditions confirmed by inspection. In this way, the test interpretations are continually refined by practical experience. "Feedback" from the client includes: Abnormal lubricant or component conditions that you suspect are present The findings of any inspection performed as a result of oil analysis program recommendations Abnormal machine conditions discovered that were not previously indicated by oil analysis Notification performed of servicing and/or maintenance

One simple way of measuring program effectiveness is to trend the number and type of abnormal or critical conditions in your machines over time

Information concerning operating environment or equipment application changes

These items may be noted on the sample information form, recorded on a copy of the previous analysis report, or sent to us separately. If the feedback is sent separately, please provide the component reference number (on report, upper right corner, third line below the 'Status Was' block).

7. Measure cost effectiveness.

The economic goals of reducing operating expenses and increasing profit margins have not changed since Analysts was founded. Routine oil analysis will help you achieve substantial savings in maintenance and repair costs. The program operates much like a medical checkup; if problems are detected, they can be corrected before they develop into serious and hazardous conditions that are costly to repair. When samples are reported normal, then the immediate value of oil analysis is a personal 'peace of mind' rather than an economic return. As the number of sampled pieces of equipment increases, the financial benefit of oil analysis also increases. Greater equipment availability and reliability means more production, less downtime and increased profits. The importance of tracking the savings generated by your oil analysis program cannot be over-emphasized. Manpower, parts and tool expenses will all be affected. However, because a well-run oil analysis program is deeply integrated into a clients overall maintenance program, management must establish a strong platform of results measurement and documentation to see oil
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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS analysiss unique contribution to profitability. Although some benefits of oil analysis may not show clearly on the 'bottom line' because they represent conditions that were prevented, many of the economic savings from oil analysis can be calculated by comparing Parts and labor expenses for component repair, overhaul, or replacement Loss of revenue during downtime

...before oil analysis with the same cost factors (plus the analysis expenses) after the program has been established and by estimating the Extension of the average component operating lifespan before overhaul or replacement Reduction in consumable items such as lubricants of fuels Increase in productivity

Your oil analysis program is only one part of your overall maintenance system. Prediction without comprehensive follow-through only improves how you react to a crisis

...for the overall group of units/components that you have placed on a routine oil analysis program.

THE FIVE KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL OIL ANALYSIS

As with any diagnostic method, the user must share in the responsibility for success when using this wellestablished and widely accepted proactive maintenance tool. To achieve overall success for your oil analysis program, use these proven keys: 1. Clearly defined client goals and program requirements ensure that the tests performed fit the application and that the service is being fully utilized on an ongoing basis. Representative samples ensure that the true condition of the lubricant and component can be determined by reliable, accurate testing. Frequent lab-client contact promotes accurate interpretation and leads to increased client confidence and interest in maintaining an active oil analysis program. Complete sample information speeds processing and increases the Data Analysts' ability to fully interpret the test results. Prompt report review ensures that abnormal or critical conditions are recognized and acted on in time to prevent damage or production loss.

2.

3.

4.

5.

A phone call or email from the lab will not equal the detailed, vital information present on the lab's final
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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS report; read each report as soon as possible.

TESTSANDTHEIRSIGNIFICANCE
Without a working knowledge of oil analysis tests and their significance, the user may be uncertain about the value of the service and how each test interrelates with the others to provide a useful, accurate picture of internal component and lubricant conditions. The following information is provided as a general orientation to what Analysts considers are the most important oil analysis tests for industrial and nonindustrial applications.

SPECTROCHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Selected metallic elements present as dissolved solids and microscopic particles suspended in the fluid to be analyzed are identified and measured in parts per million by weight.

Since larger wear particles are eventually ground up into smaller ones that we can easily detect, the spectrochemical analysis is effective in alerting you to most abnormal wear conditions in your equipment

The analyzed elements are grouped into three main categories:

1. Wear metals
Relative motion between lubricated parts is always accompanied by friction between the opposing part surfaces. Despite the fact that these surfaces are usually coated with an oil film, friction wears them away. Some of the particles produced as the parts wear are small enough to remain suspended in the circulating oil. Since these wear products are composed of the same materials as the surfaces from which they originated, the level of each wear metal remaining in the used oil indicates the relative wear condition of the lubricated parts. Scientists working in the field of tribology, the study of wear, still disagree on how many separate kinds of wear exist. As few as four and as many as twenty-five classes of wear have been proposed. Five of the most commonly accepted types of wear are:
Adhesive / rubbing wear- This type of wear occurs when the oil film does not separate the roughest points of the opposing moving part surfaces, and they begin to touch each other. Adhesive wear occurs normally during both break-in and routine service as the parts wear slightly to maintain alignment. If severe adhesion occurs due to load, speed or temperature conditions, scuffing and scoring will result. Metal may be torn off the part surfaces or transferred from one part to another and eventual seizure of the affected parts is likely. In normal service, adhesive wear is controlled with antiwear additives, which bond to lubricated surfaces and reduce direct part-topart contact. Abrasive wear- Abrasive wear is a cutting or etching action caused when either circulating hard particles or hard surface projections wear away softer surfaces. Sources of abrasive particles identified by oil analysis include contaminants such as dirt entering a component oil system and metal particles

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

formed during wear. Fatigue wear- Fatigue wear occurs when cyclic or repeated load stresses cause cracking, spalling, and pitting of the component part surfaces. This type of wear is more commonly associated with ball/roller element bearings and gears where the part surfaces "roll" past each other. Corrosive (chemical) wear- Corrosive or chemical wear results when chemical reactions cause corrosion or oxidation of part surfaces and part movement or fluid pressure dislodges material from this surface layer. This type of wear is associated with rust-promoting conditions, corrosive contaminants and excessively high levels of chemically active additives.

The elemental analysis is the workhorse of oil analysis. More information can be captured from spectrochemical testing than from any other single test.

Cavitation wear- Cavitation wear occurs when metal is removed from parts by the shock impact of collapsing cavitation bubbles on the part surfaces. Cavitation itself is associated with partial vacuums formed in a liquid by sudden changes in pressure and may be caused by vibration, reduced or uneven liquid flow and other factors involving particular component part shapes and movements.

2. Contaminants
Depending upon the circumstances, many different substances may be classified as contaminants. Silicon, in the form of silicon dioxide (sand), is one of the most common contaminants monitored with spectrochemical analysis. Similarly, grease contamination in an oil system may be indicated by increases in aluminum or barium if the grease contains metallic soaps. Although the term contamination is commonly associated with substances entering a component's oil system from an outside source, wear metals themselves are also a form of contaminant.

3. Additives
Additives are chemical compounds added to oils, fuels, and coolants to impart specific beneficial properties to the finished products. Additives create new fluid properties, enhance properties already present and reduce the rate at which undesirable changes take place in a fluid during service.

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

WEARMETALSANDCONTAMINANTS SILICON
Silicon is typically associated with dirt contamination. This contamination can result from any condition that allows dirt to enter a component oil system. Other sources of silicon include seals, oil and coolant additives and greases.

IRON alloying element or cast metal

Reciprocating engine: Gears and shafts; block; cylinder liners; valve train; connecting rods, rings and oil pump; some bearings; some pistons; some accessory systems. Turbine engine: Gears and shafts; bearings; pumps; housings. Transmission: Gears and shafts; bearings; brakes and disks; pumps and shift spools; PTO; housing. Torque converter: Shafts; bearings; some housings. Differential: Shafts and gears; bearings; housing. Transaxle/final drive/reduction gearbox: Gears and shafts; bearings; housing. Hydraulic: Rotors, vanes, pistons, and rods; housing and bores; gears and shafts; valves. Reciprocating and rotary compressors: Gears and shafts; case; valves; cylinder liners; crossheads; rings and screws or turbines; bearings; some oil cooler tubing.

COPPER alloying element

Reciprocating engine: Bearings; wrist pin and valve train bushings; other bushings and thrust washers; oil cooler tubing. Also may be present as an oil additive or a crossover contaminant from a leaking transmission seal. Turbine engine: Some main and accessory bearing retainers; bushings and nuts; some oil control valves. Transmission: Discs; bearings; bushings and thrust washers; oil cooler tubing. Torque converter: Retainers and separators. Differential: Bearings; bushings, retainers, and thrust washers. Final drive/reduction gearbox: Bearings; bushings, retainers, and thrust washers; oil cooler tubing. Hydraulic: Bearings and bushings; swash plate cups; valves; some pistons; some pump cylinders; oil cooler tubing. Reciprocating and rotary compressors: Bearings; bushings, thrust washers and retainers; oil cooler tubing.

ALUMINUM alloying element or cast metal

All components: Aluminum oxides present in the environment, typically associated with silicon (dirt) contamination. Reciprocating engine: Pistons; bearings; bushings; blocks, main and accessory cases and housings; some oil cooler tubing. Turbine engine: Main and accessory case, housings; some retainers; seals; baffles. Transmission: Some cases; bushings and retainers. Torque converter: Impellers. Differential: Bushings and thrust washers. Final drive/reduction gearbox: Bushings and thrust washers. Hydraulic: Some pump housings. Reciprocating and rotary compressors: Case; impellers, some pistons and crossheads; retainers.

CHROMIUM alloying element or plating

Reciprocating engines: Liners and rings; shafts; valve train. Turbine engine: Bearings; shafts and gears; seals. Geared components (general): Bearings; shafts; seals. Hydraulic: Rods; valves. Reciprocating and rotary compressors: Liners and rings; shafts; valve train.

LEAD and TIN alloy or flashing

Reciprocating engine: Bearings; some pistons, bushings and thrust washers. Final drive/reduction gearbox: Bearings; bushings. Hydraulic: Pump thrust plate; bushings. Reciprocating and rotary compressors: Bearings; bushings. --Lead may still be found (rarely) in industrial paints and primers. --Tin may be present as an oil additive, usually in conjunction with lubricants containing molybdenum compounds.
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NICKEL alloying element or plating

Reciprocating engine: Gears and shafts; valve train; bearings. Turbine engine: Gears and shafts; bearings. Geared components (general): Gears and shafts; bearings. Hydraulic: Gears and shafts, bearings.

SILVER plating; tracer

General: Some bearings and bushings; oil cooler solder; seals. Silver is also occasionally used as a physical 'tracer' to indicate that wear has progressed to a certain point. In this application, silver is either plated directly onto a part surface or incorporated into a layer under the surface. The wear condition of the part can then be related to the amount of the tracer deposited in the oil. This usage is most often found in aerospace applications.

MOLYBDENUM alloying element or plating

General: Some bearings; some piston rings.

MAGNESIUM alloying element

General: Cases and housings.

TITANIUM alloying element

General: Some shafts, bearings, and gears. Typically found only in certain aerospace and heavy-duty commercial or industrial steels.

ANTIMONY alloying element

General: Certain types of journal bearing overlays.

ZINC alloying element

General: Brass fittings (with copper); galvanized surfaces.

VANADIUM alloying element

General: Typically found only in certain aerospace and heavy-duty commercial or industrial steels. May also be present in fuels as heavy crude residual material.

ADDITIVES
Most modern lubricants and coolants contain organo-metallic oil additives. Some of these additives are formed from compounds of one or more of the same chemical elements used in component parts.

MOLYBDENUM
General: Extreme pressure additive or solid lubricant in specialty oils and greases; corrosion inhibitor in some conventional coolants or supplemental additives.

MAGNESIUM
General: Detergent, dispersant, alkalinity increaser.

SODIUM
General: Corrosion inhibitor in oils and coolants.

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BORON
General: Detergent, dispersant; anti-oxidant in oils and coolants.

BARIUM
General: Corrosion and rust inhibitors; detergent; anti-smoke additive in fuels.

PHOSPHORUS
General: Anti-wear; combustion chamber deposit reducer; corrosion inhibitor in coolants.

POTASSIUM
General: Corrosion inhibitor; trace element in fuels; also found as a mineral salt in sea water (marine cooling systems).

CALCIUM
General: Detergent, dispersant, alkalinity increaser.

ZINC
General: Anti-wear, anti-oxidant, corrosion inhibitor.

PHYSICALANALYSIS
VISCOSITY
Viscosity is a lubricant's internal resistance to flow at a given temperature in relation to time, and is considered to be the single most important physical property of a lubricant. Changes in viscosity indicate improper servicing, dilution, contamination or lubricant breakdown in service. Viscosity is most commonly determined with a kinematic method and the results are reported in centistokes (cSt)*. In addition to the viscosity result, the crankcase oil viscosity class of an engine lubricant may also be expressed as an SAE Grade.
*1 Centistoke (cSt)= 1 square millimeter per second

The presence of water in a non-water-base fluid indicates contamination from an outside source or from condensation. Excessive levels of water promote lubricant breakdown and component part corrosion. Results are reported in percent (%) volume. Water contamination can be assessed with th "crackle" test,In certain components and applications where water contamination must be kept extremely low, the Karl Fischer titration method is used to measure and report water content in parts per million (ppm).

WATER

LEM is the acronym for Light Extinction Measurement, an Analysts, Inc. patented process to determine fuel soot. LEM measures the fuel soot dispersed in the oil of diesel engines. This is an indication of the combustion efficiency of the engine. An excessive concentration of soot promotes oil gelling and sludge in the engine, leading to poor oil circulation. It is affected by fuel injector efficiency, injector timing, integrity of the ring-piston seal, oil consumption and the load on the engine. Results are reported in weight percent (%). LEM is the most efficient and accurate method to measure fuel soot, widely specified by OEM's as the preferred measurement method.

FUEL SOOT by LEM

FUEL DILUTION

Fuel dilution indicates the relative amount of unburned diesel fuel or gasoline present in an engine lubricant. This dilution is associated with improperly adjusted or malfunctioning fuel system assemblies. Excessive fuel dilution lowers lubricant load-carrying capacities, promotes lubricant breakdown and increases the risk of fire or explosion. Fuel dilution is determined by gas chromatography and is reported in percent (%) volume.

GLYCOL

Positive test results indicate the presence of ethylene glycol, most commonly associated with engine cooling system leaks. Glycol contamination promotes wear, corrosion, sludging, and lubricant breakdown. If the analysis indicates that coolant additives or water contamination is present in the oil sample, additional chemical tests are used to confirm ethylene glycol contamination.
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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

When an organic compound, such as lubricating oil, is exposed to infrared light, the substances present in the compound will absorb the light at specific wavelengths. The amount of absorbance at a particular wavelength is related to both the type and quantity of absorbing material. In this way, certain contaminants and physical changes in the lubricant can be directly measured as a molecular spectrum. Glycol (coolant) contamination, sulfates, acid and base changes, and certain additives may also be detected, along with an extremely wide range of organic compounds. Infrared analysis is most frequently used in oil analysis to monitor: Fuel Soot The amount of fuel soot carbon suspended in the engine lubricant. Higher values indicate reduced combustion efficiency due to such conditions as air intake or exhaust restrictions, injector malfunctions or excessive idling. Test results are reported on an absorbance scale. Oxidation The chemical incorporation of oxygen into and subsequent loss of lubricant performance due to aging, adverse or abnormal operating conditions or internal overheating. Test results are reported on an absorbance scale. Nitration The organic nitrates formed when combustion by-products enter the engine oil during normal service or as a result of abnormal 'blow-by' past the compression rings. Test results are reported on an absorbance scale. Water Water contamination produces a characteristic peak in most oils, which can be easily measured. Test results are reported in % volume.

INFRARED ANALYSIS

NEUTRALIZATION NUMBER

Both the acid content and the alkaline content of a lubricant may be measured and expressed as a neutralization number obtained from a wet chemical titration: Acid Number (AN, "TAN") Measures the total amount of acidic material present in the lubricant; multiple methods have been developed to perform this test. Generally, an increase in AN above that of the new product indicates oil oxidation, or mixing with a more acidic product or contaminant. The results are expressed as a numeric value corresponding to the amount of the alkaline chemical potassium hydroxide required to neutralize the acid per one gram of sample. Base Number (BN, "TBN") Measures the total alkaline content present in the lubricant; multiple methods have been developed to perform this test. Many of the additives used in engine oils contain alkaline (basic) materials intended to neutralize the acid-forming processes of aging and fuel combustion. A relatively high BN is associated with increased protection against ring and cylinder liner corrosion, and damage to "yellow" metals such as copper and bronze. Abnormal decreases in BN indicate a reduced acid neutralizing capacity and/or a depleted additive package. The test first determines the amount of acid required to neutralize the alkaline content of the sample. The final result is then expressed as an equivalent amount of alkaline potassium hydroxide per gram of sample.

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

AUTOMATED PARTICLE COUNT

This test uses instruments with special detectors which count and size particles present in the fluid. Results are reported as numbers of particles in a specific size range per a given volume of sample. The size ranges and reporting methods are in world-wide transition due to calibration and procedure changes, and a well-known aerospace standard (NAS 1638) has been retired in favor of a related and more modern SAE AS4059 standard. The new standards and ranges have been carefully researched and selected for maximum accuracy and minimum impact on previously established particle count guidelines. Analysts uses two different methods to perform the particle count: the pore blockage/flow decay method, and the APC (automated particle count), a laser-based method. Each has particular strengths and appropriate applications. For these methods, three size ranges represent the current ISO 4406 standard: >4 microns, >6 microns and >14 microns. Three additional ranges (>21 microns, >38 microns, and >70 microns) complete the count where detailed sizing is required by a particular standard or customer requirement. Results from the particle count are then used to indicate fluid cleanliness via ISO or SAE classification codes. The ISO Class code is expressed as three separate numbers (for example, 20/15/12). The first number represents the relative contamination level from the first size range, and the second and third ranges are similarly calculated. The SAE Class code has separate size range limits for each of the six particle sizes, but the code is generally expressed as the single highest limit reached within any of the six classes (for example, SAE Class 5). Abnormal particle contamination levels are associated with increased wear, operational problems with close tolerance components, fluid contamination or degradation and loss of filter efficiency.

FERROGRAPHY

Ferrography is an analytical technique in which wear metals and contaminant particles are magnetically separated from a lubricant and arranged according to size and composition for further examination. It is widely used in oil analysis to determine component condition through direct examination of wear metal particles. There are three stages in a complete ferrographic analysis: (1) direct reading (DR) ferrography, (2) analytical ferrography and (3) the ferrogram interpretation and report. DR (direct reading) ferrography precipitates the wear particles from a sample and electronically determines the quantity of 'large' (over 5 microns) and 'small' (1 to 2 microns) particles present in the sample. Wear calculations from these results indicate the rate, intensity and severity of wear occurring in the sampled machine. In cases where the DR ferrography wear trends indicate an abnormal or critical wear condition, analytical ferrography can reveal the specific wear type and probable source of the wear condition. The DR ferrography report includes spectrochemical analysis, large and small particle quantity indexes, and the results from wear rate, intensity and severity calculations. Analytical ferrography uses the Ferrograph Fluid Analyzer to concentrate on direct microscopic evaluation of the wear particles. A ferrogram slide is prepared by drawing the oil sample across a transparent glass or plastic plate in the presence of a strong magnetic field. Wear particles are pulled to and sorted on the plate in a manner similar to that used in the direct-reading ferrograph. After deposition, the oil is washed away, leaving the particles clean, aligned with the magnetic field, and fixed to the plate. An experienced evaluator then examines the ferrogram to determine the composition and sources of the particles and the type of wear present. An analytical ferrography report includes specific type and quantity classifications of the metallic and non-metallic debris present on the slide, a color photomicrograph of the ferrogram, an assessment of the sampled machine's overall wear status and a detailed interpretation of the ferrography results.

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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

QSA

Analysts has developed an innovative testQSA--Quantitative Spectrophotometric Analysis--to accurately determine a used lubricant's likelihood to promote harmful sludge and varnish build-up. Based on the lubricant type and the application, the basic QSA rating allows a trained diagnostician to determine the presence or likelihood of internal sludge and varnish build-up. The causes of varnish deposition--which include thermal degradation, severe oxidation and coking--are natural occurrences in the operation of heavy-duty hydraulic & turbine systems. Historically, visual inspections were performed to find the varnish buildup. Commercial oil analysis--while an essential tool in proactive maintenance through wear, contamination and lube condition monitoring--has not previously offered a reliable, cost-effective procedure to identify varnishing conditions and varnish potential. There are numerous types of insoluble contaminants found in lubricating systems. Insoluble contaminants are those materials that will not dissolve in the oil. The two most general classifications of insoluble contaminants are hard contaminants, such as dirt, debris and wear particles, and soft contaminants, composed of the various oil degradation by-products. Varnish originates from these soft contaminants. It is a thin, insoluble film that over time deposits throughout the internal surfaces of a lubrication system. The degradation process accelerates as the lubricant undergoes continued exposure to air, water, and high temperatures. The presence of varnish in hydraulic and lubrication systems causes many serious problems, including but not limited to the sticking of varnish-coated control valves. Also, once the varnish has formed it takes a major investment in time and money to clean up an affected system.

Specialty Testing
Test slates for industrial systems, greases, fuels and coolants or special investigations often include non-routine and ASTM specification tests. A comprehensive discussion of these tests is beyond the scope of this document. Our affiliation with many respected specialty and research laboratories gives us the widest possible testing capabilities, and we have especially designed programs for certain applications and particular challenges. Please contact us for detailed information related to your specific needs. A list of our facilities and contact information can be found on the next page. N OT ES

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FIVE LABORATORIES TO SERVE YOU:

ANALYSTS, INC. WESTERN LABORATORY
3401 JACK NORTHROP AVE. HAWTHORNE, CA 90250 (800) 336-3637 FAX (310) 375-6415

ANALYSTS MAINTENANCE LABS MIDWESTERN LABORATORY

2450 HASSELL ROAD HOFFMAN ESTATES, IL 60195 (800) 222-0071 FAX (708) 884-8098

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ANALYSTS MAINTENANCE LABS SOUTHEASTERN LABORATORY

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ANALYSTS MAINTENANCE LABS MID-CONTINENT LABORATORY

11350 BLUEGRASS PKWY. LOUISVILLE, KY 40299 (888) 491-6063 FAX (502) 266-9779

CORPORATE OFFICE ANALYSTS, INC.

3401 JACK NORTHROP AVE. HAWTHORNE, CA 90250 (800) 336-3637 FAX (310) 375-6415
www.Analystsinc.com