See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/343285693

Fostering sustainable consumer behavior regarding clothing: Assessing

trends on purchases, recycling and disposal

Article  in  Textile Research Journal · July 2020

DOI: 10.1177/0040517520944524

CITATIONS READS

23 6,441

4 authors:

Arminda Maria Finisterra do Paço Walter Leal Filho

Universidade da Beira Interior Hamburg University of Applied Sciences (Germany) & Manchester Metropolitan U…
154 PUBLICATIONS   5,587 CITATIONS    876 PUBLICATIONS   16,275 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Lucas Veiga Ávila Karen Dennis

Universidade Federal de Santa Maria Ketchup Clothes Ltd
109 PUBLICATIONS   1,731 CITATIONS    5 PUBLICATIONS   51 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

LASS - Latin American Symposium on Sustainability View project

Call for Papers: Implementing the UN Sustainable Development Goals - Regional Perspectives View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Lucas Veiga Ávila on 29 July 2020.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Original article
Textile Research Journal
0() 1–12

Fostering sustainable consumer behavior ! The Author(s) 2020

Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions
regarding clothing: Assessing trends on DOI: 10.1177/0040517520944524
journals.sagepub.com/home/trj
purchases, recycling and disposal

Arminda Paço1, Walter Leal Filho2, Lucas V Ávila3 and

Karen Dennis4

Abstract
The apparel industry, which includes the clothing/garment sector, encompasses the supply chain of clothing and gar-
ments, starting with the textile and fashion industry, all the way to fashion retailers and the trade with second-hand
clothes and textile recycling. This sector is characterized by substantial wastes, which may be minimized by means of
textile recycling. This paper reports on the results of an international study on sustainable clothing consumption.
This paper identifies and analyzes attitudes and behaviors regarding the clothing industry in a sample of 203 individuals.
The results suggest a number of trends. Firstly, they show the complexity of purchase habits. The reasons why individuals
dispose of their old or not used clothes are manifold, and include objective and subjective factors. Also, the paper
illustrates the existence of disparities in respect of clothing use and disposal behavior. Finally, the results suggest that
there is a need for more awareness-raising initiatives, in order to make consumers more conscious about the options
available and the need for a more sustainable use of clothing.

Keywords
sustainability, clothing, recycling, consumer behavior, second-hand textiles

In a sustainable world, all new clothing would be pro- production and their consumption increased rapidly
duced from pre-existing fabrics and textiles because from 1996 to now, so they dominate current global
resources such as polyester and cotton could be fiber production.4
recycled and processed back into their raw material. A solution to the previously mentioned problems could
Clothing textiles are usually woven or knitted and be textile recycling. This process includes benefits such as a
made from natural, manufactured fibers and blended decrease of landfill space requirements, a reduction of con-
textiles. Natural fibers are cellulosic fibers such as sumption of energy and water, lowering pollution, and the
cotton, flax and hemp, or protein fibers such as silk
and wool. Unlike these biodegradable natural fibers,
manufactured fibers of petrochemical origin are pro- 1
Department of Management and Economics, NECE, University of Beira
duced from a non-renewable resource and cannot be Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
2
easily reused because their physical and chemical prop- Faculty of Life Sciences, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences,
Hamburg, Germany
erties are difficult to reprocess and reuse.1 Many 3
Graduate Program in Production Engineering (PPGEP) and Graduate
advances in chemical recycling have provided the Program in Accounting Sciences (PPGCC), Federal University of Santa
opportunity for the growth of blended textile products Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
4
that allow garment materials to be recirculated over Ketchup Clothes, Leeds, UK
many generations of products. Such processes have a
consistent and important supply of textile waste.2 Both Corresponding author:
Lucas V Ávila, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Prédio 07, Centro de
manufactured fibers and natural fibers require a lot of Tecnologia – Av. Roraima, 1000 – Sala 305 – Camobi, Santa Maria – RS/
energy, water and chemicals for their production.3 Brazil, 97105–900.
Synthetic fibers are the most common in clothing Email: [email protected]
2 Textile Research Journal 0()

demand for dyes. It is a significant part of the United long production cycles and classic styles with longevity,
Nations’ sustainable development goals to do more with to fast fashion characterized by the quick turnover of
less, in an industry that is the second largest polluter of rapidly changing designs, has dented the environmental
clean water, and address the issue of 85% of textiles credentials of the sector.17 It has focused the majority
ending up in landfill or being incinerated before the end of businesses in the textile and clothing industry on
of their material life.5 Although textiles and clothing are low-cost mass production, sold at low prices, based
not mentioned specifically, resource efficiency is a signifi- on the latest fashion trends. This encourages consumers
cant part of the European Commission’s ‘‘Roadmap to a to purchase more and more, resulting in negative
resource efficient Europe’’.6 impacts to the environment and society.18 Thus, the
Textile recycling is embedded in the larger global increasing volume of textile waste has become an envir-
movement toward a closed-loop production and a circu- onmental issue. As such, it is necessary to pay attention
lar economy that is aligned with ‘‘reduce, reuse, recycle’’, to consumers’ environmental attitudes, concerns and
which is different from the traditional textile and apparel awareness regarding their clothing behaviors. With
industry that has adopted the principle of inbuilt obso- the increasing complexity of the human lifestyle, the
lescence: the production of low-cost, easily accessible and demand for functionalized or high-performance textile
fashionable clothes.7 Nevertheless, the fashion industry materials—or ‘‘fast fashion’’—has seen a sharp
plays a relevant role in the path towards sustainability increase. However, the methods for its production are
and the circular economy.8 Moving to a circular restora- still creating a negative impact on the environment.19
tive economy reduces the impact of a linear economy: This study examines the consumers’ clothing dis-
discarded products are reused (second-hand use) or posal behavior and the thought process behind that
used as a source of raw materials (resource efficiency) behavior, evidencing aspects such as the philanthropic
to create a new product of value.1,9,10 Other authors awareness factor, the concern for the environment, the
(e.g. Brokstad11) suggest that the solution to combat practical problems of accumulating and storing clothes,
the unsustainability caused by textiles is to reduce the and so on. The opinions regarding second-hand apparel
growing consumption of low-quality clothing, ‘‘pushing’’ are also analyzed, as well as the factors that influence
the industry in a direction where it is possible to produce the consumers’ attitude toward sustainable clothing
durable clothing with profit. buying, mainly from the environmental perspective.
Thus, there is a need to move to a circular economy The present research was conducted in several countries
model, extending the practices of reducing materials and with different levels of industrialization and awareness,
other resources, reusing manufactured pieces or material, exhibiting different approaches to clothing disposal
and recycling in order to provide inputs to new products, behavior and buying patterns.
contributing, as defended by Velenturf and Purnell,12 to
the resources recovery. Thus, by reusing or recycling there
will be a huge opportunity to reduce the environmental Literature review
footprint of the textile and clothing industry and as a
Sustainable consumer behavior for clothing
result bring several environmental and economic benefits
to all society.13 Here both recycling and reusing are Sustainable clothing consumption respects the pur-
viewed as the act of getting rid of clothes or other textiles. chase, use, and disposal of clothes. It considers the
In the first case, the products are discarded to be used as environmental issues and aims to create less pollution
inputs in the production of other goods, that is, can be and waste whilst using fewer natural resources. Both
transformed into new products; and reusing is when the the industry and consumer have a responsibility
product can be used by another owner or with another for the pollution generated. In fact, in the last decades,
purpose.14 the consumption of fashion items has become increas-
This strategic option can be a source of innovation, by ingly less environmentally and socially harmful.20,21
minimizing waste and keeping materials within the pro- The textile industry has a significant impact on the pro-
duction–consumption loop during a considerable period duction phase of the life cycle due to the use of energy
of time,8 turning the ‘‘waste’’ into new products.13,15 and non-renewable resources for fiber production, the
Nevertheless, there are authors (e.g. McDonough consumption of large quantities of water, crop land and
and Braungart16) that criticized the ‘‘reduce, reuse, chemicals and the emissions to both air and water.22
recycle’’ approach because it perpetuates a one-way, In the disposal phase, landfilling of waste textiles cre-
‘‘cradle to grave’’ manufacturing model that dates to ates a further problem related to the decomposition
the Industrial Revolution and casts off as much as 90% of fibers.18
of the materials it uses as waste, much of it toxic. There is a growing segment of consumers interested
And what about the role of consumers in this in knowing whether the product they like has been
market? As is evident, the move from slow fashion, made by a producer that respects the environment
do Paço et al. 3

and has ethical principles, and if the raw materials were ‘‘second-hand clothing is thereby culturally framed as
acquired in a sustainable and socially acceptable way. waste, as a surplus, and as a morally charged product
The factors that affect their sustainable consumer behav- that has a powerful redemptive capacity for donors,
ior include the role of clothing in self-expression, changes multiple recyclers and secondary consumers’’.
in technology, rising affluence and lower prices.23 To Donations to humanitarian organizations tend to be
these consumers, the industry is expected to contribute the method most commonly used for disposing of appa-
solutions to its ecological and social problems, and to rel. A considerable number of consumers give their
handle their products with more eco-friendly consump- unwanted textile waste to charity shops.30 In the recy-
tion patterns. This will slow the fashion movement, influ- cling units, clothes are sorted and sent to Africa, East
encing maintenance processes, and improve the reusing Europe and Asia, where they are reused; the items that
and recycling of clothing.24 cannot be sold or donated are transformed into clean-
From the demand point of view, a piece of clothing, ing rags or sold to other industries.18,31 Thus, whereas
after being used for one season, is often simply thrown some textiles are disposed of, there is a significant part
away.8 However, some changes in consumer environ- that is recycled or reused, depending on the needs and
mental ethics are already being felt in the field of activ- the facilities offered by the industry and country.
ism: translated as the search for products considered Usually, studies are more focused on the barriers to
more ‘‘environmentally friendly’’ (using recycled and buying second-hand goods. However, for consumers
organic materials, fair-trade production, recyclable, with a lack of economic resources, this option is prac-
etc.), the rejection of clothes made from animal skins tised.32 On the other hand, concerns about the environ-
and paying attention to ecolabels.25 At this point, ment have also begun to increase consumers’ tendency
Armstrong et al.26 consider that there is a growing to buy second-hand products. In addition, the con-
interest of consumers for product–service systems that sumers’ interest in environmentally friendly fashion
use arrangements such as renting, upgrading, redesign- and retro/vintage clothing has contributed to some
ing or lending to reduce dependence on natural growth in this clothing market.33
resources while, simultaneously, improving product Darley and Lim34 defend that the national interest in
quality and longevity. Nevertheless, this environmental extending the life of the products is one of the major
concern from consumers is not necessarily translated factors that enhanced the second-hand clothing indus-
into decision-making and effective behavior, including try. Another aspect contributing to this growth are the
sustainable clothing consumption,20 generating a gap consumers, (mostly younger) who have shown a high
between attitudes and behaviors. Usually, consumers interest and concern for the environment32 and have
are interested in sustainable consumption, but they been creating and expressing their social consciousness
prefer the convenience, facility and low prices for through choosing choice second-hand clothing. Even if
their fashion.27 This may be caused by the barriers to they are not ready to support environmental sustain-
eco-conscious apparel consumption: limited knowledge ability by acquiring high-priced green products, they
of the environmental effects of apparel consumption may be able to contribute by purchasing second-hand
and negative attitudes towards sustainable apparel. clothing items, which will reduce the volume of new
According to Harris et al.,23 the intention to buy products produced in the future.
environmentally friendly clothing is highly influenced Research exploring consumer attitudes towards
by social pressure and the concern for the environment. second-hand apparel has focused only on the segment
It is moderately influenced by the feeling of guilt and of consumers who already buy second-hand apparel
lack of knowledge and information about environmen- regularly. Some studies report that consumers’ willing-
tally friendly apparel. Even among green consumers, ness to purchase used apparel depends on their know-
clothing purchases are fundamentally determined by ledge about the issue; other barriers are related to the
economic and personal considerations, while disposal (negative) opinions of others, the condition of used
behaviors are driven first, and foremost, by habits and apparel, the availability of stores, and the myth that
routines acquired. Sustainable behavior regarding fash- second-hand apparel is associated with lower
ion is also motivated by both positive desires (‘‘ethical income.18 Another finding is presented by Janigo and
hedonism’’) and negative emotions, such as the suspicion Wu:35 if consumers already purchase second-hand
and scepticism regarding the large corporate brands.23 clothing or have friends who do so, the acceptance of
used and recycled clothing could lead to an interest in
purchasing redesigned and recycled clothing.
Second-hand clothing
The use of second-hand channels is motivated by
There has been a huge increase in the economic power two main reasons: to find unique or rare products
and global scope of the second-hand clothing trade that are not usually available through traditional retai-
since the early 1990s.28 According to Norris (p.183)29 lers, or to dispose of clothing that is old or out of
4 Textile Research Journal 0()

style.28,32 Young consumers are usually the most pre- consciousness and demographics, are factors that may
disposed to shop for textiles at second-hand markets motivate and influence clothing disposal behaviors.
due to environmental reasons, lack of money or seeking According to Joung,47 attitudes toward general
vintage fashion. The young consumers are often not waste recycling (e.g. paper or glass) are good predictors
very concerned with the question of contamination, of clothing disposal behaviors (such as reuse, resale,
and they do not care about the ‘‘social stigma’’ asso- giving to other people and donation), which is in line
ciated with second-hand products (poverty, embarrass- with the findings of Bianchi and Birtwistle48 and
ment, etc.). Morgan and Birtwistle.49 Further, it was found that
consumers who were familiar with recycling in general
preferred apparel made from recycled fiber.18
Clothing recycling and disposal Nevertheless, of the disposal possibilities, throwaway
Clothing disposal practice can be defined as dis- is the most common way consumers get rid of clothing
carding of an outfit or item by giving it to others, that they do not use or do not want anymore. The
throwing it away, using it for another purpose (reuse, numbers are dramatic, as is stated by Claudio,50 espe-
redesign) or selling it.36,37 Textile recycling involves cially when it comes to damaged or worn-out textiles.
reclaiming pre-consumer waste or post-consumer Research by Bianchi and Birtwistle51 found that
waste (garments, vehicle upholstery, household items environmental consumer awareness and individuals’
and others).38 age have an influence in donating behavior. In a previ-
There are a number of different recycling processes ous study, Birtwistle and Moore52 found that donating
possible within the textile and apparel context.39,40 to charities and giving away to family and friends were
Recycling means the breakdown of a product into its the most common and convenient ways of sustainable
raw materials (usually through a melting process).41 clothing disposal. These two methods allow a consider-
In this way, material is recovered from waste and can able saving of resources in the disposal process, bene-
be used for new products.42,43 When the new product fiting the needy. Other methods, such as reuse and
(after the recycling) is of lower value, the recycling pro- redesign, help to prolong the life of the clothing.
cess is called ‘‘downcycling’’.41 In turn, ‘‘upcycling’’ Joung and Park-Poaps44 analyzed the factors moti-
means to use a certain material again but for a different vating and influencing clothing disposal options, and
purpose, for instance, the chemical recycling of found that donation and resale were explained by envir-
cotton.40,42 onmental concerns. In another study, Koch and
Domina and Koch31 found that consumers dispose Domina53 found that while environmental attitudes
for a variety of reasons: inadequate size, changes in were highly correlated with the donation and reuse of
taste, lack of space and changes in style and fashion. textiles, they were not related to resale. Bianchi and
The act of discarding textiles may be related either to Birtwistle48 examined sustainable clothing disposal
convenience or to the lack of information about the behaviors in terms of environmental consumer aware-
existing options for recycling. For example, Domina ness, and reported positive relationships between
and Koch31 concluded that the availability of curbside awareness of the environment and general recycling
recycling programmes positively influences the partici- behaviors in the two sampled countries. Awareness of
pation in textile recycling. In addition, Yee et al.’s37 the environment was positively related to giving to
study demonstrated that clothing disposal behavior is family or friends, but it was not related to donation
also affected by philanthropic awareness. This variable to charities in both countries.
measures the consumer’s altruism in clothing disposal There is also a type of consumer that ‘‘ignores’’ the
practices and their willingness to help the needy. In line, clothes they do not wear or use. These consumers
Joung and Park-Poaps44 study reported that in the simply hoard their unwanted clothing in their closets,
United States altruistic concern was the primary motiv- and this can be explained by several factors, amongst
ation for donating clothes. Thus, there are several ways which mention can be made to the investment value
for consumers to dispose of their clothing evidencing an (expensive items, perceived value), weight management
altruistic attitude, for example by donating to charity and emotional value.47,49
or giving away to family or friends or other members of There are also consumers who are concerned with
the community. However, Ha-Brookshire and recycling clothes that use the most environmentally
Hodges45 state that altruism is not the main reason friendly dyes. This is due to the fact that there are syn-
for the removal of apparel; the motivation for removal thetic dyes in some dyeing products.54 Despite that,
is more related with the lack of closet space and the some materials have a huge environmental footprint
‘‘need’’ for something new. (e.g. cotton and polyester). In the case of polyester,
In turn, Lang and Armstrong46 refer that personal there is a significant waste of water, and because poly-
attributes, especially fashion trend sensitivity, price ester is not biodegradable, it causes several pollutions.1
do Paço et al. 5

There are some areas where considerable improve- Germany and Austria increased their textile waste
ments could be made to increase the recycling rate. from 2004 to 2012, and others (e.g. Greece, Romania,
These improvements include better infrastructure and Portugal, Norway) decreased significantly their level of
communication flow between textile producers and waste in this industry.1 With the growth in fast fashion
recyclers, curbside collection programmes, promotion practices, which render many products psychologically
and increase in end-user markets of waste recyclables, obsolete before their physical demise, it would appear
and educational programmes of consumers.31 that increasingly effective waste management systems
Understanding the motivation for behavior is therefore that people understand, use effectively, and which
crucial in understanding the obstacles for clothing reuse draw on both intrinsic and extrinsic values and modes
and recycling LG.14 In fact, little is known about the of behavior are needed. Having been identified as one
diversity of reasons behind clothing disposal, or the of the fastest growing environmental concerns, barriers
condition of disposed clothing that is delivered either to recycling within the textile and clothing industry
to garbage collection or recycling. The technical and need addressing in order to uncover potential obstacles
social aspects of clothing disposal should be studied.14 and lead to safer and more effective practices. In their
study into the South African apparel sector, Larney
Barriers to recycling. As a polluter and ecological and van Aardt62 argued that the imperative underlying
time bomb, the textile and clothing industry has the effective management of waste was perpetuated by
come under scrutiny from many sectors.55–58 Its the ‘‘increasing cost, decreasing availability of landfill
socio-political structures are questioned for its reliance space and dwindling of natural resources’’ (p.36).
on sweatshop-type conditions as well as its manufactur- As space in landfills becomes sparser and the cost of
ing processes, both of which have been put under the this space increases, manufacturers are facing dilemmas
microscope for the manner in which materials (and about modes of manufacture and resultant inputs and
people) are used and abused.59,60 Time, distance and outputs. A key barrier in this context thus centers upon
connections are all important concepts within the the need to balance environmental concerns with com-
industry, especially in relation to the speed of produc- mercial competitiveness.63
tion and consumption, the global spread of the indus- Recycling can be defined as the process of treating
try, and the diverse and fragmented linkages that things that have already been used so they can be used
characterize modes of manufacture. Therefore, when again. Barriers to harnessing this process include the
considering the barriers that occur when attempting shortage of markets for recycled products, the lack of
to recycle within this context, many different factors equipment and technology to recycle, the labor inten-
come into play. WRAP61 in their report ‘‘Barriers to siveness of processes and their associated high cost, and
recycling at home’’ highlighted how obstacles occur due pressures due to competitiveness with countries with
to situational, behavioral, attitudinal and knowledge- lower standards of environmental practices.62 There is
based contexts. This implies that in order to recycle also often the perception that products containing
effectively, appropriate mechanisms are needed that recycled raw materials are inferior in quality, which in
take into account the environment in which people turn stymies growth in recycling practices.
find themselves, their lifestyles, beliefs and values. Remanufacture presents itself as an associated practice
If the methods of recycling are present but the popula- in which items are disassembled, cleaned, inspected,
tion is unwilling to recycle or if there is a willingness to repaired, replaced and reassembled into a new prod-
recycle but there are no means to do so a dichotomy uct.64 This should lead to a product that, if not superior
occurs between practice and theory. This section to the original, should at least be equal to it. It is argued
will consider the barriers that exist in the recycling that growth in this area is hindered by the lack
of textile and clothing waste from the perspective of of a clear definition of what this entails, regulated poli-
manufacturing and retail-based scenarios. It draws on cies, legislation and warranties for remanufactured
practical experience as well as theoretical frameworks products.65
and research. Within manufacturing, cutting room waste is seen as
Textile and clothing waste emanates from a number a primary environmental concern, and approximately
of processes and transactions, which include the manu- 15% of virgin cloth gets discarded.66 Presently, a large
facture, marketing, consumption and design of prod- proportion of this waste is sent to landfills (USA) or
ucts.62 The quality and quantity of this waste is in landfills and incineration (UK), and therefore a key
turn determined by industrial tendencies and consumer challenge in manufacturing is to find methods for
preferences, which dictate the types of products on more effectively utilizing this waste. Zero pattern cut-
offer, the rate of consumption and the means through ting techniques have been developed, but barriers to
which these products may be recycled. For instance their growth lie within the commercial value of these,
some European Union countries such as UK, especially seeing as how they relate to mass production.
6 Textile Research Journal 0()

Within the charity retail sector, personal observation and The respondents were asked to mark their opinion
communication have highlighted how time, space, know- using a five point scale varying from 5 ¼ totally agree to
ledge and quality have all contributed to the ability of 1 ¼ totally disagree; individuals were also asked to
staff and volunteers to recycle textile and clothing waste. point out their level of frequency of certain buying
In many stores, space for sorting is limited and there is behaviors by again using a five point scale ranging
often a need to move stock out quickly. Knowledge relat- from 5 ¼ always to 1 ¼ never.
ing to the material composition of products can also be The nine statements to measure clothing disposal
limited and this means that items become mixed without behavior were adapted from Bianchi and
a clear delineation in material types. Birtwistle48,51 because of their capacity to measure a
Given all the previous, this study aims to examine diversity of actions usually associated with sustainable
the consumers’ clothing disposal behavior, and its disposal behavior. Žurga et al.18 have also used some of
motivations, as well as the perceptions regarding these variables in their study. All these studies were also
second-hand apparel and the factors influencing the used to inspire the construction of a set of reasons that
consumers’ attitude toward sustainable clothing could explain the disposal behavior. The tendency to
buying. Thus, with consideration to the literature contribute positively to the natural environment by
review presented, three research hypotheses arise: having a certain clothing buying behavior was mea-
sured by a set of questions based on Žurga et al.18 In
H1: Consumers prefer to give/donate old/not-used order to examine the second-hand behaviors in terms of
clothes than to reuse or sell them. barriers, the Yan et al.32 research was used.
H2: The main reasons for clothing disposal are not The questionnaire was used in its original form and
related to altruistic aspects. language (English), but it was also translated into
H3: Consumers do not make their clothing choices with Portuguese using standard back-translation protocol
environmental factors in mind. in order to cover a larger audience. Some adjustments
were made to ensure that the respondents understood
the questions, after the pre-test, which included 15 indi-
viduals from Portugal, Brazil and Germany. The final
Methodology version of the questionnaire was made available on the
There is a wide difference in the levels of research on online platform, SurveyMonkey, for three months.
textiles, and a limited number of international studies After collection, the data was statistically analyzed
which have investigated the complex relations between and interpreted using the statistical software SPSS 25.
behavior and textiles use. In order to explore the con- Descriptive analyses and parametric tests were used to
sumer behavior regarding recycled and second-hand analyze the data.
clothing and use of second-hand textiles and its dis- The questionnaire was available during the period
posal, an extensive literature review was performed. from 1 October to 31 December 2018. In total, approxi-
This was done in order to find adequate scales, already mately 1200 emails were sent to people from different
tested, to measure such behaviors and attitudes. It was regions of the world. In total, 258 responses were
also meant to identify possible problems. In some cases, received, but 55 did not complete the survey and
it was considered a better option to adapt and re-create were discarded, totalling 203 valid answers from
new measures. the following countries: Germany, Brazil, Thailand,
An enquiry-based approach was used to test the Mexico, India, Indonesia, England, Tanzania, Italy,
proposed hypotheses. The chosen method of data col- Switzerland, Malaysia, Zambia, Liberia, Sweden,
lection was a survey, an internationally used method United States, France, Kenya, New Zealand,
for data collection among different groups, taking the Bangladesh, Australia, Cameroon, Republic of
format of a self-administered questionnaire. The Liberia, Aruba, Canada, Hungary, Chile, Albania,
questionnaire consisted of mainly closed questions, Luxembourg, Norway, Netherlands, Ireland, Guinea,
covering three main sections: (a) clothing disposal Croatia and Portugal, as shown in Figure 1.
behavior (to know what individuals do with the old/ The 203 respondents came from 34 countries in vari-
not-used clothes); (b) clothing buying behavior (to ous regions of the world, covering all continents. They
know the factors individuals take into account when have a mean age of 37 years, 74.38% are female and
buying, and the reasons why some of them do not buy 25.62% are male. Of the respondents, 42.5% have a
second-hand clothing); and (c) demographics (age, master’s degree, 28.5% a higher education degree
gender, level of education, job and country). The (bachelor’s degree), 22.12% a PhD, and 7.88% a sec-
survey was pre-tested by a group of 10 individuals ondary school degree. In addition, participants held
in order to identify any language or understanding positions such as chief executive officer, manager,
problems. researcher, professor, social worker, senior lecturer
do Paço et al. 7

Figure 1. Participating countries.

and student, among others. It is important to note that Regarding the first hypothesis (H1: Consumers
the sample of 203 participants from different regions of prefer to give/donate old/not-used clothes than to
the world is representative for the discussion of evi- reuse or sell them), it is possible to confirm the formu-
dence, especially since it is about analysis of attitudes lated hypothesis, considering the mean scores of the
and behaviors towards the clothing industry. Several five first sentences related with giving/donation, with
international studies with a similar sample such as the exception of ‘‘I swap with family members and
Avila et al.67 and Filho et al.68 were published in high friends’’. In general, these behaviors present a higher
impact journals. score than the ones related to reuse or sell (the last
three sentences). In addition, the lack of significant dif-
ferences in the respondents’ behavior regarding the
Results and discussion clothing disposal method ‘‘I give to members of my
In order to examine the results of the questionnaire and family’’ should be noted, with individuals tending to
discuss the hypotheses stated previously, several statis- have similar behavior regarding this aspect. In fact,
tical tests were carried out. The variables used to meas- donations to humanitarian organizations tend to be
ure the relevant phenomena were presented in the the method most frequently used for clothing disposal,
format of Likert scales (minimum ¼ 1, maximum ¼ 5), as stated by Birtwistle and Moore52 and Hiller.30 In
where 3 is the indifference value. Values below 3 (the addition, Koch and Domina53 noticed that while envir-
median point of the scale) represent negative values in onmental attitudes were highly correlated with the
the scale, and above 3 are the positive values. The first donation and reuse of textiles, they were not related
analysis performed aimed to know the clothing disposal to resale.
behavior of our sample (Table 1). Table 2 presents the results of the main reasons why
The garment industry is mostly focused on low-cost individuals dispose of their old or not used clothes.
mass production, seeking to sell its products at low Regarding the reasons for clothing disposal, more
prices based on the latest fashion trends. This encour- than 200 respondents from the 34 countries replied
ages consumers to buy more and more, resulting in that they would recycle to have a positive impact on
large consumption. Aiming to avoid waste, the survey the environment and to help others. The ability to
showed that only 1.55% put the clothes in the trash. recycle is one of the objectives of industries that aim
It can be observed that the main percentage of user for responsible and sustainable production, which will
behavior is directed towards donations to charitable allow part recovery of the energy and material used.
and humanitarian institutions or to family members The barriers to more efficient recycling could be over-
and friends. come by the integration between existing methods of
8 Textile Research Journal 0()

Table 1. Clothing disposal behavior: descriptive analysis and one-sample t-test

What do you do with your Standard

old/not used clothes? Mean deviation t

I give to members of my family 2.97 1.33 –0.316

I give to friends 2.54 1.34 –4.86
I swap with family members and friends 1.84 1.15 –14.39
I give to charity shops and humanitarian 3.51 1.32 5.52
organizations
I deposit in humanitarian bins 2.70 1.45 –2.95
I throw into the trash bin 1.55 0.92 –22.2
I use as cleaning rags 2.42 1.18 –6.90
I repair and/or redecorate 2.19 1.20 –9.54
I sell 1.62 1.03 –18.92
Note: t-test with 202 degrees of freedom and test value 3.

textile production/ready-made design and improved be reversed, or at least stabilized, actions are required
coordination of post-consumer waste collection. In that target the implementation of sustainable develop-
order to recycle effectively, appropriate mechanisms ment, starting with more conscious consumption
are needed that take into account the environment in habits. Conscious consumption does not mean having
which people find themselves, their lifestyles, beliefs to deprive yourself of a more comfortable life, but
and values.61 reduce, recycle and reuse everything that is possible in
The second hypothesis (H2: The main reasons for order to contribute to the preservation of the environ-
clothing disposal are not related to altruistic aspects) ment and the balance of the planet. In fact, the most
is not confirmed as the mean scores of the items are efficient way to reduce these impacts is to increase the
higher in the altruistic indicators (help others, good usage, because even the secondary user will add other
impact on the environment), contrary to Domina and impacts to the process of production–consumption (e.g.
Koch31 who found relevant factors for disposal due to transportation, redesign, etc.).
incorrect size, the lack of space and the changes in fash- Regarding the third hypothesis (H3: Consumers do
ion and style. However, there are no significant differ- not make their clothing choices with environmental fac-
ences in the two individualistic reasons: a shortage of tors in mind), apparel made from an environmentally
space and no longer used (consumers tend to converge preferable material is one of the highest factors and
into these two reasons for disposal). Also Ha- buying clothes with environmental labels is one of the
Brookshire and Hodges45 found that altruism was not lowest factors, confirming, at least partially, the
the main reason for the removal of apparel, pointing hypothesis.
instead to the lack of closet space and the ‘‘need’’ for In their study, Bianchi and Birtwistle48 found that
something new. awareness of the environment was taken into account
Aiming to know how respondents buy and their atti- when consumers choose clothes. In fact, there is a con-
tudes regarding sustainable clothing behavior, a set of siderable number of consumers interested in sustainable
questions related to the topic was analyzed (Table 3). clothing, and very concerned with environment preser-
The results point to small differences between users vation,32 but the convenience, low prices and fashion
who evaluate the origin of the material, composition of tend to prevail.27 There are no significant differences in
the material and those that follow the trends. It is the responses of the second and fourth items (avoid
appropriate for users to select their products by assess- buying certain products and consider the composition).
ing the origin and composition of the material used and This means that for all the rest of the attitudes and
the company’s social responsibility, since many indus- behaviors the respondents present differentiated
tries focus on low cost and do not worry about the opinions.
environment. Every day, consumerism is growing and, In addition, we asked respondents, when applicable,
as a consequence, increasing the gradual degradation of to indicate the three main reasons why they were
the environment. There are several detrimental impacts against buying second-hand apparel (Figure 2).
on the natural environment caused by new technologies Concerns about the environment contributed to the
and products such as clothing, footwear, electronics, increase of consumers’ propensity to buy second-hand
cosmetics and other items acquired in an excessive products.32 However, barriers to this behavior continue
and unnecessary way. In order for this situation to to exist: the opinion of others, the state of the clothes,
do Paço et al. 9

Table 2. Reasons for clothing disposal: descriptive analysis and one-sample t-test

Standard
Reasons for clothing disposal Mean deviation t

Shortage of space 2.86 1.44 –1.35

Unfashionable items 2.74 1.35 –2.75
Confectioner defects 2.57 1.29 –4.70
Uselessness 2.87 1.39 –1.31
Inadequate size 3.54 1.34 5.68
To make some money 1.62 1.10 –17.81
To help others 3.68 1.21 7.94
Recycling efforts will bring good impact 3.77 1.32 8.30
on the environment

Table 3. Clothing buying attitudes and behavior: descriptive analysis and one-sample t-test

Standard
How is your clothing buying behavior? Mean deviation t

I acquire apparel made from environmentally 2.74 1.11 –3.26

preferable material
I avoid buying certain apparel products 2.86 1.30 –1.50
I buy second-hand clothes 2.31 1.29 –7.60
I consider the material’s composition 3.12 1.36 1.28
I buy clothes with environmental labels 2.51 1.12 –6.18
I prefer to follow the fashion trends 2.83 1.22 –2.01
I consider the origin 3.23 1.31 2.51

65

45

23 22
18 20
16

Figure 2. Reasons to not buy second-hand clothing.

*Other: hard to find stores/articles (7), contamination (4), prefer to buy new (3), new is more durable (2), culturally not acceptable
(2), associated to poverty (1), composition (1).
10 Textile Research Journal 0()

the difficulty in finding, and so on.18 As observed in This study has some limitations. Firstly, the gener-
Figure 2, the main obstacle for respondents is the per- alizability of this study is limited to the sample, since
ception of cleanliness/contamination (also observed by non-probability sampling was used. Secondly, it did not
Yan et al.32) and previous ownership (previously take cultural issues into account. A similar study com-
reported by Žurga et al.18). The lack of choice and paring consumers of different cultures would be a useful
not being fashionable were other relevant barriers addition to the literature. Thirdly, the study did not
pointed out by the individuals sampled. focus on specific consumer groups. For example, the
mature consumers who are reaching retirement age.
They may need to replace their career-related apparel
Conclusion by apparel that fits their new lifestyles. These older con-
The rapid growth in fast fashion retailing has led to the sumers care about future generations, and tend to help
disposal and destruction of tonnes of clothing around the others. Thus, a future study may focus on older con-
world, some of which are in very good condition. To sumers’ clothing and their recycling and disposal
protect the environment, consumers must make more behaviors. Despite the analysis by age, the multicultural
responsible decisions between the reuse of clothing and variables should be considered for future studies.
its disposal, and be prepared to buy these items in a Moreover, the survey managed to obtain information
rational way. Here, education can have a crucial role. from only a small sample of respondents; many more
It is necessary to educate citizens, from an early age, could be reached if more resources were available for
making them aware of the importance of the ‘‘reduce, the study. Finally, one further limitation is that the
reuse, recycle’’ approach to apparel, given the high study was aimed at investigating very specific aspects,
impact this industry can have on the natural environ- and was not designed to look at the apparel industry on
ment. Thus, public policy should direct a special effort a larger scale. This work nonetheless sheds light on the
not only to sensitize the industry of this sector to being complexity of consumer behaviors as it relates to cloth-
more sustainable, but also to contribute to a better edu- ing, and may provide a basis for further studies.
cation and to provide information to the consumers.
As this paper has shown, the advantages of reuse Declaration of conflicting interests
and recycling comprise both environmental and eco- The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with
nomic benefits. At present, most consumers are increas- respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
ingly urged to stop throwing away their old clothes and article.
recycle them, preventing resource and environmental
depletion. However, sustainable consumer behavior
Funding
cannot alone solve the problem of excessive pollution
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
caused by the consumption of textiles and apparel. We
port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
need a change in mindset. For instance, motivation of
article: This study was supported by Foundation for Science
the population—especially but not only in wealthy and Technology (FCT) – Project UIDB/04630/2020 and
countries—towards the reuse of clothes among family European School of Sustainability Science and Research,
members and friends would significantly contribute to HAW Hamburg.
the reduction of the environmental impact of clothing
production and make it more sustainable. ORCID iD
Some implications for second-hand businesses can
Lucas V Ávila https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1502-258X
be also drawn. It is possible that initially low prices
were the main reason for consumers to buy these
pieces, but today’s buyer has begun to associate reuse References
with reducing the amount of disposed clothing sent to 1. Koszewska M. Circular economy – challenges for the tex-
landfills, therefore causing less environmental pollu- tile and clothing industry. AUTEX Res J 2018; 18:
tion. Thus, it is necessary to target this segment of con- 337–347.
sumers that starts to be really concerned with the 2. Salolainen M, Leppisaari A and Niinimäki K.
depletion of resources, and is available to try other Transforming fashion expression through textile thinking.
Arts 2018; 8.
options, such as buying second-hand clothes or switch-
3. Payne A. Open and closed-loop recycling of textile and
ing to more sustainable clothes (made from recycled apparel products. In: Muthu SS (ed.) Handbook of life
materials). Also, ecological clothing retailers should cycle assessment (LCA) of textiles and clothing.
promote their stores and brands by associating the Cambridge, United Kingdom: Woodhead Publishing,
wearing of used clothing with reducing negative 2015, pp.103–123.
impacts on the environment, hence reaching a more 4. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
environmentally conscious part of the population. and International Cotton Advisory Committee. World
do Paço et al. 11

apparel fiber consumption survey. http://www.fao.org/ to explore sustainable consumption and life beyond
publications/en/ (2013, accessed 10 October 2018). growth. J Consum Policy 2016; 39: 417–439.
5. United Nations. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelop- 21. Iran S, Geiger S and Schrader U. Collaborative fashion
ment/sustainable-consumption-production/ (2020, consumption: a cross-cultural study between Tehran and
accessed 10 October 2018). Berlin. J Clean Prod 2018; 212: 313–323.
6. European Commission. Roadmap to a resource efficient 22. Blackburn RS. Sustainable textiles: Life cycle and envir-
Europe, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/resource_effi- onmental impact. Cambridge: Woodhead, 2009.
ciency/about/roadmap/index_en.htm (2011, accessed 10 23. Harris F, Roby H and Dibb S. Sustainable clothing: chal-
October 2018). lenges, barriers and interventions for encouraging more
7. Ellen MacArthur Foundation. A new textiles economy: sustainable consumer behaviour. Int J Consum Stud 2016;
redesigning fashion’s future, https://www.ellenma- 40: 309–318.
carthurfoundation.org/publications/a-new-textiles-econ- 24. Koszewska M. A typology of Polish consumers and their
omy-redesigning-fashions-future (2017, accessed 10 behaviours in the market for sustainable textiles and
October 2018). clothing. Int J Consum Stud 2013; 37: 507–521.
8. Jacometti V. Circular economy and waste in the fashion 25. Sneddon JN, Soutar G and Lee JA. Exploring wool
industry. Laws 2019; 8: 1–13. apparel consumers’ ethical concerns and preferences.
9. Ellen MacArthur Foundation. Towards the circular J Fash Mark Manag 2014; 18: 69–186.
economy: an economic and business rationale for an 26. Armstrong CM, Niinimäki K, Kujala S, et al. Sustainable
accelerated transition, https://www.ellenmacarthurfoun- product-service systems for clothing: exploring consumer
dation.org/publications/towards-the-circular-economy- perceptions of consumption alternatives in Finland.
vol-1-an-economic-and-business-rationale-for-an-acceler- J Clean Prod 2015; 97: 30–39.
ated-transition (2012, accessed 10 October 2018). 27. Joergens C. Ethical fashion: myth or future trend? J Fash
10. Ellen MacArthur Foundation. Towards the circular Mark Manag 2006; 10: 360–371.
economy: opportunities for the consumer goods sector, 28. Xu Y, Chen Y, Burman R, et al. Second-hand clothing
https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/publications/ consumption: a cross-cultural comparison between
towards-the-circular-economy-vol-2-opportunities-for- American and Chinese young consumers. Int J Consum
the-consumer-goods-sector (2013, accessed 10 October
Stud 2014; 38: 670–677.
2018).
29. Norris L. The limits of ethicality in international markets:
11. Brokstad VM. Clothes and consumer behaviour: chan-
imported second-hand clothing in India. Geoforum 2015;
ging consumers purchase through raising awareness for
67: 183–193.
durability. Master Thesis. TKD - Master i Produktdesign,
30. Hiller KY. Internal and external barriers to eco-conscious
https://hdl.handle.net/10642/7497 (2019, accessed 10
apparel acquisition. Int J Consum Stud 2010; 34: 279–286.
October 2018).
31. Domina T and Koch K. Convenience and frequency of
12. Velenturf APM and Purnell P. Resource recovery from
recycling: implications for including textiles in curbside
waste: restoring the balance between resource scarcity
recycling programs. Environ Behav 2002; 34: 216–238.
and waste overload. Sustainability 2017; 9: 1603.
32. Yan RN, Bae SY and Xu Q. Second-hand clothing shop-
13. Shirvanimoghaddam K, Motamed B, Ramakrishna S,
ping among college students: the role of psychographic
et al. Death by waste: fashion and textile circular econ-
characteristics. Young Consum 2015; 16: 85–98.
omy case. Sci Total Environ 2020; 718: 1–10.
33. Beard ND. The branding of ethical fashion and the
14. Laitala K. Consumers’ clothing disposal behaviour – a
synthesis of research results. Int J Consum Stud 2014; consumer: a luxury niche or mass-market reality? Fash
38: 444–457. Theory 2008; 12: 447–468.
15. Navone L, Moffitt K, Hansen K, et al. Closing the textile 34. Darley WK and Lim JS. Effects of store image and atti-
loop: enzymatic fibre separation and recycling of wool/ tude toward secondhand stores on shopping frequency
polyester fabric blends. Waste Manag 2020; 102: 149–160. and distance traveled. Int J Retail Distrib Manag 1999;
16. McDonough W and Braungart M. Cradle to cradle: 27: 311–318.
remaking the way we make things. North Point Press, 35. Janigo KA and Wu J. Collaborative redesign of used
2002. clothes as a sustainable fashion solution and potential
17. Brooks A. Clothing poverty: the hidden world of fast fash- business opportunity. Fash Pract 2015; 7: 75–97.
ion and second-hand clothing. Zed Books, 2015. 36. Kwon TA, Choo HJ and Kim Y. Why do we feel bored
18. Žurga Z, Hladnik A and Tavčer PF. Environmentally with our clothing and where does it end up? Int J Consum
sustainable apparel acquisition and disposal behaviours Stud 2019; 44: 1–13.
among Slovenian consumers. AUTEX Res J 2015; 15: 37. Yee LW, Hassan SH and Ramayah T. Sustainability and
243–259. philanthropic awareness in clothing disposal behavior
19. Weerasinghe DU, Perera S and Dissanayake DGK. among young Malaysian consumers. SAGE Open 2016;
Application of biomimicry for sustainable functionaliza- 3: 1–10.
tion of textiles: review of current status and prospectus. 38. Hawley JM. Textile recycling. In: Worrell E and Reuter
Text Res J 2019; 89: 19–20. MA (eds) Handbook of recycling: state-of-the-art for prac-
20. Armstrong CM, Connell K, Lang C, et al. Educating for titioners, analysts, and scientists. Elsevier Inc., 2014,
sustainable fashion: using clothing acquisition abstinence pp.211–217.
12 Textile Research Journal 0()

39. Hawley JM. Apparel recycling. In: Blackburn R (ed.) recycling in the US. J Consum Stud Home Econ 1997;
Sustainable apparel: production, processing and recycling. 21: 1–17.
Elsevier Inc., 2015, pp.251–262. 54. Ma X, Wei Y, Wang S, et al. Sustainable ultrasound-
40. Lewis T, Park H, Netravali AN, et al. Closing the loop: assisted ultralow liquor ratio dyeing of cotton fabric
a scalable zero-waste model for apparel reuse and recy- with natural turmeric dye. Text Res J 2020; 90: 685–694.
cling. Int J Fash Des Technol Educ 2017; 10: 353–362. 55. Fletcher K. Sustainable fashion and textiles: Design jour-
41. Worrell E and Reuter MA. Handbook of recycling state- neys. Oxford: Earthscan Publications, 2008.
of-the-art for practitioners, analysts, and scientists. 56. Von Busch O. Fashion-able: hacktivism and engaged fash-
Elsevier Inc., 2014. ion design. Gothenburg: Art Monitor, 2008.
42. Brown S. Refashioned: Cutting-edge clothes from upcycled 57. Fuad-Luke A. Design activism: Beautiful strangeness for a
materials. London: Laurence King, 2014. sustainable world. London: Earthscan, 2009.
43. Shah K. Dilemmas of development and the reconstruc- 58. Julier G. From design culture to design activism. Des Cult
tion of fashion. In: Muthu SS (ed.) Environmental impli- 2013; 5: 215–236.
cations of recycling and recycled products. London: 59. Curwen LG, Park J and Sarkar AK. Challenges and solu-
Springer, 2015, pp.101–134. tions of sustainable apparel product development: a case
44. Joung HM and Park-Poaps H. Factors motivating and study of Eileen Fisher. Cloth Text Res J 2013; 31: 32–47.
influencing clothing disposal behaviour. Int J Consum 60. Labour Behind the Label. Labour behind the label,
Stud 2013; 37: 105–111. https://labourbehindthelabel.org/who-we-are/ (2014,
45. Ha-Brookshire JE and Hodges N. Socially accessed 10 October 2018).
responsible consumer behavior?: exploring used clothing 61. WRAP. Barriers to recycling at home, http://www.wrap.
donation behavior. Cloth Text Res J 2009; 27: 179–196. org.uk/content/barriers-recycling-home (2008).
46. Lang C and Armstrong CM. Personal attributes: influ- 62. Larney M and van Aardt AM. Case study: apparel indus-
ences on clothing disposal reasons and frequency. J Fam try waste management: a focus on recycling in South
Consum Sci 2016; 108: 41–47. Africa. Waste Manag Res 2010, 28: 36–43.
47. Joung HM. Materialism and clothing post-purchase 63. Abend J. The green wave swells. Bobbin 1994; 36: 92–98.
behaviors. J Consum Mark 2013; 30: 530–537. 64. All-Party Parliamentary Sustainable Resource Group.
48. Bianchi C and Birtwistle G. Sell, give away, or donate: an Remanufacturing: towards a resource efficient economy,
exploratory study of fashion clothing disposal behaviour http://www.policyconnect.org.uk/apsrg/research/report-
in two countries. Int Rev Retail Distrib Consum Res 2010; remanufacturing-towards-resource-efficient-economy-0
20: 353–368.
(2014, accessed 10 October 2018).
49. Morgan LR and Birtwistle G. An investigation of young
65. Sinha P, Muthu SS and Dissanayake G. Remanufactured
fashion consumers’ disposal habits. Int J Consum Stud
fashion. Singapore: Springer, Environmental Footprints
2009; 33: 190–198.
and Eco-design of Product and Processes Series, 2016.
50. Claudio L. Waste couture: environmental impact of the
66. Rissanen T and McQuillan H. Zero waste fashion design.
clothing industry. Environ Health Perspect 2007; 115:
London, Bloomsbury, 2016.
448–454.
67. Ávila LV, Beuron TA, Brandli LL, et al. Barriers to
51. Bianchi C and Birtwistle G. Consumer clothing disposal
innovation and sustainability in universities: an inter-
behaviour: a comparative study. Int J Consum Stud 2012;
national comparison. Int J Sustain High Educ 2019; 20:
36: 335–341.
805–821.
52. Birtwistle G and Moore CM. Fashion clothing – where
68. Filho WL, Skouloudis A, Brandli LL, et al. Sustainability
does it all end up? Int J Retail Distrib Manag 2007; 35:
and procurement practices in higher education institu-
210–216.
53. Koch K and Domina T. The effects of environmental tions: barriers and drivers. J Clean Prod 2019; 232:
attitude and fashion opinion leadership on textile 1267–1280.

View publication stats