Chapter 4

Method of Construction
The art of construction is a complex and multifaceted process that requires both skill and creativity.
From the earliest days of human civilization, people have been building structures to protect
themselves from the elements and to express their cultural identity. Today, we have access to a
wide range of materials and technologies that allow us to construct buildings that are stronger,
taller, and more resilient than ever before.

This method of construction (MC) is intended to inform the principal Contractor and other
contractors how the work will be delivered in the site associated with risks and the precautions to
be taken when the Company is working on the site. It provides the basis for the control of
operations whilst the Company is on the site.

• Definition
(MC) defined as which provide an efficient product management process Forever more products
of better quality in less time. It has been defined in various ways: prefabrication, off-site production
and off-site manufacturing (OSM).

But while all OSM is MC not all MC is OSM. It can be classified in various ways and may involve
key services (e.g.) plumbing, key items (e.g., foundations) inner shell (walls etc.), external walls,
or any combination of these elements. It can also be classified by material (timber, steel, concrete
and masonry).
 • Sub-structure works

-Excavation
The process of excavation is a crucial step in building beyond limits. It involves the removal

of soil and rock to create space for foundation, basement, or other underground structures.

Excavation can be done using various techniques such as manual digging, mechanical

excavators, or explosives. The choice of technique depends on the type of soil, the depth of

excavation, and the surrounding environment.

• Scope of the work for Excavation

The major works done before, while and after excavation are as follows,

1. Setting out of corner benchmarks.

2. Survey for ground levels.

3. Survey for top levels

4. Excavation to approved depth.

5. Dressing of loose soil.

6. Making up to cut off level.

 7. Constructing dewatering wells and interconnecting trenches.

8. Marking boundaries of the building.

9. Constructing protection bunds and drains.

• Working Procedure of Excavation

1. Setting out or ground tracing is the process of laying down the excavation lines and centre
lines etc. on the ground before the excavation is started.

2. Maximum of 4 and minimum of 2 benchmarks are marked in the corner for the
measurement of level. These benchmarks are marked on permanent structures .

3. The tracing is marked by lime powder.

4. With the reference of drawing and benchmarks the depth of the excavation is fixed.

5. Excavation is done by manual or machine means depending on the availability.

6. The excavated soil is to either removed out the site or stocked around the excavation pit.
Minimum of 1m distance must be maintained between the stocking of excess soil and pit,
so that due to rain or other forces the soil should not sweep into the pits.

7. Dressing of excavated pits is to be done as specified in the drawings.

8. If the site is in loose soil area, proper shoring must be done to hold the loose soil.

9. Construction of dewatering wells and interconnecting trenches are to provided if needed.

10. All the sides of the building must be sealed for the safety propose.

• Removal of Excess Soil

Estimate the excavated stuff to be re-utilized in filling, gardening, preparing roads, etc.As far as
possible try to carry excavation and filling simultaneously to avoid double handling. Select and
stack the required material in such a place that it should not obstruct other construction activities.
The excess or unwanted material should immediately be carried away and disposed off.

• BACKFILLING WORK
1. After culmination of the compaction under blinding, rafters and ground section.

Refilling will initiate utilizing comparable uncovered material. Care will be

taken to eliminate bolder, vegetation's and some other pernicious materials.

2. But before refilling, the compacted surface will be acknowledged by the

Engineer.

3. Wheel Loader will move supported Backfilling soil material from the stock

region to the spot of inlay according to project specs.

4. Each layer will be laid by the wheel Loader then, at that point, spread and

evened out by the works then, at that point, saturated with water to the

legitimate dampness content.

5. The thickness of the inlaying will be according to geotechnical report proposals.

6. Plate compactors will be utilized in compacting soil until it arrives at an

agreeable condition to the Engineer.

7. HAC Q.C. Eng. will really look at the compacted layer for endorsement

additionally,the following compacted layer

8. An assessment solicitation will be submitted to the expert for endorsement and

work methodology, advisor Eng. check visual examination and afterward advise

Laboratory Eng. to execute the field thickness tests.

9. Test tests will be extricated from the compacted region according to Egyptian
Code, Project specs and geotechnical report.

10. Tests will be acted in the endorsed lab to check the level of compaction which

ought not be not exactly dry thickness according to project specs.

11. If test result is following specs, work will continue with the following layer.

• Rigga wood wrenches

The side formwork is a temporary wooden structure that is prepared in the form of a square or
rectangle or according to the shape of the building on the land on which the project is to be
constructed with the aim of signing the axes of the origin (bases, columns) on the side formwork

shows the contents of a side formwork

• Total station

A total station is an electronic/optical instrument used in modern surveying and building

construction that uses electronic transit theodolite in conjunction with electronic distance meter
(EDM).It is also integrated with microprocessor, electronic data collector and storage system.
 • Compaction of soil

Compaction is the process by which the density of soil is increased and permeability of soil
is decreased. Fill placement work often has specifications requiring a specific degree of
compaction, or alternatively, specific properties of the compacted soil. In-site , soils can be
compacted by rolling, deep dynamic compaction, vibration, blasting, gyrating, kneading
compaction grouting etc.

Figure ( ) shows a Roller

BACKFILLING WORK

1. After culmination of the compaction under blinding, rafters and ground section.
Refilling will initiate utilizing comparable uncovered material. Care will be

taken to eliminate bolder, vegetation's and some other pernicious materials.

2. But before refilling, the compacted surface will be acknowledged by the

Engineer.

3. Wheel Loader will move supported Backfilling soil material from the stock

region to the spot of inlay according to project specs.

4. Each layer will be laid by the wheel Loader then, at that point, spread and

evened out by the works then, at that point, saturated with water to the

legitimate dampness content.

5. The thickness of the inlaying will be according to geotechnical report proposals.

6. Plate compactors will be utilized in compacting soil until it arrives at an

agreeable condition to the Engineer.

7. HAC Q.C. Eng. will really look at the compacted layer for endorsement

additionally the following compacted layer

8. An assessment solicitation will be submitted to the expert for endorsement and

work methodology, advisor Eng. check visual examination and afterward advise

Laboratory Eng. to execute the field thickness tests.

9. Test tests will be extricated from the compacted region according to Egyptian

Code, Project specs and geotechnical report.

10. Tests will be acted in the endorsed lab to check the level of compaction which

ought not be not exactly dry thickness according to project specs.

11. If test result is following specs, work will continue with the following layer.
 • Substructure works

The construction sequence is providing support for structures, transferring their load to

layers of soil or rock that have sufficient bearing capacity and suitable settlement

characteristics to Support them. There is a very wide range of foundation types suitable.

for different Applications, depending on considerations such as:

• Importance of the Building

• Life of the Structure
• Loads from superstructure
• Type of construction materials to be used.
• Water table level.
• Type of adjoining structure.
• Soil condition.
• Location of building.

Figure ( ) Foundation work

• P.C Foundation works

Plain cement concrete is a cement mixture commonly used for flooring and is also known as PPC.
It is one of the most important elements in a building structure. PCC is laid on the soil surface and
acts as a shield for the reinforced concrete against direct contact with soil and water.
 • R.C Foundation works

After pouring (PCC), the armed bases are indicated by using the strings of pork and the
signature of the dimensions and the signature of the positions of the columns.

-Following are different types of foundations used in construction:

• Shallow foundation

− Individual footing or isolated footing

− Combined footing

− Strip foundation

− Raft or mat foundation

• Deep Foundation

− Pile foundation

− Drilled Shafts or caissons

Isolated footing

This type of foundation is used when constructing structural buildings and its theory depends on
the transfer of building loads through beams to the building fulcrum, which is represented in the
columns where the load moves from each column to the base below it and these columns and bases
may be linked by smells according to their distance from the ground .
 Figure ( )Isolated footing

Combined footing

It works when increasing loads in some parts of the building to the extent that it
requires the large size of the base to the degree of its proximity to another base, which requires
the inclusion of the two bases in one base, and this happens for ordinary concrete only or for
both ordinary and reinforced concrete.

Figure ( ) Combined footing

Raft or mat foundation

A raft or mat foundation is a large continuous rectangular or circular concrete slab that carries
the entire load of the superstructure and spreads it over the whole area beneath the building. It
is considered as one type of shallow foundation and is useful in controlling the differential
settlement.

It is a suitable solution for low bearing capacity soil, spread footing cover about 70% of the
structure, high structure loads, soft pockets or cavities of in the soil to unknown extent raft,
and highly compressible soil that extends to a great depth.

Following are different types of:

• Flat Plate type

• Thickened flat plate

• Beam and Slab type

• Piled Raft foundations

• Cellular Raft foundations

Figure ( ) Raft or mat foundation

Retaining Walls

These walls are used to carry the oblique pressures caused by different land or water levels,
whether ground or surface, and can also be considered ground dams.
These walls can be used to carry inclined roofs, contracts, domes or fences with lengths of
large heights, and they also withstand the pressure of wind or soil that are located in low levels
of the earth's surface, and these walls may need shoulders or supports prominent from the
building, and these shoulders may be spaced from each other by 1/3 the height of the retaining
wall, provided that the wall is inclined or graded according to the thickness specified for it .

In order for the retaining wall to be strong, we divide its base into three equal sections, and the
sum of the forces acting on the wall must pass through the middle third of the base, so the
shape of the retaining wall must be determined so that it gives the greatest possible resistance
with the least amount of building materials, and depends on the resistance of the pressures on
these walls, which affect their calculations by several factors, the most important of which are:
(dead load – live load – wind pressure – soil pressure – water pressure – backfill pressure –
friction – lifting force).

Figure ( ) Retaining Walls

 • How to implement wooden wrenches for reinforced bases?

Wood formwork is one of the most important things in reinforced concrete work. The armed
carpenter must have good experience to complete the work and to be able to plan 119 the
building as possible for implementation, in addition to understanding and following up the
different stages of implementation in the best way. The following is a presentation of how the
wood wrenches work for the reinforced carpentry work of the bases. At the beginning, we must
use the executive and construction drawings of the bases and the bases to complete the work
of the reinforced bases as well through the tables through which the dimensions of the bases
on the board can be determined in order to make the necessary form to form the base, then we
form the pallets. They are grouped together to obtain the final shape of the reinforced base

Figure ( ) shows the form of wooden wrenches for the Foundation

• How to receive the strength of foundation ?

1- The tension must be received at most one week before the casting date to ensure the

stability of its dimensions when casting.

2- Ensure that they conform to the axes on the construction drawings.

3- It must be ensured that its dimensions and angles match the drawings

4- Make sure that there are no gaps between the two side drums.

5- Make sure of the verticality of the sides.

 • Reinforcement

1- The main steal for the isolated footing is at the bottom of the base and consists of

brushes and a cover, and the direction of the brushes is the short direction, and the

direction of the cover is the long direction.

2- A skewer is made as a belt that connects the ends of the iron so that it does not tilt, and

it is fixed with a tie wire inside the cage and not outside it, so that the thickness of the

concrete cover does not decrease.

3- The poles are attached to the bars in the lower iron and the stirrups are placed around

them inside the base.

4- A review of placing the biscuit under the iron to ensure that the concrete cover is

Preserved.

Figure ( ) illustrates the Reinforcement of the isolated footing

• Casting

1- The height of the casting does not exceed 60 cm in the separate bases, and the part of

the reed does not exceed 70 cm.

2- The reinforced concrete effort is not less than 250 kg / cm2 after 28 days.

3- The cement content is not less than 350 kg / m34- The mixing ratios are verified from
the existing cars of the mixing station.

4- Ensure that the mixing cars exit the station and the arrival time of the site is a

maximum of an hour.

5- Doing the necessary tests for concrete before pouring and taking cubes for cracking.

days after pouring the concrete and making sure of the percentage of subsidence that

occurred in the SLUMP Test.

6- The vibrator must be used during the casting process.

• Insulation

1- The bases are isolated from moisture by plankton as a raw material.

2- After that, use Bituminous Membranes for Waterproofing Insulation.

3- Before insulation, make sure that the concrete surface is clean of dust and soft

Materials.

• Super Structure Works

The basic components of a building's superstructure are columns, beams, slab and wall. These
components safely transfer the dead loads, live loads and other loads to the substructure
(foundation and plinth) which further distributes it to the underlying earth.

1. Columns

The column is a vertical structural element that carries compressive loads. This is one of the
critical structural element in any building structure whose failure can result in progressive
collapse.

The column transfers loads from the slab or the beam to the foundation below.

2. Beams
A beam is a horizontal structural element with a specific depth and width running with
a span. It withstands vertical loads, bending moments and shear forces.

The loads coming on the beams are transferred to the beam endpoints where it is
supported. This is then transferred to the columns or the beam supporting structural
elements.

3. Slabs

Slabs are horizontal structural elements that serve the purpose of floor, roofs or ceilings.
These are flat surfaces with top and bottom face parallel to each other.

Slabs are supported mainly by columns, beams, walls or the ground.

Specific reinforced concrete floor slab methods include:

Flat Slabs

It is a slab resting directly on the columns without beams, and it is called the non-beam
slab. Here, the load is transferred from the slab to the columns directly, which causes a
torque on the columns. This type has many advantages and many disadvantages.

Among the most important advantages of flat slabs:

1. Giving architectural flexibility "because of the disappearance of the beams"

2. Reducing carpentry and blacksmithing compared to plywood slabs

3. Reducing the installation time of the intensity.

4. It gives a good architectural view, as the flatness of the surface gives a better lighting
level

5. It can save (reduce) the overall height of the building

6. There are no obstacles to the work of air conditioning, electricity and sewage pipes

7. Provision of wooden wrenches

8. Flat roof slab tensioning takes less time than solid

 This system is considered economical (time saving) if the live loads are more than
500kg/cm2, and if the live loads are less than 500kg/cm2, it is considered uneconomical
- and among the most important defects: - The proportions of iron in it are very high
per cubic meter of concrete compared to beam slabs, which causes an increase in weight
slabs on the foundations.

The slab shall be of equal thickness for its entire area and without fallen beams, but the
reinforcing bars shall be more closely spaced along the lines between the supporting
columns in order to resist shear stresses. With a shoulder or square-headed columns.

The self-weight and cost of this slab is high, but its total depth is less, and thus it
achieves the lowest total depth of construction in multi-story buildings.

• types of flat slabs:

1. normal flat slabs

Rested directly to the column

Conditions for using this type:

1. This system is used when the live load is less than 500kg/cm2

2. The thickness of the slab shall not be less than 15 cm

3. This system is used when the maximum distance between columns is 5 meters.

Figure ( ) normal flat slab

2. flat slab with column head

Conditions for using this type:
1. If the live load ranges from 500kg/cm2 - 1000kg/cm2
2. The sea of the slab in both directions within 6 meters.
 3. The maximum inclination angle of the crown in the vertical axis should not
exceed 45 degrees, and the diameter of the effective part should not be less than a
quarter of the sea.
3. flat slab with drop panel

Conditions for using this type:

1- The live load is more than 1000 kg/cm2

2- Drop work to resist the negative moment generated because of live loads and to resist
piercing shear.

3- If the value of live loads exceeds 1000kg/cm2 - 1500kg/cm2, this type of slab
requires some cases.

Increasing the thickness of the slab above the head of the column in order to resist
a load of piercing shear stresses and the stresses resulting from the negative bending
moment. The sea can be increased by more than 6 meters in both directions, and the
thickness of the fall is not less than a quarter of the thickness of the original slab, and
the length of the fall of the slab is not less than one-sixth of the sea and not more than
a quarter of the sea.

flat slab with drop panel

4. flat slab with column head and drop panel

This type is used in case of live loads exceeding 1500 kg / cm2 and seas
exceeding 6 meters.
 Figure ( ) flat slab with column head and drop panel

5. Walls

Walls are vertical surfaces constructed in continuance that divide the enclosed spaced.

Walls can be constructed either by means of masonry or by means of concrete. Walls

take up the load from the beams, the slabs, or the roof above.

• Surveying

1. Set out every one of the direction focuses and levels for RC Footings and Tie

Beams.

2. Draw the outlining lines for the footings and rafters on the P.C.

3. A review solicitation will be submitted to the advisor for endorsement and work

method.

• Curing

-To forestall the R.C. Balance from drying shrinkage breaks, wet relieving will be used

either by water or utilizing extraordinary restoring supported compound.

-Subsequent to striking of the formwork, a supported relieving compound will be

applied to the new concrete.

-If there should arise an occurrence of relieving by water, the substantial will be saved

wet for 7 days.

• Safety

Generally security plan methodology to be considered not withstanding the

accompanying:

Introduce hindrance for the area being dealt with.

All allocated labor supply will utilize wellbeing apparatuses.

During work process works will be cautioned to abstain from strolling on working

region

• MANPOWER

1. Foreman

2. Carpenter

3. Steel Fixer

4. Labors

• EQUIPMENT

1. Total station.

2. Levelling Instrument.

3. Total station.

4. Mobile concrete pump

5. Vibrator

6. Concrete Mixers

7. LAB testing Equipment.

8.Loader.

9. Excavator.

10. Truck.
 11.Roller

• MATERIAL

1. Approved concrete mix design

2. Approved reinforcing rebar

3. proved water stop (if required)

4. Approved concrete curing material

Building works:

Types of local bricks:

1. Mud bricks

2. Concrete bricks

3. Brick asphalt

4. Concrete bricks dumped

5. Brick cladding destinations

6. Glass bricks