Science revision

Systems keeping cells alive

 Recall why multicellular organisms require specialised organs and systems
Multicellular organisms are organisms with multiple cells, in which they need specialised
organs and systems to fully function successfully as they are much more complex organisms
compared to simple unicellular organisms.
 Recall the systems involved in providing cells with their requirements and removing waste
These systems are the excretory, the circulatory, the respiratory and the digestive systems
 Define the term homeostasis
Homeostasis allows the conditions inside the human body to remain fairly constant
despite changes in the external environment

 
 
The nervous system
 Recall 4 types of receptor cells
1. Photoreceptor cells: These cells are specialized to respond to light and are found in
the retina of the eye. There are two types of photoreceptor cells - rods, which are
responsible for detecting light and dark, and cones, which are responsible for colour
vision.
2. Chemoreceptor cells: These cells are specialized to respond to chemical stimuli and
are found in the taste buds of the tongue and in the olfactory epithelium of the nose.
They allow us to taste and smell different substances.
3. Mechanoreceptor cells: These cells are specialized to respond to mechanical stimuli,
such as pressure or vibration, and are found in various parts of the body, including the
skin, hair cells in the ear, and stretch receptors in muscles and tendons. They allow us
to feel touch, pressure, and movement.
4. Thermoreceptor cells: These cells are specialized to respond to temperature stimuli
and are found in the skin and hypothalamus. They allow us to sense changes in
temperature and maintain our body temperature.
 Describe the structure and function of the parts of the eye
 Cornea: The cornea is the clear, dome-shaped surface that covers the front of the eye. It
plays a crucial role in focusing light onto the retina at the back of the eye.
 
Iris: The iris is the coloured part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil. The pupil
is the black circular opening in the centre of the iris that regulates the amount of light
that enters the eye.
 
Lens: The lens is a clear, flexible structure located behind the iris that helps to focus
light onto the retina. It changes shape to adjust the focus of the eye, a process called
accommodation.
 
Retina: The retina is the innermost layer of the eye, located at the back of the eye. It
contains millions of photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) that convert light into
electrical signals that are sent to the brain via the optic nerve.
 
Optic nerve: The optic nerve is a bundle of nerve fibres that carries visual information
from the retina to the brain, where it is processed and interpreted.
 
Vitreous humor: The vitreous humor is a gel-like substance that fills the space
between the lens and the retina. It helps to maintain the shape of the eye and provides
nutrients to the retina.
 
Sclera: The sclera is the tough, white outer layer of the eye. It provides protection and
helps to maintain the shape of the eye.
 Outline the function of the peripheral and central nervous system
The central nervous system  consists of the brain  and spinal cord. It's sometimes called the
"co-ordinator" because it makes sense of the messages it receives from the sense organs and
co-ordinates responses by the muscles and glands.
The peripheral nervous system consists of the bundles of nerves that relay messages between
the sense organs, the central nervous system and the muscles and glands. This system
is spread out through the entire body, as shown on the right.

 Describe the structure and function of the three types of nerve cells
 Sensory neurons transmit messages from sensory organs to the central nervous system.
Interneurons transmit messages from sensory neurons to motor neurons.
Motor neurons transmit messages from the central nervous system to "effectors" such as
muscles and glands to initiate a response.
 Contrast reflex reactions (reflex arc) and actions under conscious control
What is a reflex?
A reflex is an automatic body response to a sudden pain, or possible threat, or even to
a food smell. The reflex reaction happens before the brain registers it.
 
Examples of reflexes:
 Sudden movement near your eyes cases you to blink
 Sudden pain in your hand will cause your arm to jerk away
 The smell of food can make your mouth "water" when hungry
 Describe the structure and function of the brain

 
 The Endocrine system
 Outline the function of the endocrine system
The endocrine system’s function is basically the body’s chemical messenger in which it
produces hormones that circulate around the body and effect certain organs and tissues, the
main function is to regulate growth and development.
 Recall the main glands of the endocrine system and some hormones they produce

Gland Hormone
Thyroid gland Releases thyroxine which regulates cell growth
and activity

Adrenal gland Releases hormones including adrenaline, that

increases heart rate and blood pressure. This
increases the amount of energy available

Pituitary gland Releases hormones that stimulate endocrine

glands to release their own

Parathyroid gland Releases the hormone parathormone which

regulates calcium levels, therefore this
hormone controls bone development.
 Releases the hormone melatonin which
Pineal gland controls sleeping and walking patterns

Releases the hormone thymosin, which

Thymus gland stimulates the production of white blood cells
to help fight infection

Pancreas Releases the hormones insulin and glucagon,

these hormones work together to regulate
glucose levels in the blood. Insulin helps take
the glucose and glucagon controls the amount
of glucose released from the liver into the
bloodstream.

Testicles Testicles release testosterone which controls

the development of the male reproductive
system

Ovaries Releases the hormone of oestrogen and

progesterone, during puberty these help
control the development of breasts and the
female reproductive system.
 Compare the nervous and endocrine system
The nervous system is used for fast movement in which the nerves provide rapid
communication whilst the endocrine system has a slower communication rate in which it
focuses more on longer lasting control of the functions of the body, eg. Growth and
development.
 Outline the stages of the menstrual cycle
1. The menstruation period is during the first 5 days of the cycle
2. For the 17 days after the menstruation period the lining of the uterus increase in
thickness
3. For the nine days after the end of menstruation a new egg follicle develops in the
ovary
4. Ovulation occurs on the 14th day
5. Following ovulation between the 15th and 22nd day the follicle develops into a gland
which releases the hormones
6. If no pregnancy occurs the gland breaks down for the last 6 days of the cycle.
 Recall the name and function of the organs of the male and female human reproductive
system
The male reproductive system is in charge of the production and delivery of sperm
ultimately helping produce a child through sexual intercourse by transporting the sperm to
the female reproductive system, in which they fertilise the eggs and carry the baby through.
 Recall some of the hormones involved in reproduction and the development of secondary
sex characteristics
Testosterone which is produced in the testicles in males, testosterone is responsible for
development of secondary sex characteristics, such as muscle mass, body hairs, deeper voice
etc. it also plays a role in sperm production

Estrogen which is produced in the ovaries in females, but also adrenal glands and testes, like
testosterone for males, estrogen for females is responsible for secondary sex characteristics
such as breast growth, widening of hips, and body hair. It also plays a role in regulating the
menstrual cycle and maintaining bone health

Disease
 Distinguish between infectious and non-infectious disease
Infectious disease is when you can spread the disease to others, these are created from
pathogens (bacteria/germs), whilst non-infectious is when you cannot spread it, and it’s
most likely been brought to you from your genetics.
 Recall examples of diseases caused by each of the following types of pathogens, bacteria,
fungi, viruses, and prions
Bacteria – Gonorrhoea
Fungi – Ringworm
Viruses – Covid-19 or Influenza
Prions – Jakob disease
 Identify some lifestyle risk factors for some of the leading causes of death
Heart disease is one of the leading causes of death, and many people in their daily life
provoke it even more by smoking, physical inactivity and having a poor diet. Smoking is
definitely one of the big parts of lifestyle risk factors as it can also be included with cancer,
stroke, etc.
The Immune System
 Describe the role of the skin, mucus membranes, chemical barriers, and the other
components of the first line of defence
- Skin acts as a physical barrier preventing pathogens from entering the body,
the skin also has natural oils that help stop bacteria from growing even
more.
- Mucus membranes traps pathogens and prevents them from entering the
body
- Chemical barriers have enzymes and acids which have properties to
inactivate/destroy pathogens
 Outline how inflammation, fever and phagocytosis make up the second line of defence

- Inflammation: Inflammation is a protective response by the body to

an injury or infection. When tissues are damaged or infected, the body
releases certain chemicals that cause blood vessels to widen and
become more permeable. This allows more blood, oxygen, and
nutrients to flow to the affected area, which helps to bring in cells and
chemicals to fight off the infection. The increased blood flow can also
cause swelling, redness, warmth, and pain in the affected area.

- Fever: Fever is a sign of an underlying infection. When the body

detects an infection, it will raise its temperature in order to help fight
off the invading pathogens. This increase in body temperature makes
it harder for bacteria and viruses to survive and reproduce. In addition,
it also stimulates the immune system to work harder, making it more
effective in fighting off the infection.

- Phagocytosis: Phagocytosis is when white blood cells called

phagocytes engulf and digest invading pathogens. When a pathogen
enters the body, phagocytes surround and engulf the pathogen,
forming a vesicle called a phagosome. The phagosome then fuses with
a lysosome, which contains enzymes that break down the pathogen.
The destroyed pathogen is then eliminated from the body. Phagocytes
also release chemicals that stimulate other cells of the immune system
to fight off the infection.