ZAMBOANGA DEL SUR PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT COLLEGE

POBLACION, AURORA, ZAMBOANGA DEL SUR

COLLEGE OF TECHNICAL VOCATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION

CONDUCT PRE- HORTICULTURAL FARM OPERATIONS

Prepared by:

COLLEGE OF TECHNICAL VOACATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION

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 FOREWORD

Welcome to the Zamboanga Del Sur Provincial Government College (ZSPGC) and be part of the
College of Technical Vocational Teacher Education.

The course introduces the students with proper knowledge, skills and attitudes required in
farm operations. It include the background of farm operations and the development from many
years passed until now, sample plan on what are the factors to be considered in establishing farm
planning, and the activities to be done in conserving the resources available on the farm.

Various learning experiences are provided to facilitate the students understanding of the course
objectives with relevant references and reprints provided.The students is encouraged to
supplement the learning packets with reading materials that are available in the internet.Students
are required to accomplish all the assignments,exercises and activites by following the
instructions in the course packet.

If there are problems encountered pertinent to the course,please feel free to contact your
instructor or the Office of the College of Technical Vocational Teacher Education.

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 ZSPGC College of Teacher Education Vision, Mission and Goal

Vision

The ZSPGC, College of Teacher Education aims to be one of the leading institutions in the
Province through continuing its excellence in producing globally competitive local teachers who are
efficient, effective promoters and facilitators of learning that will enable the learners to develop
their fullest potential.

Mission

The ZSPGC, College of Teacher Education shall produce graduates who are equipped with
strong theoretical understanding of teaching and technology and with practical exposure in
industry that will enhance the province capabilities for more human resource in the teaching
profession.

Goal

The ZSPGC, College of Teacher Education provides quality instruction to develop highly
competent and motivated teachers in technical and vocational education in response to the needs
of the community.

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 MODULE:
CONDUCT PRE-HORTICULTURAL FARM OPERATIONS

WHAT IS THIS MODULE ABOUT?

This module covers the knowledge, skills and attitudes required in preparing farm tools,
implements and simple equipment for horticultural farm operations. It also includes maintenance
of farm facilities and safety precautions to be observed in horticultural farm operations.

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

After completing this module, you should be able to:

1. prepare farm tools, implements and simple equipment for horticultural operations;
2. maintain farm facilities; tools, and
3. observe safety precautions in horticultural farm operations.

WHAT DO YOU ALREADY KNOW?

Pre-test

Let’s find out how much you already know about the identification, classification and preparation
of the tools, farm implements and equipment and routine farm operations.

A. Identification. Identify the words being described by each of the following sentences.
Choose your answer from the given choices in the box. Write the letter of your answer in
your quiz notebook.

a. shop building e. wheel barrow i. bolo

b. green house f. shovel j. pick mattock
c. storage barn g. disc harrow k. exposure
d. safety h. nursery shed l. native plow

1. A structure where agricultural chemicals are being kept.

2. It is a light structure where seedlings are being cared for before planting.
3. A more sophisticated building in which seedlings are being started.
4. A building where hand tools are being stored.
5. A building where fertilizers are kept.
6. A hand tool that is used for digging smaller size of hole.
7. It refers to the physical or environmental conditions of work which allow the workers to
perform his/her job without or within acceptable exposure to hazards.

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 8. When a person or worker comes in contact with hazard.
9. A tool with one end of its blade flattened and the other is pointed at right angles to its
handle.
10. This tool resembles the appearance of spoon and used for transferring soil.
11. An implement being pulled by a working animal that is used to till the land.
12. An implement mounted to a tractor that is used to pulverize the newly plowed soil.
13. A small cart used to transport things, usually in the form of an open container with a single
wheel at the front and two handles at the back

B. Read the questions carefully. Write the letter only of your choice in your quiz notebook.

14. Which tool is used for cutting grasses?

a. shovel
b. bolo
c. crowbar
d. pick mattock
15. What tool does NOT belong to the group?
a. crowbar
b. mattock
c. shovel
d. pruning shear
16. Proper care and maintenance of farm tools are necessary in order to:
a. prolong the serviceability of the tools
b. be available for use
c. save time and effort
d. all of the above
17. Farm tools, implements and equipment are very important in pre-horticultural operations
because they:
a. make work easier
b. make work faster
c. save time and effort
d. all of the above
18. What work hazard is NOT possible in the repair of the roof of a nursery shed?
a. exposed to hazardous liquid
b. face exposed to extreme heat
c. prone to fall
d. bodies exposed to sharp or rough surfaces
19. What preventive action can a student apply when he/she is exposed to dust? He/She will
wear
a. eye and respiratory protection
b. hearing protection
c. safety footwear
d. hard cap

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20. The environmental impact of improperly disposed waste and agricultural chemicals are the
following EXCEPT:
a. air pollution
b. water contamination
c. dirty and ugly surroundings
d. friendly and healthy surroundings
21. What equipment in horticultural operations is used to draw water from a source?
a. water pump
b. sprinkler
c. water pail
d. sprayer
22. Why do we need to conduct pre-operative checkup of tools, implements and equipment
before use?
a. To check if the tools are serviceable
b. To determine the functionality of tools, and implements
c. To repair defective tools
d. All of the above
23. What preventive structure shall we provide if the area of our horticultural farm is prone to
run off?
a. fire hydrant
b. wind breaks
c. drainage canal
d. water sealant
24. Why is it necessary to apply oil to the metal parts of tools and implements when they will
be stored for a long time?
a. To prevent them from rusting
b. To retain its shiny look
c. To clean the tools
d. All of the above
25. What facility shall we construct if the problem is on stray animals?
a. nursery shed
b. vicinity fence
c. storage barn
d. farm shop

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 UNIT 1

PREPARE FARM TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS AND SIMPLE EQUIPMENT

WHAT IS THIS LESSON ABOUT?

The lesson deals with the identification and pre-operative checkup of farm tools,
implements and equipment for horticultural farm operations.

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. identify and classify farm tools, implements, and simple equipment for horticultural farm
operations;
2. conduct basic pre-operative checkup of tools, implements and equipment; and
3. develop the value of checking up of tools before use to avoid accidents.

LET US STUDY

Let us define

Hand tools – objects that are usually light and are used without the help of animals and machines
Farm implements – accessories pulled by animals or mounted to machineries to make the work
easier
Equipment – powered tool machine used in farming
Repair – to restore something broken or damaged to good condition.
Prepare – to take the necessary action to put something into a state where it is fit for use or for a
particular event or purpose.

Farm tools, implements, and equipment play a very important role in horticultural
operations. Their presence makes the work much easier and faster. However, even if one
may have the most sophisticated tools and implements, if he does not know how to use
them, they are useless. In order to do horticultural operations successfully, one must have a
good working knowledge of the tools, implements and equipment before using them.

Hand Tools

Hand tools are usually light and are used without the help of animals or machines. They are
being used in performing farm activities which involve small areas like school garden and
home garden.

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Examples:

1. Bolo is used for cutting of

grasses and weeds, loosening
and pulverizing the soil, digging
small holes for planting and
posts, and breaking the topsoil in
preparing garden plots if no
other tools are available.

2. Crowbar is used for digging big

holes and for digging out big
stones and stumps.

3. Pick-mattock is used for

digging canals, breaking hard
topsoil and for digging up
stones and tree stumps.

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4. Grab-hoe is used for breaking hard
topsoil and pulverizing soil.

5. Spade is used for removing trash or

soil, digging canals or ditches and
mixing soil media.

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6. Shovel is used in removing trash, digging loose
soil, moving soil from one place to another and
for mixing soil media.

7. Rake is used for cleaning the ground and

leveling the topsoil.

8. Spading fork is used for loosening the soil,

digging out root crops and turning over the
materials in a compost heap.

9. Light hoe is used for loosening and leveling soil

and digging out furrows for planting.

10. Hand trowel is used for loosening the soil

around the growing plants and putting small
amount of manure in the soil.

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11. Hand cultivator is used for cultivating the
garden plot by loosening the soil and
removing young weeds around the plant.

12. Hand fork is for inter row cultivation.

13. Pruning shears is for cutting branches of

planting materials and unnecessary branches
of plants.

14. Axe is for cutting bigger size post.

15. Knife is for cutting planting materials and for

performing other operations in horticulture.

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Farm Implements

These are accessories which are being pulled by working animals or mounted to machineries
(hand tractor, tractor) which are usually used in the preparation of wide land. These are
usually made of a special kind of metal.
Examples are:

1. Plows. These are farm implements used in horticultural operations either pulled by
a working animal or a tractor. The plow is specifically used for tilling large areas,
making furrows and inters row cultivation.
Plows pulled by working animals are made of either a combination of metal or wood or
pure metal. They are used to till areas with a shallower depth than that of the disc plows
which are pulled by tractors.

Native plow Disc plow

2. Harrow. The native wooden harrow is made of wood with a metal tooth and pulled
by a carabao while the disc harrow is a metal mounted to a tractor. Harrows are
used for tilling and pulverizing the soil.

Native wooden harrow Disc harrow

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3. Rotavator. The rotavator is an implement mounted to a tractor used for tilling and
pulverizing the soil

EQUIPMENT

These are machineries used in horticultural operations especially in vegetable production.

They are used in land preparation and in transporting farm inputs and products. These
equipment need a highly skilled operator to use.
1. Hand tractor is used to pull a plow and harrow in preparing a large area of land.
2. Four wheel tractor is used to pull disc plow and disc harrow in preparing much bigger area of
land.
3. Water pumps are used to draw irrigation water from a source.

Hand Tractor Four Wheel Tractor Water Pump

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Other materials, tools and equipment

1. Water pails – for hauling water, manure and fertilizers

2. Sprinklers – for watering seedlings and young plants
3. Wheel barrow – for hauling trash, manures, fertilizers, planting materials and other equipment
4. Sprayers – for spraying insecticides, foliar fertilizers, fungicides and herbicides.

Water pails Sprinklers Wheel barrow

Trigger sprayer Knapsack sprayer Power Sprayer

It has been mentioned earlier that tools, implements and equipment facilitate work
conveniently but then a user must bear in mind that knowledge on the usability of these
tools lead a safe and successful endeavor. Before using any of the tools, implements, and
equipment, always check whether or not they are still usable or serviceable. Always check or
refer to the manual of operations as prescribed by the manufacturer for other tools and
equipment that are new to you. Always ask the assistance of skilled operator whenever
necessary.

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PRE-OPERATIVE CHECK UP OF FARM TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS AND EQUIPMENTS

Imagine that the long, hot summer vacation has finally come to an end and it‘s the beginning of
the school year and you are ready to start working your vegetable gardens. But before that let
us check first our tools, implements and equipment you are going to use.

Armed with your working clothes and personal protective equipment (PPE). Proceed to
the shop to retrieve your tools so that you can start clearing away the last remnants of summer
and begin breaking the soil for a new year. Imagine your frustration as you start pulling out all of
your tools to see that they are covered with rust and dirt that has hardened and crusty globs of
oil that have collected dust last vacation. It seems that you are going to spend more time
cleaning and repairing tools on this nice day than you will actually use them.

How to Clean Your Garden Tools:

Let‘s start with the basics. Your shovel, spade, hoe, or even the blades on a hedge
trimmer will be a lot easier to use if you take a few minutes to knock some of the rust off the
blade. Not only will this extend the life of the tool, but also it will cut through the soil better, and
thus require less effort to use, if it has a nice sharp blade. It is a good idea to keep a large
whetstone in your shop. A whetstone is an ideal tool to use to keep all of the cutting edges of
your garden tools honed. It will work well on your shovel, as well as many other common garden
tools.

1. The best way to use the stone is to find a way to stabilize the tool that you want to
work on. A bench vise is ideal. You will be able to clamp the tool into place at an
angle, so you can work on it. Clamping the garden tool into place with a vise frees
both of your hands to use the whetstone and gives you more control over what you
are doing.
2. Apply a little lubricating oil to the end of the tool and carefully begin to work the
stone over the blade. Maintain a 30-degree angle between the stone and the blade to
form the ideal cutting edge for your tool. Not only will
the edge become sharper, but you will also be removing
any pitting and rust that has formed at the edge of your
tool‘s blade.
3. In instances where the moving parts of your garden
tools (such as with of any new pruners, shears, and
loppers) have frozen in place, like springs and pivot
joints, you should disassemble them first carefully break
free any rust or dirt that may keep the tool from
functioning properly. Clean accumulated rust and dirt off
all metal surfaces with a wire brush. Remove stubborn
rust from small tools with fine steel wool. Using an old
toothbrush with some lightweight lubricating oil is a
great way to work fresh oil into the joints of most
garden tools. Not only will this fresh oil helps your tool
to work as it was intended, but it will also prevent the
formation of rust. Use medium-grit sandpaper to

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 remove rust on larger tools such as shovels, spades, and hoes.
4. Once your tools are cleaned, they're ready to be sharpened. When sharpening, try to
maintain the original factory bevel or angle. For pruners, use a whetstone because it
produces a very sharp cutting edge. Depending on the type of whetstone, apply a few
drops of oil or water to the stone. With the beveled side of the blade against the
stone, rub the sharp edge of the blade toward the stone in a curved motion, as if you
were trying to shave off a thin slice from the stone.
5. When working with a file, stabilize the blades in a vise
or against a solid surface such as a work bench to avoid
injury and ensure an even stroke. Always push the file
across the blade in a motion away from your body.
Move the file diagonally, so that its cutting teeth are
biting into the metal on the tool. When sharpening with
a file, do not use oil; metal filings will accumulate and
clog the file's serrations.

Farm implements like ordinary plow and wooden harrow should be checked thoroughly before
use. Loosened bolts and nuts should be tightened firmly.

Disc plow and harrow should also be lubricated on their moving parts like bearings. Tractors
should be tuned-up very well by and skilled operator. Checking on their oil, lubricant, fuel and
cooling system.

Tools that are worn out should be separated and be fixed immediately to avoid accident.

Materials, Tools and Equipment:

Materials:
o Oil -

o Rag - 1 pc

o Sand Paper 300 - 1 pc

Tools
o - 1 set
Hedge shear
o Metal clamp - 1 set
o File - 1 pc
o Wrench
* - Item is optional

While, hoes, forks, shears, and spades become blunt and need to be sharpened. Use a file or
sharpening steel. Sharpen the upper surface. Then rub over with an oily rag.

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Procedure:

Step 1: Tighten the pivot nut. Before sharpening, check

the pivot nut. It could be loose, making the blades drift
apart while cutting and tear the twig instead of cutting it
cleanly. The nut should be snug with no play in the pivot.
With the nut tightened, check the tool; if it cuts cleanly,
it doesn't need sharpening. If it still cuts poorly, look
down each blade to make sure it's not bent. If a blade is
slightly bent, loosen the pivot nut and separate the
blades. To straighten the blade, put it in a vise, slip on
some thick leather gloves and tweak it until it's straight.

Step 2: File the edge to expose clean metal Clamp the

blade firmly in a vise. Examine the factory edge. Hold the
file with both hands and mimic the direction of the bevel
like a golfer taking a practice putt. Now move the file in
one broad stroke away from you along the entire cutting
angle. To reiterate, move the file in one direction, away
from you. Don't use small, jerky strokes or you'll lose the
factory edge. As you work, you can see the clean metal
path left by the file. Adjust your angle as needed to file
the entire edge evenly. Repeat this motion several times
until you expose clean metal over the whole edge.
Usually it'll take only about 10 strokes. Do the same with

Step 3: Sand the back side of the blade Place a sheet of

300-grit wet/dry sandpaper on a smooth, flat piece of
plywood. You'll be able to feel the burrs (be careful—
they're sharp) on the back side of each blade caused by
the filing action. To remove them, lightly sand the back
side of the blade. Keep the blade flat and move it in a
circular motion. After making several circles, pick up the
blade and gently feel the edge. When the burrs left by
the file disappear, assemble the blades and lightly oil the moving parts with 3-In-One oil.

Step 4. Perform house keeping

Evaluation:

While performing the activity it is important for you to assess your performance following
the criteria below:

• The blade is properly sharpened.

• The nut is properly removed and returned.
• The step by-step procedures are correctly followed.
• The safety precautions are properly observed.

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 Imagine that the long, hot summer vacation has finally come to an end. It’s the beginning of
the school year and you are ready to start working your vegetable gardens. But before that
check first the tools, implements and equipment you are going to use.

Armed with your working clothe and personal protective equipment (PPE), please proceed to the
shop to retrieve your tools so that you can start clearing away the last remnants of summer and
begin breaking the soil for a new year. Imagine your frustration as you start pulling out all of your
tools to see that they are covered with rust and dirt that has hardened like concrete, and crusty
globs of oil that have collected dust last vacation. It seems that you are going to spend more time
cleaning and repairing tools on this nice day than you will actually use them.

LET’S REMEMBER

To facilitate any work in the field, farm tools, implements, and equipment should be
prepared ahead of time before field work starts. In doing such, you can avoid untoward
incidents that may happen due to negligence.

Always remember to use the right tool for the right task. Serviceability of tools depends on
how they are being used, maintained and stored.

ACTIVITY 1
HOW MUCH HAVE YOU LEARNED
TRUE OR FALSE

A. Read and analyze each statement below. Write True if the statement is correct; False if the
statement is incorrect on the space provided for.

1. The best way to use the stone is to find a way to stabilize the tool that you want to work
on.
2. Tools that are worn out should be separated and be fixed immediately to avoid accident.
3. When sharpening, try to maintain the original factory bevel or angle
4. Always push the file across the blade in a motion away from your body
5. Clean accumulated rust and dirt off all metal surfaces with a wire brush
6. Move the file diagonally, so that its cutting teeth are biting into the metal on the tool.
7. Use medium-grit sandpaper to remove rust on larger tools such as shovels, spades, and
hoes.
8. When sharpening with a file, do not use oil; metal filings will accumulate and clog the
file's serrations.
9. Oil helps tool to work as intended, and will prevent the formation of rust.
10. For pruners, use a whetstone because it produces a very sharp cutting edge.

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MULTIPLE CHOICE
B. Read the questions carefully and select the best answer by writing only the letter in your
quiz notebook.
1. What do you call that hand tool that is used for digging smaller size of hole?
a. bolo
b. crowbar
c. grub hoe
d. pruning shear
2. Which tool is used for cutting grasses?
a. shovel
b. bolo
c. crowbar
d. mattock
3. What tool does NOT belong to the group?
a. crowbar
b. mattock
c. shovel
d. pruning shear
4. Farm tools, implements and equipment are very important in pre horticultural operations
because they __________
a. make work easier
b. make work faster
c. save time and effort
d. all of the above
5. A tool with one end of its blade flattened and the other is pointed at right angles to its
handle is --------
a. pick mattock
b. crowbar
c. bolo
d. spade

6. This tool resembles the appearance of spoon and is used for transferring soil is
a. spade
b. shovel
c. spading fork
d. grub hoe
7. What implement in tilling the land is being pulled by a working animal?
a. harrow
b. native plow
c. disc plow
d. disc harrow
8. An implement mounted to a tractor used to pulverize the newly plowed soil.
a. trailer
b. disc harrow
c. native plow
d. disc plow

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 9. What equipment in horticultural operations is used to draw water from a source?
a. sprinkler
b. sprayer
c. water pail
d. water pump
10. A small cart used to transport things, usually in the form of an open container with a
single wheel in front and two handles at the back is --------------. a. hand tractor
b. tractor
c. basket
d. wheel barrow

ESSAY

C. Answer the question below. (10 points)

What benefit do you get if you familiarize yourself to the uses of the different
tools, implements, and equipment in horticultural operations?

REFERENCES

Agricultural Arts for Secondary

Agricultural Arts (T.H.E., SEDP, NSEC series) by Ramon G. Asuncion et.al.
Farm Mechanics Textbook by Phipps, McColly, Scranton, & Cook p.393 – 689
Growing Vegetables by Tony Biggs p.6 – 7
Growing Rich, Tasty Veggies in Harmony with Nature, vol. 1 by Jef Van
Haunte-Lyds Quileste Van Haunte p.117-120 http://www.antiquefarmtools.info
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/pdfs/01-111b http://www.ebc.com.au

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 UNIT 2
MAINTAIN FARM FACILITIES

WHAT IS THIS LESSON ABOUT?

This lesson deals with the maintenance of farm facilities. It includes cleaning and repairing of
defective farm tools, implements and equipment.

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

1. perform maintenance activities of farm facilities based on standard manual;
2. clean garden tools, implements and equipment;
3. repair defective tools, implements and equipment; and
4. develop the value of cleanliness and orderliness.

LET US STUDY

Let us define

Facility- something designed or created to provide a service or fulfill a need

Nursery shed – a light structure where seedlings are cared for before planting. The shed also
provides shade to growers while raising seedling
Green house – a more sophisticated building in which seedlings are being started before
bringing to the nursery shed. In most green houses, environmental conditions are controlled
Storage barn – a building where agricultural chemicals are being stored shop building – a
building where hand tools are being stored and repaired
Manual handling – any activity that requires a person to use force to push, hold, restrain, or
carry an object.
Maintenance – work that is done regularly to keep a machine, building, or piece of
equipment in good condition and working order.

Maintaining Farm Facility

The most common facility we have is nursery shed or greenhouse. It must be thoroughly
cleaned and organized. Users are required to help in the general cleaning to maintain safe,
sanitary, and orderly work environment.
General housekeeping requirements for users are:
• clean worktables and/ potting benches
• clean floors and benches during and after work
• use compost and trash cans replace lids to avoid insect and growth of bacteria
• clean sinks after each use and limit the amount of soil going down drains

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In cooperation with the users, the staff should:
• wash and/or sweep floors of greenhouses and potting areas at least once per week
• empty trash and compost cans regularly
• sanitize and disinfect work areas as the need arises
• empty bottles or containers of chemicals and other unusable materials should be disposed
properly following the practice of waste management act

For productive, cost-efficient and effective farm facilities, here are activities you can immediately
implement:

• Schedule a regular clean up at least twice a year. This is also the time to undertake a
general inspection on machines and equipment. The activities include removing all
cobwebs, thorough scrubbing of the ceiling, walls, and floor, and cleaning of
machines. Segregate unserviceable tools, implements and equipment that are beyond
repair from those that can be repaired.
• Schedule clean-up activities twice a month, including wiping lighting fixtures and
windows, scrubbing of rest rooms, cleaning and oiling of metal parts of farm tools,
and placing lubricants to the moving parts of machines. Repair defective tools,
implements and equipment as soon as possible.
• For regular clean-up chores, give workers about five minutes daily to tidy the work
station, including the tools, farm implements, machine and equipment they use
before they go home. This motivates the next workers (if they you operate in shifts)
to start work immediately. Besides, this is a subtle way of developing in them the
housekeeping routine.
• Cultivate the habit of collecting waste even before it touches the floor. Provide a
sack or bag in one or two corners of the workplace where you can throw your garbage.
At the end of the day, your workers can just put their wastes in the designated places
for disposal at the scheduled day and time.

HOW TO CARE OF YOUR GARDEN TOOLS

A regular maintenance routine keeps your garden tools in good working order and helps them last
longer. Tools not only need to be sharp, but also clean and sterile. Tools that are exposed to
plants or soil with bacterial, fungal or insect infestations can spread those problems throughout
the garden. It only takes a few minutes after each gardening session to take care of your tools and
protect your garden the next time they are used.

Keeping your tools clean and storing them properly after each use is essential if you want them
to last.

Here are some general tips:

 Rinse digging tools with a garden hose and use a wire brush or putty knife to get rid of
caked-on dirt.
 Give pruners, loppers or shears, a quick scrub with a nail brush and some soapy water.
 If tools were exposed to diseased plants or pest-infected soil, give them a quick soak in a
diluted solution of 2 cups household bleach mixed with 1 gallon of water, then rinse in
plain water, or wipe with a cotton pad soaked with rubbing alcohol.
 Always dry your tools thoroughly with a towel or rag.

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  Keep a bucket of sand mixed with a plant-based oil for metal digging tools. The sand
should be damp, but not wet. Plunge the blade, tines, or teeth into the sand a few times
for a quick clean or do this following regular maintenance once the tools are dry. The oil
helps protect the metal surface from rust and corrosion.
 Avoid using petroleum products, such as motor oil, because the next time you use the
tool, you’ll be introducing petroleum into your soil.
 Keep disinfecting wipes handy to remove sap, bacteria and fungus for a quick clean-up on
the fly.
 Store tools in a dry, well-ventilated shed or garage. Smaller hand tools can be stored
plunged into a bucket of sand or small pebbles, and larger tools should be hung or stored
upside down so as not to dull their blades.

Removing Sap
Pruner blades that are clogged with sap can be difficult to use. Solvents, such as mineral spirits or
turpentine, can be used to remove sap from pruning tool blades.
 Wipe blades with a cotton ball or cloth dipped in solvent.
 Clean the blades with soapy water and treat with linseed oil after using solvents.

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Preventing and Removing Rust
Making sure tools are dried thoroughly before storing and treating with mineral oil are the best
ways to keep tools from getting rusty. But, if you do discover some rust on your tools, here’s what
you can do to get them back in working order:
 Soak in a 1:1 mixture of vinegar and water overnight.
 Scrub in a circular motion with steel wool.
 Rinse in soapy water, and then plain water.
 Let dry thoroughly, then rub lightly with mineral oil.

In addition to daily maintenance, pruners should be taken apart and deep cleaned at least once
each season. This can be done at the end of the season before storing tools for winter.

 Unscrew the nut that holds them together and wash all parts separately in soapy water.
 Soak in vinegar and water and scrub with steel wool to remove any rust; rinse and dry.
 Soak in bleach and water to sanitize; rinse and dry.
 Rub with boiled linseed oil and reassemble.

Keep your tools sharp

Cutting or pruning with dull blades often results in damaged branches that have been ripped or
torn apart, making them more susceptible to disease. Keep your pruners and other cutting tools
sharp with a specialized pruner-sharpening tool or a sharpening stone. Other tools such as hoes,
shovels, and knives can be kept sharp with quick touchups from a sharpening file, followed by a
sharpening stone.
 Push the file or sharpener in the same direction (not back and forth) across the blade and
follow the original bevel angle.
 Further smooth filed edges with a sharpening stone.
 Wear eye protection and heavy gloves when using any sharpening equipment to protect
against metal slivers.

Wood handles
Don’t forget to take care of the wood handles as well. Minor cracks can be reinforced with heavy
duty tape, such as hockey-stick tape. Any severely cracked handles should be replaced
immediately to prevent an injury if it should break while being used.
 After each use, wipe down the handles with a damp cloth.
 Check for cracks or weakening at seams between the handle and the tool head and
address any issues.
 Seasonally, or as needed, lightly sand and apply boiled linseed oil to condition the handles.

23
Simple Repair and Modification of Tools and Implements
“Simple garden tools are simple to repair”. Spend a little time checking your garden tools for
things to fix and recycle.

To replace a tool handle:

1. Clamp the tool blade in a bench vise.

2. Remove the handle from the hasp using a drill, hammer, or other tools as needed.
3. Insert the new handle into the hasp.
4. Tighten the handle in the hasp using fasteners. Use a screw and screwdriver to
firmly attach the handle to the tool head.

To fix a leaky hose:

1. Cut through the hose on either side of the bad section using a sharp knife.
2. Attach male and female hose couplings to the cut ends, following the directions
that come with the couplings. If the new hose fittings don't slide in easily, try
softening the ends of the hose in hot water or lubricating them with soap or
cooking oil.

To fix a broken tooth of rake/fork:

Bring this to the shop and weld the broken portion of the tools. Do the same with the other
tools and implement that need welding. For farm machineries that need repair, contact
expert mechanics to the job.

Installation of Preventive Structure

It has been observed that as we go on our horticultural work we always experience the
occurrence of inclement weather. Before it is too late, think of anything that you can do to
safeguard your crops, tools and other facilities. We should not only focus our attention for
occurrence of inclement weather but we have to consider also other elements that may
cause loss or damage to our property (ex. astray animals, fire and thieves).

Let’s take a look into our facilities, such as; nursery shed, storage house, and farm shops.
Examine their physical conditions (roofing, sidings, or floorings). Can they survive any
disaster that may occur? Are the things inside safe? If not, what preventive structures should
you undertake?

24
Below is a table indicating the facilities physical conditions, possible calamities or disaster
that may occur and the suggested preventive structures or contingency measures to be
undertaken.

Facilities Physical conditions Calamities/ Suggested preventive/

Disaster contingency measure
Nursery shed Weak posts typhoon Put braces

Storage barn Leaking roofing Heavy rains Put water sealant

(vulcaseal)
Farm shop Unsafe windows Thief/burglars Put grills and heavy duty
and doors padlocks
Fires Provide fire hydrants Or call
fire department
Run off Construct drainage
canal
Vicinity fence Dilapidated Astray animal Reconstruct fence

Prepare Farm Facilities for Storage:

After a quite long time, farming operations finally come to an end. This time we have to check the
tools, implements, and equipment we used and prepare them for storage.
Regarding the preparation of garden tools for long storage, you can adopt some of the practices
mentioned below:
• Begin by gathering all hand tools and removing any dirt or rust with a wire brush,
steel wool or light sandpaper. An old pro’s tip is to keep a galvanized tub with sand
and waste oil to clean tools in.
By inserting the shovels, spades and forks into the mixture and moving them up and down,
they get a good scrubbing with the abrasive sand as well as a coat of lubricant.
• Sharpen the tools using a file that is made specifically for this task. Remember to
move the file in one direction only, and at a 45-degree angle.
• Sand wooden handles with sandpaper and follow up with a coat of paste wax or
linseed oil if necessary.
• Spray all metal parts with a good coat of lubricating oil. This will discourage rust as
your tools are stored in your tool shed or garage.
• Store your tools up off the ground and in a dry spot.
• Drain water hoses and hang them in the garage. Water hoses left out during winter
and exposed to freezing temperatures are more likely to tear and spring leaks.
• Don’t forget about the lawnmower. If you don’t have a chance to use up the gas
before storing it, add a gas stabilizer to the fuel tank to prevent corrosion.
• Store pesticides out of reach of children and pets. Store dry pesticides in plastic bags.
Liquid pesticides should be stored in a location that will stay above 40 degrees F.
By following these few basic preparatory steps, you can ensure that on the following year,
you’ll be working in your garden instead of working on your garden tools. With proper care

25
of the farm tools, implements and equipment, you can also save yourself from buying new
ones.
For proper care and maintenance of farm hand tools and equipment, the following guidelines
should be observed:
1. Hand tools must always be kept dry in a tool rack when they are not being used.
2. Tools should be washed or cleaned before keeping them in the tool rack.
3. The iron parts of tools should be oiled, greased or painted with coal tar when they are to
be stored for a long time.
4. Defective tools should be repaired immediately. Those tools, implements, and equipment
which are beyond repair should be disposed properly.
5. Cutting and digging tools (bolos, scythe, hoes and axes) should be frequently sharpened.

LET US REMEMBER

Using the appropriate and in good condition tools will make the work easier, faster, less
prone to accidents and minimize their wear and tear.
Proper care and safekeeping of tools, implements and equipment in accordance with the
standard practices shall be done to ensure longer usability of facilities.

ACTIVITY 2

Answer the following questions.

1. What should you do to your tools after use and why? (5 pts.)
2. Why is there a need to construct preventive structures in your work place? (5pts)
3. What preparations should you do before you store the farm facilities? (5pts)
4. Why there is a need to have a maintenance in our facilities and tools? (5pts)

REFERENCES

Agricultural Arts for Secondary

Agricultural Arts (T.H.E., SEDP, NSEC series) by Ramon G. Asuncion et.al.
Farm Mechanics Textbook by Phipps, McColly, Scranton, & Cook p.393 – 689
Growing Vegetables by Tony Biggs p.6 – 7
Growing Rich, Tasty Veggies in Harmony with Nature, vol. 1 by Jef Van Haunte-Lyds Quileste Van
Haunte p.117-120
A Practical Safety Guide for the Horticulture Industry in the Murray
Valley http://www.antiquefarmtoolsinfo
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/pdfs/01-111b
http://www.ebc.com.au
http://www.sofweb.vic.edu.au/safe@work/workplace_hazards.asp
http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/iacl102.pdf http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/misc165.pdf
http://www.farm-

26
 UNIT 3

OBSERVE SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN HORTICULTURAL FARM OPERATIONS

WHAT IS THIS LESSON ABOUT?

This lesson deals on the safety precautions in horticultural farm operations. It includes risk
management, classes of hazards, and possible hazards in horticultural farm operations.

WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. observe safety precautions in horticultural farm operations;

2. identify possible hazards in horticultural farm operations; and
3. discuss classes of hazards.

LET US STUDY

Let us define

Safety – the physical or environmental conditions of work which comply with the prescribed
Occupational Health Safety (OHS) Standards and which allow the workers to perform his or her
job without or within acceptable exposure to hazards
Occupational safety – the practices related to production and work process
Health – a sound state of the body and mind of the workers that enable him or her to perform
the job normally

Safety Precautions in Handling Farm Facilities

Horticultural farm operations deal with a lot of activities to be done in the different workplaces.
While performing these activities we expose ourselves to a lot of risks. Workplace hazard is a
major cause of accident, injury, or harm to a worker who performs such task. These hazards
should be the major concern of all who are involved in a certain job or work.

27
It is important to distinguish hazard, risk and exposure when undertaking risk management.
o Hazard is the potential for harm, or adverse effect on an employee’s health. Anything
which may cause injury or ill health to anyone at or near a workplace is a hazard.
o Risk is the likelihood that a hazard will cause injury or ill health to anyone at or near a
workplace. The level of risk increases with the severity of the hazard and the duration
and frequency of exposure.
o Exposure occurs when a person comes in contact with a hazard.

Risk management

Risk management is a four step process. They are,

1. Identify the hazard

The first step in reducing the cause of an accident is hazard identification. Hazard
identification is identifying all situations or events that could cause injury or illness.
Eliminating or minimizing workplace hazards needs a systematic approach. It is essential to
try and anticipate all possible hazards at the workplace known as the ‘what if?’ approach.

Methods for identifying hazards

There are many methods that are useful for identifying hazards including:
o reviewing your workers‟ compensation data and check the incidence,
mechanism and agency of injury, and the cost to the organization. These
statistics can be analyzed to alert the organization to the presence of hazards
o staying informed on trends and developments in workplace health and
safety, for example via the internet or OHS publications
o reviewing the potential impact of new work practices or equipment
introduced into the workplace in line with legislative requirements
o doing walk-through surveys, inspections or safety audits in the workplace to
evaluate the organization’s health and safety system
o considering OHS implications when analyzing work processes
o investigating workplace incidents and „near hits‟ reports - in some cases
there may be more than one hazard contributing to an incident
o getting feedback from employees can often provide valuable information
about hazards, because they have hands-on experience in their work area.

2. Assess the risk associated with the hazard

This step involves gathering information and making decisions. It is important to
consider the causes and impact of hazards in a work place. To avoid risking the
workers’ health, introduce some precautionary measures.

28
 3. Control the risk

The third step in effective risk management is to establish and maintain systems which give
opportunity for regular evaluation and review procedures. Evaluation means examining
control measures to ensure that risks are eliminated or reduced and have not caused new
hazards.

There are three categories of control measures you might take. You can eliminate
the hazard, minimize the risk, and introduce „back-up‟ controls (when all other options in
the previous categories have been exhausted).

4. Review the process.

The review system applies to the overall risk management process and checks if it is
working effectively.

Classes of Hazard

Hazards are classified into five different types. They are:

1. Physical - includes floors, stairs, work platforms, steps, ladders, fire, falling objects,
slippery surfaces, manual handling (lifting, pushing, pulling), excessively loud and
prolonged noise, vibration, heat and cold, radiation, poor lighting, ventilation, and air
quality)

2. Mechanical and/or electrical - includes electricity, machinery, equipment, pressure

vessels, dangerous goods, fork lifts, cranes, hoists

3. Chemical - includes chemical substances such as acids or poisons and those that could
lead to fire or explosion, like pesticides, herbicides, cleaning agents, dusts and fumes
from various processes such as welding

4. Biological - includes bacteria, viruses, mold, mildew, insects, vermin, animals

5. Psychosocial environment - includes workplace stressors arising from a variety of

sources.

List of Possible Hazards in Horticultural Farm Operations

Possible Harmful Possible Supervisor Preventative

Effects Action to Prevent Action Students
Injury / Illness Can Take
HAZARD
Handling of farm Wounds/cuts Provide necessary Observe safety
tools safety precautions precautions
Unleveled Falls Place appropriate Observe safety
terrain Cuts safety signs signs

29
 Require Wear PPE
appropriate PPE including
Dust Foreign body in eye Provide eye and Wear eye and
Respiratory effects respiratory protection respiratory protection

Fertilizers Skin contact may Use least Use PPE

result in allergic hazardous product for Follow safe
Pesticides reaction Swallowing the task working procedures
of pesticides or Dispense and mix when handling
inhalation of fumes chemicals in well- chemicals
can lead to ventilated areas Clean up spills
headache, nausea, Store and label immediately
Fuel
dizziness, vomiting - chemicals appropriately
poisoning, loss of
Ensure the
consciousness and
availability of First Aid
fatality.
Kit
Long-term exposure Provide
may result to chronic emergency eyewash
(ongoing) illness Provide
including cancer appropriate PPE
Clean up spills
immediately
Manual handling Musculoskeletal Provide Use mechanical
(bending, disorders, mechanical aids aids
reaching, including Provide training in Seek help when
stretching, sprains and strains safe manual handling you think a team lift
pulling, techniques is
lifting, Encourage team required
repetitive lifts Exercise before
motions, starting the work
awkward
posture)
Hot or Heat rashes, heat Provide regular Be aware of
cold cramps, heat stress, rest breaks potential hazards
weather dehydration, loss of Provide shade during hot or cold
conditions fine motor controls, Re-schedule work weather
sunburn, numbness, if the weather is conditions that
frostbite, extremely unfavorable cause illness. Rest
Assess work hours and seek
assistance if you
in difficult conditions
feel that heat or
Provide sufficient
coldness affect
water during hot
you.
weather
Wear
Wear appropriate
appropriate
PPE clothing and take
regular rest.

Handling soil/ Legionnaire’s disease Minimize dust Follow proper

Potting mixes hygiene

30
 Provide Wear
appropriate clothing appropriate PPE
and PPE
Observe proper
hygiene

LET US REMEMBER

“An ounce of prevention is better than a pound of cure,” a saying which always reminds us
of our safety in everything we do. Take the necessary safety measures in any work we
perform.

In every farm operation we undertake, we expose ourselves to risk or hazards. To be safe in

performing such job, we see to it that our workplace complies with OHS standards. Always
maintain a workplace free from work hazards. Apply the principles of good housekeeping.

31
 ACTIVITY 3

Answer the following questions (10 points each)

1. What are the possible hazards you can identify in our workplace?
2. What are the preventive actions you apply when you are going to work with fertilizers
and pesticides?

LET US APPLY WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED (30 POINTS)

Proceed to the nursery shed available or found in your area and evaluate that workplace.
Identify and list down the possible hazards inside and outside the shed. Make and suggest
preventive measures of each hazard identified. Used bond paper.

RESOURCES

Pruning shear Pick Mattock Grab Hoe Wheelbarrow

Bolo Spade Axe Shovel String Knife Cutting saw Rake
CBLM Water Pump Plow Sprayer Sprinkler Harrow
Tractor and its accessories Nursery shed or
greenhouse Bodega or Farm shop building

REFERENCES:
Agricultural Arts for Secondary
Agricultural Arts (T.H.E., SEDP, NSEC series) by Ramon G. Asuncion et.al.
Farm Mechanics Textbook by Phipps, McColly, Scranton, & Cook pp.393 – 689

Growing Vegetables by Tony Biggs pp.6 – 7

Growing Rich, Tasty Veggies in Harmony with Nature, vol. 1 by Jef Van Haunte-Lyds Quileste
Van Haunte pp.117-120
A Practical Safety Guide for the Horticulture Industry in the Murray
Valley http://www.antiquefarmtoolsinfo
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/pdfs/01-111b
http://www.ebc.com.au
http://www.sofweb.vic.edu.au/safe@work/workplace_hazards.asp

32
 ACTIVITY 4

TRY YOURSELF
Let’s find out how much you have learned in the lessons tackled?

A. Identification. Identify the words being described by each of the following sentences.
Choose your answer from the given choices in the box. Write the letter of your quiz
notebook.

a. shop building e. wheel barrow i. bolo

b. green house f. shovel j. pick mattock
c. storage barn g. disc harrow k. exposure
d. safety h. nursery shed l. native plow

1. A structure where agricultural chemicals are being kept.

2. It is a light structure where seedlings are being cared for before planting.
3. A more sophisticated building in which seedlings are being started.
4. A building where hand tools are being stored.
5. A building where fertilizers are kept.
6. A hand tool that is used for digging smaller size of hole.
7. It refers to the physical or environmental conditions of work which allow the workers
to perform their jobs within the work area.
8. How does a person or worker come in contact with hazard?
9. A tool with a flattened blade at one end and pointed at the other end.
10. This tool resembles the appearance of spoon and is used for transferring soil.
11. An implement being pulled by a working animal used in tilling the land.
12. An implement mounted to a tractor that is used to pulverize the newly plowed soil.
13. A small cart used to transport things, usually in the form of an open container with a
single wheel at the front and two handles at the back

B. Read the questions carefully.

14. Which tool is used for cutting grasses?
a. shovel c. crowbar
b. bolo d. pick mattock
15. What tool does NOT belong to the group?
a. crowbar c. shovel
b. mattock d. pruning shear

33
 16. Proper care and maintenance of farm tools are necessary in order
To______________________.
a. prolong the serviceability of the tools.
b. be available for use.
c. save time and effort.
d. all of the above.

17. Farm tools, implements and equipment are very important in pre horticultural
operations because they---------
a. make work easier c. save time and effort
b. make work faster d. all of the above
18. What work hazard is NOT possible in the repair of the roof of a nursery shed?
a. exposed to hazardous liquid
b. face exposed to extreme heat
c. prone to fall from above
d. bodies exposed to sharp or rough surfaces
19. What preventive action should a student apply when he/she is exposed to dust?
He/She should wear-----------
a. eye and respiratory protection
b. hearing protection
c. safety footwear
d. hard cap
20. The environmental impact of improper disposal of waste and agricultural chemicals
are the following EXCEPT:
a. air pollution
b. water contamination
c. dirty and ugly surroundings
d. friendly and healthy surroundings
21. What equipment in horticultural operations is used to draw water from a source?
a. water pump c. water pail
b. sprinkler d. sprayer
22. Why do we need to conduct pre-operative checkup of tools, implements and
equipment before starting to work?
a. to check if the tools are serviceable
b. to determine the functionality of tools, and implements
c. to repair defective tools
d. all of the above
23. What preventive structure shall we provide if the area of our horticultural farm is
prone to run off?
a. fire hydrant
b. wind breaks
c. drainage canal
d. water sealant

34
24. Why is it necessary to apply oil to the metal parts of tools and implements before
storing them for a long period time?
a. to prevent them from rust
b. to retain its shiny look
c. to clean the tools
d. all of the above
25. What facility should we construct if there are a stray animals around?
a. nursery shed
b. vicinity fence
c. storage barn
d. farm shop
26. The first step in reducing the cause of an accident is
a. assess the risk associated with the hazard
b. identify the hazard
c. review the process
d. control the risk
27. Which of the following is NOT an example of physical hazard?
a. electricity
b. floors, stairs, ladders
c. heat, cold, radiation
d. excessively loud and prolonged noise
28. Which of the following is the least objective of installing preventive structures?
a. to attain aesthetic beauty of the place
b. to safeguard crops from astray animals and thieves
c. to avoid destruction of farm facilities due to inclement weather
d. b and c
29. Which of the following is a biological hazard?
a. machinery
b. pesticides
c. bacteria
d. falling objects
30. Which of the following is NOT true about care and maintenance of farm facilities?
a. Hand tools must be cleaned, dried and placed in a tool rack when not in use.
b. Cutting and digging tools should be frequently sharpened.
c. defective tools are segregated and brought to the junk shop.
d. Iron parts of tools should be oiled, greased or painted with coal tar when they
are to be stored for a long time.

35
 UNIT 4
PERFORM ESTIMATION FOR FARM OPERATIONS

Let us define

Area - refers to the size of the surface

Fertilizer - any material added to the soil to support nutrient
Germination- the development of the seed into a young plant
Graph- a drawing in which the relationship between two (or more) items of information (e.g.
Time and plant growth) is shown in a symbolic way.
Gross Income/Sales - the equivalent value of the product sold.
Interest- is the corresponding value that will be added to the principal as payment for using
money of the lender.
Labor- refers to the work performed by farm workers in exchange for salary.
Net Income- is the value remains after all the expenses have been deducted from the gross
income or sales.
Principal –refers to the amount you owed.
Volume- is the content of a body or object

FARM INPUTS

SEEDS SEEDLINGS

FERTILIZER INSECTICIDES

36
FARM LABOR REQUIREMENT FOR LAND PREPARATION

Plowing using tractor Clearing of the land using hoe

Plowing using animal Harrowing using hand tractor

Preparation of Furrow Trellis Preparation (for cucurbit crops)

37
 Mulching Digging Holes (for orchard)

Students of Balagtas National Agricultural High School

LABOR REQUIREMENT IN PLANTING

PRODUCTION OF SEEDLINGS TRANSPLANTING

LABOR REQUIREMENT FOR PLANT CARE

FERTILIZER APPLICATION PEST CONTROL

38
 IRRIGATION

WEEDING HARVESTING

39
 ACTIVITY 5
DATA SURVEY TEST (50 POINTS)
A. ESTIMATING FARM INPUTS AND LABOR REQUIREMENTS

SPECIFIC INSTRUCTION:
1. Visit a vegetable farm near to your school or home.

2. Get the following data

a. Area
b. Crop
c. Age of crop
d. Quantity of planting materials (in kgs)
e. Number of workers prepared the land
f. Number of days consumed in preparing the area
g. Amount of salary given to each worker during land preparation
h. Number of worker planted the area
i. Number of days consumed in planting the area
j. Amount of salary paid in planting the area
k. Number of worker fertilized the area from planting up to the date of this survey.
l. Quantity of fertilizer used from planting up to the date where survey was made
m. Amount of salary paid in applying fertilizer from planting to the date of this survey
n. Quantity of fertilizer to be used after the survey until harvesting
o. Number of workers required to perform fertilization after the survey until final harvesting
p. Amount of salary needed for fertilizer application after this survey until harvesting
q. Estimated irrigation expenses from planting up to harvesting
r. Estimated worker hired to perform irrigation from planting to harvesting.
s. Estimated days for spraying insecticides
t. Estimated workers needed for spraying insecticides
u. Estimated cost of insecticide used in spraying
v. Workers salary during spraying of insecticides
w. Estimated number of weeding operation
x. Estimated worker needed in weeding
y. Workers salary during weeding
z. Estimated worker employ during harvesting.

3. Present your data in tabular form

Evaluation:
While performing the activity it is important for you to assess your performance following the
criteria below:
equired measuring tool is used in measuring the area.

40
 UNIT 5
INTERPRET FARM PLANS AND LAYOUT
Let us define

Filler-a temporary plant usually small and early bearing one which planted in between
permanent plants
Planting board- a device used in lay-outing the area for the crops
Lay-outing-locating the position of plant in the orchard
Staking-the placing of the pole to mark the position of the plant to be set Orchard-an

establishment where fruit bearing crops are grown.

Irrigation- the application of water to the soil by any other means than rainfall.

41
The Farming for the Future‘(FFTF)

Program that can help you to plan the best farm layout. It is an initiative of NSW Government
agencies focusing on whole farm planning. A whole farm plan considers the farm‘s physical,
financial, and human/personal resources for both now and the future.

Site assessment

An on-site assessment of a farm is necessary so that a map can be drawn according to the
property‘s topography, boundaries, soil, water resources, and so on, and a farm business plan
can be formulated.

Government plans

Acquaint yourself with the Regional Environmental Plans (REPs), Local Environmental Plans
(LEPs), and Development Control Plans (DCPs) and their short and long-term effects on your
proposed or existing farm enterprise. This will help to reduce unforeseen risks and enhance
your farm business. Council‘s building approval or development consent (DAs) may be needed
for siting greenhouses, siting and constructing dams, or erecting hail and windbreak netting.
Council approval to clear land or a ‗no burning of crop debris or waste materials on farm may
apply. Consent will be required if odor or noise is a nuisance likely to be generated from the
development.

42
Desirable Layout of a vegetable farm

Site selection

Site selection is important. Slopes to the north east are preferred for maximum
sunlight, warmth, and protection from wind. Slopes are prone to erosion and need to be
farmed with care. To prevent soil erosion and the silting of waterways, do not grow vegetables
on slopes greater than seven degrees (7°).

Buffer zones

Buffer zones are areas of vegetated land need to be established or left in place to
protect sensitive environmental areas and provide a habitat/sanctuary for wildlife. They should
be located between the area of farm activity and any areas of possible water quality
impairment or contamination. Water environs or features to be protected are:

• Riparian areas include flood plains, adjacent to rivers and streams and other watercourses.

• Wetlands (the areas of land that are either temporarily or permanently covered with shallow
water, and which play a crucial role in nutrient recycling). Wetlands have a high ecological
productivity and should not be drained, filled or used as storages.

• Drainage lines. Care for your creek. Leave a strip of uncleared native vegetation between the
top of the bank and your farming activities for at least 20 m for small streams and 50–100 m
for rivers like the Hawkesbury–Nepean. This buffer zone will intercept and filter farm chemical
and nutrient run-off.

43
Soil types

Soil types need to be suitable for the crop being grown. The better soil types are deep,
well-drained sands, sandy loams and loams. Heavy clays are much less suitable as they drain
poorly and waterlog easily. If in doubt have a physical test of the soil type.

Groundwater contamination

Check for groundwater contamination. Any contamination of the groundwater by

pollutants can affect your farm business operations. Although well-drained soils are preferred
for growing vegetables, there is a greater risk that pesticides, herbicides and fertilizer can leach
through them and contaminate groundwater resources.

Windbreaks

Wind protection and screening of the whole farm and of individual large paddocks is
recommended. Screening of the property, especially with trees, prevents many complaints
about farm activities. Windbreaks also prevent drift and movement of sprays, dust, pests, and
noise to adjoining areas.

Soil management

You need to plan your soil management strategies. It is important to provide good
drainage and install grassed drainage/ waterways in conjunction with fields designed to
prevent erosion from irrigation and heavy rain. To prevent soil erosion on a 3° slope on
Hawkesbury sandstone derived soils (sandy clay loam), you will need contour banks at intervals
of 50 m. The Soil and Vegetation Management Directorate of DLWC offers expert advice in this
area.

Water management

Water management strategies require pre-cropping assessment. Water supplies must

be able to meet the needs of crops in periods of drought when water demand is the highest.
Inadequately designed water supplies will limit crop production and profitability.

Water quality is also important. Poor water quality reduces the growth and yield of
crops. Using poor quality water can damage both the physical and chemical properties of the
soil. Avoid high-volume sprinkler and flood irrigation in areas of high soil and/or water salinity
or where the water table is rising. In such situations use low volume mini sprinklers or drip
irrigation and irrigate at night.
Row planting
As applied in conventional horizontal farming or gardening is a system of growing crops
in linear patterns in at least one direction rather than planting without any distinct
arrangement.
It is practiced in most crops whether direct-seeded, transplanted, or grown from vegetative
planting materials, both in monocropping and multiple cropping.
Crops are planted in rows or straight lines, either singly or in multiple rows, mainly to enhance
maximum yields as well as for convenience. East-west row orientation is preferred to maximize
light absorption, but this is not always possible.

44
In many cases, the topography that includes the shape, terrain, and slope of the land, as well as
the location of existing vegetation, roads, irrigation lines, buildings, and physical barriers,
dictates the row orientation.
The Advantages of Row Planting Over Broadcasting
o Light exposure is maximized. Conversely, the excessive shading effect of other
plants is minimized thus favoring more efficient photosynthesis and improved
crop yield;
o Wind passage along the inter rows is enhanced which increases gas exchanges
and prevents excessive humidity;
o Access through the inter rows facilitates cultivation, weeding, and other farm
operations including hauling;
o Movement within the crop area is more convenient and allows close inspection
of individual plants;
o Visibility is enhanced; and
o It is easy to calculate or count the plant population in a given farm area.
o Row Planting Arrangement
o Row-planted crops are either arranged in equidistant single rows or in multiple
rows. Planting in single rows is most common in mono cropping or sole cropping,
the growing of a single crop.

Different systems of planting arrangement within the row are practiced in both single and
multiple row planting, depending on the characteristics and requirement of the crop,
particularly its extent of canopy expansion.
In the hill method of planting by direct seeding, the crops are arranged, singly or in groups, in
uniform distances. But in the drill method, the only consideration is a uniform number of
plants per linear meter.
In row-planted fruit trees and other perennial crops like coconut, oil palm, and rubber, the
common types of planting or spatial arrangement are square, rectangular, quincunx, and
triangular or hexagonal.

Multiple Row Planting Arrangement

Multiple row planting is a system of growing crops in blocks or strips of 2 or more rows.
The adjacent blocks are separated by a space that may remain vacant or planted to other crops.
This planting arrangement is common in multiple cropping in which two or more crops are
grown in the same piece of land. It is also employed in monocropping where an alley wide
enough to facilitate passage is needed.
Coconut and other perennial crops are often intercropped with multiple rows of annual crops
like corn and pineapple. This is a common practice of maximizing the use of vacant interrow
spaces when the main crop has not fully developed thus allowing sufficient light exposure.
In some farms, the intercrop consists of multiple rows of such crops as coffee, cacao, and
banana. In this system, both single row planting (for the main crop) and multiple row planting
(for the intercrop) are combined.

45
In vegetable production that employs close spacing and where crops should be within easy
reach, the common practice is to plant in plots having multiple rows. A space between plots is
provided to allow passage.
In bananas, both single and multiple row arrangements are practiced. It can be planted in
double rows with a spacing of (3.5 + 1.5) m x 2 m which means that the two rows in pair are 1.5
m apart and plants are 2 m apart within each row, with an alley of 3.5 m between double rows.
With this planting arrangement, the planting density per hectare will be 2000. For the
‘Singapore Spanish’ pineapple, the spacing may be (90 + 60) cm x 30 cm which will result in a
density of 4.4 plants per sq. meter. Papaya can also be planted in double rows with a spacing of
(3.25 + 1.75) m x 2.4 m or (2.5 + 1.5) m x 2 m.

Spatial Arrangement in Intercropping

Spatial arrangement is the systematic apportioning of the farm area or any growing
surface for crop production. In multiple cropping by intercropping, the intercrop can be planted
in any of the following ways:
(1) Within the rows of the maincrop,
(2) Between the rows of the maincrop, and
(3) In replacement series.

Planting of the intercrop between two adjacent hills within the same row of the main crop
allows interrow cultivation but the intercrop has limited exposure to sunlight. This is
exemplified by the planting of peanut or mungbean between corn plants within the same row
or two coffee plants that are 3 m apart between coconut plants.
Single row planting of the intercrop can also be done between the rows of the maincrop.

For example, peanut or mungbean can be dibbled between two adjacent rows of corn. This
system of planting arrangement is likewise common in coconut farms where fruit trees like
durian, lanzones, and mangosteen are grown in single rows between coconuts.
In replacement series, one or more rows that are intended for the maincrop are replaced with
the intercrop.
For example, a 3:2 corn+mungbean intercrop means that for every 4 rows that are intended for
sole corn, only 3 rows are planted to corn and one row may be substituted with 2 rows of
mungbean. Another practice is in strip intercropping, for example, the simultaneous growing of
6 rows of corn and 12 rows of soybean in alternating stripes. These particular examples result in
multiple row arrangements.

46
47
 ACTIVITY 6
Interpret the drawing below: (40 POINTS)

Legend:
Plant

MAKE YOUR INTERPRETATION: (3 POINTS EACH ITEM)

1. What is your calculated area?

2. How many rows are there in the area?
3. How many plants are there in a row?
4. How many plants are there in the area?
5. What is the distance between plants per row?
6. What is the distance of plants between hills?
7. How many plants are there in row A?
8. What is the length of the area?
9. What is the width of the area?
10. How many plants are needed in rows A, B and C?

48
TRUE OR FALSE

1. Slopes to the south-west are preferred for maximum sunlight, warmth and protection
from wind.
2. To prevent soil erosion and the silting of waterways, do not grow vegetables on slopes
greater than 7°.
3. Screening of the property, especially with trees, prevents many complaints about farm
activities.
4. Windbreaks also prevent drift and movement of sprays, dust, pests, and noise to
adjoining areas.
5. Poor water quality increases the growth and yield of crops.
6. Using poor quality water can damage both the physical and chemical properties of the
soil.
7. Avoid high-volume sprinkler and flood irrigation in areas of high soil and/or water salinity
or where the water table is rising.
8. A whole farm plan considers the farm‘s physical, financial and human/personal resources
for both now and the future.
9. Water management strategies require pre-cropping assessment.
10. Inadequately designed water supplies will enhance crop production and profitability.

49
 UNIT 6
ORCHARD PLANTING AND PLANTING DESIGNS

LAYOUTING

Layout of an orchard is very important. Layout means fixing the position of trees, roads,
buildings, etc. in an orchard being planned. There are various systems of layout in an orchard.
Systems of layout refer to the design of planting the trees. It is desirable to have the trees
planted in a systematic way because: (1) orchard operations like intercultural and irrigation are
carried out easily; (2) it makes possible the distribution of areas equally for each tree; (3) it
results in maximum utilization of an area according to different kinds of trees; and (4) it makes
supervision more easy and effective.

Systems of Planting

There are five systems of planting fruit trees. In all these systems, trees are planted in rows.
The distance between row to row and plant to plant varies with the system, type of fruit trees
and their varieties. Trees with bigger canopy require greater distance between them and vice
versa.

A. Square system

In square system, the trees are planted in four corners of a square keeping the same
distance between rows and from plant to plant in the same row. This is the simplest and
easiest system of plantation.

Advantages

1. Irrigation channels and paths can be made straight.

2. Operations like plowing, harrowing, cultivation, spraying, and harvesting becomes easy.

3. Better supervision of the orchard is possible as one gets a view of the orchard from one
end to the other.

Disadvantages

1. Comparatively less number of trees is accommodated in given area.

2. Distance between plant to plant and row to row remains the same and, hence, certain
amount of space in the middle of four trees is wasted.

B. Rectangular system

In rectangular system the trees are planted in the same way as in a square system
except that the distance between rows will be more than the distance between plants in the
same row. Four adjacent trees in this system make a rectangular design.

Advantages

1. Intercultural operations can be carried out easily.

2. Irrigation channel can be made length and breadth wise

3. Light can penetrate into the orchard through the large inter spaces between rows.

50
 4. Better supervision is possible.

5. Intercropping is possible.

Disadvantages

1. A large area of the orchard between rows is wasted if intercropping is not practiced.

2. Less number of trees are planted.

C. Quincunx or Diagonal system

Basically, quincunx or diagonal system is the same as the square system except for the
addition of a tree in the center of each square. In this system, the number of trees planted in
the same area is almost double. But the distance between the trees is much reduced. For this
reason, trees with shorter life space are chosen for the center. By the time the main trees grow
into full size, the central trees will have finished their life cycle. The central trees are known as
filler crop and the others as main crop. If the filler crop hinders seriously the growth of main
trees, it should be removed Papaya, Guava, Lime, plum and peaches are a few examples of
filler crops in orchards with trees like mango jack and tamarind.

Advantages

1. Additional income can be earned from the filler crop till the main crop comes into
bearing.

2. Compared to square to square and rectangular systems, almost double the number of
trees can be planted initially.

3. Maximum utilization of the land is possible.

Disadvantages

1. Skill is required to layout the orchard.

2. Inter/filler crop can interfere with the growth of the main crop.

3. Intercultural operations become difficult.

4. Spacing of the main crop0 is reduced if the filler crop is allowed to continue after the
growth of the main crop.

D. Hexagonal system

In the hexagonal system, the trees are planted at the corners of an equilateral triangle. Six such
triangles are joined together to form a hexagon. Six trees are positioned at the corners of this
hexagon with a seventh in the center all arranged in the three rows. However the distance
between tree to tree in six directions from the central tree remains the same.

51
Advantages

1. Compared to square system 15% more trees can be planted.

2. It is an ideal system for the fertile and well irrigated land.

3. Plant to plant distance can be maintained the same.

4. More income can be obtained.

Disadvantages

1. Intercultural operations become difficult.

2. Skill is required to layout the orchard.

E. Contour system

Contour is an imaginary line connecting all points of equal elevation across a slope. In a
hilly area, a lot of depressions, ridges, furrows, and place surface are found. But when planting
is done, a line is made by connecting all the points of the same elevation across the slope from
a base line. This spacing is maintained on this row. However, row to row distance will not be
the same since the degree of slope varies from spot to spot. Points of equal elevation at a
distance equal to plant to plant spacing are market with the help of Dumpy level or other
suitable instruments.

In these system contour lines themselves become the rows and are marked at the row
to row distance. However it is not possible to maintain the row to row distance strictly all long
the rows. Whenever distance between adjacent contour line is almost double, another contour
is fitted in that space.

Advantages

1. This system can be adopted in hilly regions and in leveled land.

2. Contour system can control the soil erosion.

3. It helps simultaneously in the conservation of water.

4. Preservation of plant nutrients supplied by manures and fertilizers is possible.

5. Contours from an easy path movements on the hill slopes are used for carrying out
various orchard operations such as weeding, maturing, pruning, harvesting, disease and
pest control.

Disadvantages

1. Laying out of contour lines is difficult and time consuming.

2. Special skill is required to layout this system.

3. Special instruments are required for making contour lines.

4. The row to row distance will not be equal and adjustments may be required in the plant
to plat distance.

5. Rows are broken in to bits and pieces.

52
Procedure for layout

In the layout procedures for different system, a few common steps can be identified.

1. Measure the land.

2. Decide the types of trees to be plated, planting distance and the system of plating.

3. Prepare a plan on the paper marking all details

Preparing a plan on paper is tedious and time consuming but the actual layout becomes
easier.

A base line (parallel to any side of the plot or a contour line) is market always at the
beginning of the layout and it forms a row of trees. Subsequent rows are marked parallel to
this base line except in contour system. The position of the trees in each row is marked using
the wooden pegs leaving a space equal to half the plant to plant distance on either side
(boundary). Otherwise, the roots and canopy of the trees may spread beyond the boundary.
Depending on the length and width of the land, plant to plant and row to row distances,
boundary space may be reasonably adjusted. While preparing the blue print, all these factors
are taken into consideration.

IRRIGATION SYSTEM PLAN AND DESIGN

Water required by crops is supplied by nature in the form of precipitation, but when it
becomes scarce or its distribution does not coincide with demand peaks, it is then necessary to
supply it artificially, by irrigation. Several irrigation methods are available, and the selection of
one depends on factors such as water availability, crop, soil characteristics, land topography,
and associated cost.

Proper design of an irrigation system requires that the pumping system precisely match
the irrigation distribution system so that the pressure and flow rate required can be efficiently
provided by the pumping system. The energy required to pump water is determined by the
total dynamic head (water lift, pipe friction, system pressure, etc.), the water flow rate desired,
and the pumping system's efficiency.

Irrigation water management involves determining when to irrigate, the amount of

water to supply each irrigation event and during each stage of plant, and operating and
maintaining the irrigation system. The main management objective is to manage the
production system for profit without compromising environment and in agreement with water
availability. A major management activity involves irrigation scheduling or determining when
and how much water to apply, considering the irrigation method and other field
characteristics.
FUNCTIONS OF FARM IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

The primary function of farm irrigation systems is to supply crops with irrigation water
in the quantities and at the time it is needed. Specific functions includes:

1. Diverting water from the water source.

2. Conveying it to individual fields within the farm.
3. Distributing it within each field.
4. Providing a means for measuring and regulating flows.

53
 Other functions of farm irrigation system include crop and soil cooling, protecting crops
from frost damage, delaying fruit and bud development, and controlling wind erosion,
providing water for seed germination, application of chemicals, and land application of wastes.

REASONS FOR AN IRRIGATION PLAN

• A project plan enables the designer to lay out the irrigation system in the most cost
effective way. The plan is used to generate a material list and to evaluate the anticipated
project costs.
• The plan provides step by step information on system installation. Information on crop
spacing, sprinklers, pumping requirements, pipeline sizes and lengths should be included
in the plan. Pertinent obstructions such as roads, trees, gas, oil, water, telephone, or
transmission lines must also be indicated.
• Specification, design standards, and work schedules as set out in a plan on the basis of
any contractual agreements between the installation contractor and the farmer.
• The plan provides a record for future reference. It can be used for overall farm planning
and identifies limits of expansion potential.

ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF A PLAN

• Topographic Data - The field shape must be accurately drawn showing pertinent
obstructions, features and elevation details.
• Water Source Capacity - The water supply must be clearly indicated showing location
and available capacity.
• Depending on the water source, a well log or water license must accompany the
irrigation plan. Irrigation reservoirs also require Water Management Branch licensing.
• Soil and Crop Characteristics - Soil and crop limitations must be accounted for to reduce
runoff and deep percolation by mismanagement of the irrigation system.
• Design Parameters - Soil water holding capacity, maximum application rate and climatic
data must be used to select the correct irrigation system design.
• Design Data - The nozzle selected, operating pressure, discharge rate and sprinkler
spacing must all be shown on the plan. The irrigation interval, set time, application rate
and net amount applied must also be calculated.

WHERE TO OBTAIN A PLAN

A farm irrigation plan can be obtained from irrigation engineering consultants as well as
reputable irrigation equipment dealers. The features of a farm irrigation plan are summarized
in the sample ―Sprinkler Irrigation Design Information‖ sheets attached. A sample of an
irrigation design plan is also included.

54
The tables above show the arrangement and layout of a farm and on how a farmer consider the
water resources and the East West and North South direction for the farm production.

55
 ACTIVITY 7
ENUMERATE AND ELABORATE THE FOLLOWING
A. Square system
Advantages
1. ___________________________________________________________________.
2. ___________________________________________________________________.
3. ___________________________________________________________________.
Disadvantages
1. ___________________________________________________________________.
2. ___________________________________________________________________.
B. Rectangular system
Advantages
1. __________________________________________________________________.
2. __________________________________________________________________.
3. __________________________________________________________________.
4. __________________________________________________________________.
5. __________________________________________________________________.
Disadvantages
1. __________________________________________________________________.
2. __________________________________________________________________.
C. Quincunx or Diagonal system
1.__________________________________________________________________.
2. __________________________________________________________________.
Advantages
1. __________________________________________________________________.
2. __________________________________________________________________.
3.__________________________________________________________________.
Disadvantages
1. __________________________________________________________________.
2. __________________________________________________________________.
3. __________________________________________________________________.
4. __________________________________________________________________.

56
D. Hexagonal system
Advantages
1. __________________________________________________________________.
2. __________________________________________________________________.
3. __________________________________________________________________.
4. __________________________________________________________________.
Disadvantages
1. __________________________________________________________________.
2. __________________________________________________________________.
E. Contour system
Advantages
1. __________________________________________________________________.
2. __________________________________________________________________.
3. __________________________________________________________________.
4. __________________________________________________________________.
5. __________________________________________________________________.
Disadvantages
1. __________________________________________________________________.
2. __________________________________________________________________.
3. __________________________________________________________________.
4. __________________________________________________________________.
5. __________________________________________________________________.

57
 UNIT 7
APPLYING SAFETY MEASURES IN FARM OPERATIONS

Let us define
Safety - the physical or environmental conditions of work which comply with the
prescribed Occupational Health Safety (OHS) standards and which allow the workers
to perform their job without or within acceptable exposure to hazards.
Occupational safety- the practices related to production and work process

Health-a sound state of the body and mind of the worker that enables him or her to
perform the job normally

Sharpening- the process of thinning the edge of the tools like knife, pruning shears,
hedge shears, etc.

Cleaning- the act or process of removing dirt from tools, containers and farm facilities.

Disinfection chemicals- refers to the chemical used in cleaning which has the ability to
kill microorganisms especially pathogens.

58
 APPLY APPROPRIATE SAFETY MEASURES WHILE WORKING IN FARM

Many hazards are present in the farm. If the farmers are not aware of these hazards these
may cause injury to their body or may cause diseases and even death. Farmer should always
apply appropriate safety measures while working in the farm. In this lesson the students with
the guidance and supervision of their teacher should identify farm works that involve the use
of chemicals and hazardous tools and equipment; determine the uses of Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE) and determine farm emergency procedures regarding safety working
environment.

HAZARD, RISK AND EXPOSURE IN THE FARM

Agricultural crop production deal with a lot of activities to be done in the different
workplace. While performing these activities we expose ourselves to a lot of risk. Workplace
hazard is a major cause of accident, injury, or harm to a worker who performs such task. These
hazards should be the major concern of all who are involved in a certain job or work.

It is important to distinguish hazard, risk and exposure when undertaking risk

management.

o Hazard is the potential for harm, or adverse effect on an employee‘s health. Anything
which may cause injury or ill health to anyone at or near a workplace is a hazard.
o Risk is the likelihood that a hazard will cause injury or ill health to anyone at or near a
workplace. The level of risk increases with the severity of the hazard and the duration
and frequency of exposure.
o Exposure occurs when a person comes into contact with a hazard.

Classes of Hazard

Hazards are classified into five different types. They are:

1. Physical - includes floors, stairs, work platforms, steps, ladders, fire, falling objects,
slippery surfaces, manual handling (lifting, pushing, pulling), excessively loud and
prolonged noise, vibration, heat and cold, radiation, poor lighting, ventilation, air quality
2. Mechanical and/or electrical - includes electricity, machinery, equipment, pressure
vessels, dangerous goods, fork lifts, cranes, hoists
3. Chemical - includes chemical substances such as acids or poisons and those that could
lead to fire or explosion, like pesticides, herbicides, cleaning agents, dusts and fumes
from various processes such as welding
4. Biological - includes bacteria, viruses, mold, mildew, insects, vermin, animals
5. Psychosocial environment - includes workplace stressors arising from a variety of
sources.

Farm emergency procedures regarding safety working environment

1. Identify the potential emergencies.

59
The emergencies that may occur on a crop production farm could include:

 fire
 flood
 typhoon,
 machinery entrapment
 electrical shock,
 snake or spider bite
 chemical exposure,
 injuries,
 illness and
 accidents

2. Provide emergency facilities appropriate for the sorts of emergencies that might
occur on the farm (e.g. deluge showers, eye washes, firefighting equipment, first
aid kits).
3. Make sure that the correct equipment is available to contain and handle any
chemical or other dangerous materials spills that might happen.
4. To help minimize the risk of personal injury or property damage in the event of
an emergency, people working on and visiting the farm need to know and
understand the emergency procedures and their responsibilities.
5. Instruct everyone working on the farm in the emergency response procedures
6. Everyone should know the location of fire alarms, fire extinguishers and first aid
kits; how and where to contact emergency services; and where to safely assemble
in the event of an emergency.

The following factors may increase risk of injury or illness for farm workers:

1. Age – Injury rates are highest among children age 15 and under and adults over 65.
2. Equipment and Machinery – Most farm accidents and fatalities involve machinery.
Proper machine guarding and doing equipment maintenance according to
manufacturers ‘recommendations can help prevent accidents.

FARM WORKS THAT INVOLVE USING CHEMICALS AND HAZARDOUS TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

1. Spraying Chemicals

Many different chemicals are used on a farm including pesticides. These

chemicals are used to fertilize and control pests such as insects, weeds, mollusk,
etc. Most of these chemicals are applied by spraying

Examples of chemical hazards:

A. Spraying in a strong wind and the spray drifting over a dam or the farm house.

60
 B. Washing spray equipment and the water running into open drains, collecting
in puddles, or running into stockyards or dams.
C. Containers or chemicals left lying around. Empty containers lying in a heap.

Some ways you can reduce the risk of hazards from chemicals are:

A. Use personal protective equipment such as respirators, waterproof clothes,

rubber gloves, and waterproof footwear.
B. Make sure chemicals are safely stored and cupboards locked.
C. Never spray chemicals on days when there is a high wind.
D. Know first aid procedures.
E. Keep a list of all hazardous substances used on the farm.

Safe use of chemicals

A. Consider if a chemical substance is really needed.

B. Eliminate a hazardous substance, or if that is not possible, substitute it with
less hazardous one.
C. Safe work practices or personal protective equipment should be used
D. Keep records of farm chemicals.

2. Land Preparation Using Tractor

A. Victims fall off or are thrown from the tractor

B. Run over by either the tractor or an implement being towed, or both.
C. Overturn Safety Reminders

A. Tractors are not passenger vehicles.

B. Use seat belts when driving tractors.
C. ROPS will protect the operator from serious injuries.

Causes of run over accidents

C. Sudden stops
D. Driving over holes, stumps and debris, or a sharp turn

How to prevent runover

A. Never allow riders on tractors.

B. Discuss with family members and farm workers the potential risks of riding tractor.
C. It's also helpful to post 'no riders' decals on all tractors to remind others about the
policy.
D. Use or provide other vehicles that allow passengers, such as trucks or cars, when
transportation is needed to fields or remote work sites.

61
 3. Cutting Trees Using Chainsaws

A chainsaw makes light work of felling and cutting up trees but treat it with respect! A
chainsaw can easily slice through muscle or bone if it kicks back towards you.
It's essential to get training from a qualified person before you use a chainsaw.

Examples of chainsaw hazards:

A. Chainsaw kickback, caused when the upper part of the bar nose contacts a solid
object or is pinched. This throws the guide bar back towards you and can cause
serious injury.
B. Using a small saw and bar to fell a big tree.
C. Felling large shelterbelt trees, or trees with a heavy lean or on steep slopes.
D. Felling trees with stem rot or a species prone to splitting.

Some ways you can reduce the risk of hazards from chainsaws are:

A. Know your saw and how to use the safety devices.

B. Wear and use the correct personal safety equipment.
C. You need: FOOTWEAR - boots with steel toe caps.
LEG PROTECTION - chainsaw operator's safety trousers or chaps.

SAFETY HELMET, EARMUFFS rated Grade 4

EYE PROTECTION - goggles in dusty conditions or a helmet visor if there's a
danger of flying debris.
D. Check the work area for hazards such as branches or tree tops that could fall.
E. Check that your saw is in good order and adjusted to the manufacturer's
specifications.
F. Do not over-reach or cut above shoulder height

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Personal protective equipment (PPE) can reduce the number and severity of farm work
related injuries and illnesses. Personal protective equipment not only helps protect people but
also improves productivity and profits. Farmers and ranchers can share in these benefits by
using the appropriate protective equipment for themselves, family members and employees
when the job and its potential hazards call for it.

• Protect your head with a hard hat when performing

construction work, trimming trees, repairing machinery, and
doing other jobs with head injury risks.

• Use a sun safety hat (one with a wide brim and neck protection)
to assist in the prevention of skin cancer.

62
 • Protect your vision with appropriate safety eyewear (safety
glasses, goggles, face-shields) when applying pesticides,
fertilizers, working in the shop, or in heavy dust conditions.

• Protect your hearing with acoustic earmuffs or plugs when

operating noisy equipment such as grain dryers, feed grinders,
older tractors, chain saws, etc.

• Protect your lungs with the correct respiratory equipment

(dust masks, cartridge respirators, gas masks, air packs) when
working in dusty or moldy conditions, spray painting, applying
chemicals, working in bins, tanks, silos, and manure storage
places.

Cleaning, Storing and Waste Management

Protect Tools from the Elements

Blades such as electric hedge trimmer blades, hoe, shovel, and other metal surfaces can be
sprayed with lubricant oil. Spray the blades then turn them on to make sure oil works into all
areas. All electrical and petrol gardening equipment need to be covered with a blanket or
sheet if kept in the shed. This will prevent dust and dirt getting to them.

General cleaning procedures:

The farmer and/or farm workers responsible for cleaning must adhere as much as possible to
the following procedures:

• Be properly trained on the cleaning procedures.

• Develop a cleaning program and schedule according to the recommended frequency and
the cleaning program should be monitored to ensure its effectiveness.
• Cleaning must not take place while fresh vegetables are been harvested, packed,
handled, and stored.
• Water that is used for cleaning must be safe.
• The cleaning of equipment, tools, and containers must take place in a designated area
away from field and the storage of agricultural inputs and fresh vegetables.
• When using cleaning and disinfection chemicals, the farmer and/or farm workers must
become familiar with the instruction use of these products.
• Strictly adhere to all precautionary statements and mixing instructions.

63
 • Protect equipment‘s, tools, containers and fresh vegetables when working with any
chemicals.

Cleaning re-usable containers:

The farmer and/or farm workers responsible for cleaning re-usable containers must adhere as
much as possible to the following procedures:

• Remove as much as possible plant debris, soil, and residues of any kind, use a brush or
appropriate tool when necessary.
• Inspect containers for physical damage which might injure, spoil, and contaminate fresh
vegetables, if found, repair them.
• Inspect containers for any missed plant debris, soil and residues, if found, re-clean.
• If cleaning and/or disinfection chemicals are used, follow label instructions for mixing.
• Rinse containers with clean water.
• When possible, containers should be placed in the full sun for rapid drying.
• Store re-usable containers properly to avoid contamination.

Cleaning equipments, tools and garbage cans:

The farmer and/or farm workers responsible for cleaning the equipment (e.g. tables, racks,
plastic sheet, etc.), tools (e.g. secateurs, knifes, brushes, etc.) and garbage cans must adhere as
much as possible to the following procedures:

• Remove as much as possible plant debris, soil, and residues of any kind. Use a brush or
another appropriate tool when necessary.
• Inspect equipment for physical damage which might injure, spoil and contaminate fresh
vegetables.
• Inspect equipments, tools, and garbage cans for any missed plant debris, soil, and
residues, if found, clean again.
• If cleaning and/or disinfection chemicals are used, follow label instructions for mixing.
• As required, apply cleaning materials such as detergent and/or disinfection chemicals,
and ensure that no spots are missed.
• Rinse with safe water, if there are parts of the equipment that cannot be rinsed with
water, use a clean wet towel and follow the same procedures for cleaning.
• Ensure that small equipments and tools do not touch the ground floor after the cleaning
procedures.
• When possible, place in the full sun for rapid drying.
• Store equipment and tools properly to avoid contamination.

Cleaning areas for handling and storing fresh produce:

The farmer and farm workers responsible for cleaning these areas must adhere as much as
possible to the following procedures:

64
 • Unplug any electrical equipment and if possible, cover with plastic electrical motors,
electrical boxes, connections, light fixtures, etc. Do not use packaging materials for this
task.
• Remove trash and any accumulated plant debris from the floors.
• Using low pressure water for,
Rinse the entire ceiling infrastructure and light fixtures to remove any dust and soil
build up.
Rinse walls, windows and doors from the top downward

Rinse the entire floor surface to remove any soil build up. Be careful not to splash
water onto equipment.

• If necessary, scrub areas with brush and cleaning materials such as detergent, and ensure
that no spots are missed.
• After scrubbing areas with cleaning materials, rinse surface areas as described previously
wash out drains; be careful not to splash water onto equipment.
• If cleaning and/or disinfection chemicals are used, follow label instructions for mixing.

Cleaning hygienic facilities:

The farmer and/or farm workers responsible for cleaning hygienic facilities must adhere as
much as possible to the following procedures:

• Pick up trash from the floors and put in a trash can.

• By using the proper detergent, clean toilets, sinks, and any other fixtures.
• Using low pressure water, rinse the entire floor surface to remove any soil build up.
• If cleaning and/or disinfection chemicals are used, follow label instructions for mixing.
• As required, apply cleaning materials or disinfection chemicals to entire floor surface
area, scrub areas with brush if needed, and ensure that no spots are missed.
• Rinse floor and drains.
• Remove excess water and allow drying out at room temperature.
• Ensure that hygienic facilities have enough toilet paper, soap, and disposable towel.

Technique in storing chemicals

Chemicals are used on farms for a variety of purposes. The safe management of chemicals
requires access to information and responsible action. Manufacturers, suppliers, and users of
farm chemicals all have an important role to play. Chemical substances present different types
of risks to people‘s health, safety, and the environment. For this reason there are different
laws controlling them. The purpose of these laws is to ensure that chemicals are used safely
and efficiently so that risks to human health, the environment and damage to property are
minimized.

Safe Management of chemicals involves:

• correct labeling and packaging;

• provision of material safety data sheets (MSDS);

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 • safe transport, storage, use, and disposal of substances.

Labeling and Packaging of Chemicals

Chemicals must be supplied in packages that are correctly labeled and suitable for the
substance. Information provided on the label will depend on the type of substance and the
risks associated with it. Items to look for are:

1. Signal words such as ‗CAUTION‘, ‗POISON‘ or ‗DANGEROUS POISON‘, used

for scheduled poisons – a signal word alerts users to the possibility of poisoning if the
substance is swallowed, inhaled or absorbed through the skin.

2. The Dangerous Goods (ADG) diamond, if there is an immediate risk to health or

safety e.g. flammable liquids.

3. Risk phrases describing the type of health effects e.g. ‗irritating the skin‘, and
safety phrases stating precautions for safe handling, storage, spills, disposal and fire e.g.
keep away from combustible material‘

Ensure that containers remain labeled

Farmers must ensure that the original labels remain on containers of substances. If a substance
is poured into a second container such as a spray tank then that container must be labeled
with the product name and appropriate risk and safety phrases. These can generally be copied
from the parent container. Labeling is not necessary if a substance is used immediately and its
container is thoroughly cleaned.

There are good reasons for ensuring that proper containers and appropriate labels are
used, including:

• Using food containers to store poisons can result in poisoning due to accidental
swallowing.

• Insurance companies may question liability if something goes wrong and an

unlabeled container has been the cause of an incident.

• Produce cannot be exported if maximum residue limits are exceeded labels

provide advice on permitted use and withholding periods for agricultural and
veterinary chemicals.

Material Safety Data Sheets

Material safety data sheets (MSDS) must be produced by the manufacturer or importer of
hazardous substance.

The MSDS is not just a piece of paper. It provides important and useful advice about
what is in the product, its health effects, safe use and handling, storage, disposal, first aid and
emergency operation. Farmers must obtain the MSDS from their supplier and keep them in a
register where they are available to people who could be exposed to the hazardous substance.

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 The register is a collection of the MSDS and other information which can be kept in a folder,
filing cabinet or other practical system.

The register can be kept in the house, workplace or the chemical store, as long as it
remains accessible to emergency service personnel and any employees who may be exposed
to hazardous substances.

Storage and Transport of Chemicals

Safe storage of farm chemicals is needed to protect them from the elements, restrict access to
them, prevent contamination of the environment, food, or livestock, and ensure separation
from other incompatible chemicals. Arrangements must be in place to contain any spillage of
the chemical.

After considering the potential risk to people‘s health or to the environment, a farmer might
decide that a locked shed with a roof and concrete floor, which is bounded to contain any
spills, is the best way to provide safe storage.

Remember, you should never store oxidizing agents with fuels. That is – never store
substances labeled yellow diamond with a red diamond.

Safe transport of farm chemicals depends on what the substance is, how much there is, where
it is to be transported and what else is to be transported with it. In general, small quantities
(less than 250 liters) can be transported on vehicle provided that the container is properly
secured and safe from spillage.

Disposal of Farm Chemicals

Empty farm chemical containers and unwanted chemicals need to be disposed of properly.
Prior to disposal of empty containers, wash the container out three times and use the rinse
water to dilute further batches of the chemical to working strength.

To wash a container you do not need to fill it each time. If you only have six liters of water, it is
more efficient to use three washes of two liters each, than it is to rinse once with the full six
liters.

ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS

Presidential Decree (PD) 1152, ―the Philippine Environmental Code ‖ which took effect in
1977, provides a basis for an integrated waste management regulation starting from waste
source to methods of disposal. PD 1152 has further mandated specific guidelines to manage
municipal wastes (solid and liquid), sanitary landfill and incineration, and disposal sites in the
Philippines. In 1990, the Philippine Congress enacted the Toxic Substances, Hazardous and
Nuclear Wastes Control Act, commonly known as Republic Act (RA) 6969, a law designed to
respond to increasing problems associated with toxic chemicals and hazardous and nuclear
wastes. RA 6969 mandates control and management of import, manufacture, process,
distribution, use, transport, treatment, and disposal of toxic substances and hazardous and
nuclear wastes in the country. The Act seeks to protect public health and the environment
from unreasonable risks posed by these substances in the Philippines. Apart from the basic
policy rules and regulations of RA 6969, hazardous waste management must also comply with

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the requirements of other specific environmental laws, such as PD 984 (Pollution Control Law),
PD 1586 (Environmental Impact Assessment System Law), RA 8749 (Clean Air Act) and RA 9003
(Ecological Solid Waste Management Act) and their implementing rules and regulations.

ACTIVITY 8
IDENTIFICATION
1. ___________________is the potential for harm, or adverse effect on an
employee‘s health. Anything which may cause injury or ill health to anyone at or
near a workplace is a hazard.
2. ___________________ is the likelihood that a hazard will cause injury or ill
health to anyone at or near a workplace. The level of risk increases with the severity
of the hazard and the duration and frequency of exposure.
3. ___________________occurs when a person comes into contact with a hazard.

4. ____________________hazards include floors, stairs, work platforms, steps,

ladders, fire, falling objects, slippery surfaces, manual handling (lifting, pushing,
pulling), excessively loud and prolonged noise, vibration, heat and cold, radiation,
poor lighting, ventilation, air quality
5. __________________ hazards include electricity, machinery, equipment,
pressure vessels, dangerous goods, fork lifts, cranes, hoists
6. __________________ hazards include chemical substances such as acids or
poisons and those that could lead to fire or explosion, like pesticides, herbicides,
cleaning agents, dusts and fumes from various processes such as welding
7. __________________ hazards include bacteria, viruses, mold, mildew, insects,
vermin, animals
8. __________________ hazards include workplace stressors arising from a variety
of sources.
9. ___________________the physical or environmental conditions of work which
comply with the prescribed Occupational Health Safety (OHS) standards and which
allow the workers to perform his or her job without or within acceptable exposure
to hazards.
10. ____________________the practices related to production and work process

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Fill-in the blanks:
1. _______________ can reduce the number and severity of farm work related injuries and
illnesses.
2-4 Protect your head with a hard hat when performing
2.________,
3._________, 4._________, with head injury risks.
1. Use a sun safety hat (one with a wide brim and neck protection) to assist in the prevention
of 5.__________.
6-8 Protect your vision with appropriate safety eyewear (6._________, 7___________,
8.___________) when applying pesticides, fertilizers, working in the shop, or in heavy dust
conditions
9-10 Protect your hearing with acoustic earmuffs or plugs when operating noisy equipment
such as 9.__________, 10.________, older tractors, chain saws, etc.

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 UNIT 8
FARM MANAGEMENT AND DECISION-MAKING

Introduction

In this unit the concept of farm management will be introduced. Farm management decisions
will be covered relating to the five capitals, inputs and marketing. The concept of risk will be
introduced as the importance of data and information in management decisions.
Decision-making
is central to farm management. Each decision has an impact on the farm and on the
farm household. Even deciding to do nothing is a decision and has an impact. The more a
farmer is aware of the decision-making processes that affect farm and household, the more
sustainable the enterprise will be and the more likely it will be profitable and sustainable.

Two of the main features for understanding economic decision-making are;

(i) the way farm boundaries are determined
(ii) the ultimate social objectives for which farm goods are produced.

Generally first think of a farm in terms of its physical enterprise boundaries; land, crops,
livestock, fences etc.
The production decision-making boundaries are just the beginning of the decision-making
boundaries of the farm.

The farmer as a manager

Any farmer has two main jobs;
(i) To take care of plants and livestock in order to get useful products
(ii) To manage the farm; that is, making decisions about how to use the farm’s resources.

Farm planning
is thinking ahead about farm activities and making decisions some time before they will
be carried out.
As a farmer becomes more market-orientated, the farmer will need to improve planning and
decision making skills.

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The kind of decisions farmers make as managers can be summarized as follows:
(i) What to produce
(ii) Whether to produce for food, for income, or for both
(iii) How to produce it
(iv) How much to produce
(v) What resources will be used and when
(vi) What inputs to use and where to get them
(vii) How much of the products to sell and when
(viii) Where and to whom to sell the products and at what prices.

Key aspects of decision-making

In order to make fundamental decisions farmers need to develop understanding and skills in
four broad decision areas:

 Diagnosis
 Planning
 Implementing
 Monitoring & Evaluation

Learning how to make decisions in these four areas will put farmers in greater command of the
resources and processes that influence their food security and their income generation. The
four areas flow in a pattern which supports continuous learning processes about what works
best for the farmer.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis means looking at the farm and household as it functioned over some period of
time. For a first diagnosis, the farmer may want to understand how the farm has produced over
several seasons.
Just like a doctor with a patient, a diagnosis will give the farmer important clues about the
‘health’ of the farm.

 How is it producing?
 What is the condition of the farm’s resources?
 Are resources becoming more or less productive?
 How profitable is it?
 Are farm goals being achieved?
 What problems are there?
 What opportunities exist?

Planning
Once diagnosis is complete, planning can begin; decisions about what, how and how
much to produce. Some planning decisions will be based on knowledge; such as how much land
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and labor are available. Other planning decisions will be based on less certain things, such as
rainfall and product prices. The plan will also include an indication of the expected results in
terms of yields and income.

Implementing
Implementing means putting the plan into action. In general, implementing does not
require major decisions. Things may not always work according to plan; less rainfall than
expected, the price of a crop changes etc. During implementation, plans may need to be
adjusted to accommodate such changes.

Monitoring & Evaluation

Monitoring means keeping track of what is happening on the farm and the plan is a
guide for monitoring. Monitoring provides the farmer with the information needed to evaluate
the success of the plan.
Evaluation means judging how well the farm performed when compared to the plan.

 Did things go as planned?

 Were expected yields achieved?
 Were expected incomes reached?

Monitoring and evaluation provide the information the farmer needs to diagnose the farm for
the next season. It is the basis for making the next plan.

Farmers that follow these decision-making steps will have a very powerful process in their
hands. Just like a doctor, they will be able to know the ‘health’ of their farm business. If the
farm is healthy the farmer will know what to do again, if the farm has problems, the farmer will
possibly know why and what to do about it. Such a process will increase the sustainability of the
farm. It will improve the family’s food security and it will make the family’s income more
predictable and reliable.

Resources and farm management

We know that some of the key decisions to be made include:

 What to produce?
 Produce for food, for income, or for both?
 How to produce it?
 How much to produce?
 What resources will be used and when?
 What inputs to use and where to get them?
 How much to sell and when?
 Where and to whom to sell and at what prices?

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Underpinning all these decisions are the resources available to the farmer. Each decision a
farmer makes is essentially about how to utilize farm and household resources.

Resources or capital are categorized into five types:

 Natural capital
 Human capital
 Physical capital
 Financial capital
 Social capital

Each of these capitals is vulnerable. Each is subject to stresses and shocks. There are many
pressures on these resources that may cause them to decrease in value or reduce in their
productive capacity. There are other pressures and events which may completely deplete or
remove the resource.

Farmers have two areas of concern:

1. Productivity of resources.
2. Profits.
To achieve both objectives, farmers will need to consider very carefully decisions about
resource utilization.

Farming for profits does not imply that one must sacrifice resources to maximize income.
The real goal of market-oriented farm management is long-term sustained profits from farming;
good farm management demands sustainable use of resources. Maintaining and improving the
value and productive power of farm resources, sustains profits. Good farm management
embraces sustainable agriculture and supports sustained profits from the farm.
One of the key decision areas of a good farm manager is maintaining the farm’s resources.
Reducing the vulnerability of a farmer’s natural, human, physical, financial and social capital will
help ensure that they are productive for many years.
Maintaining control over the long-term value and productive power of resources is a very
important part of market-oriented farm management.
Farming for high profits in the short-term without taking steps to sustain resources will
eventually lead to lower profits.
Good farm management looks for ways to put these resources to work in such a way that the
farm will be profitable in both the short and long term.

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Farm management decisions — natural capital

Farmers do not farm in isolation. They take from and influence natural capital. Natural capital is
the first resource base on which a farm is established and run. Farmers need to be very aware
of the inter- relationship of their farms with their natural resource base.
Natural capital is run down and destroyed by one of two forces:
1. Acts of nature such as droughts, wind and floods
2. Deliberate acts of humans such as over-grazing, harmful production practices.

Some actions that can be taken by farm managers to enable land remaining productive and to
help make sure that common property also remains productive are:

 Improved land reclamation

 Introduction of soil conservation measures
 Development of better integrated on-farm livestock production activities.
 While each of these steps take place at a cost, they have long-term benefits. They will
contribute to the sustained profitability of the farm.

Farm management decisions: human capital

Decisions about human capital on the farm are among the most important decisions made by a
farmer. Decisions about human capital represent choices in technologies. They represent
productivity, technology choices and how the farm family earns its income. Human capital
decisions touch on societal and cultural issues as well as on more purely management issues.
Some technical or practical factors that might also be taken into account include:

 Issues of land rights and inheritance

 Who is allowed to work outside the home.

Farmers need to think carefully about options for providing power on the farm and to plan for
them in advance.
Some of the options might include:

 Labor saving technologies

 Changing farm enterprises and combinations
 Increasing productivity

Most farmers could improve the productivity of their labor by adopting better tools that have
been tried out successfully elsewhere.
This may include replacing hand-labor with animal power by using drought animals, tractors or
motorized implements. Each of these is an additional cost to the farm.
Farmers should decide to use labor saving technologies only when sufficient returns can be
generated to cover the extra costs.

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Market-oriented farmers should consider adding or changing crops carefully. This can be a very
effective way to increase farm profitability and cope with labor productivity problems.
Some possible changes include:
Intercropping
Introducing a new crop

There are a number of ways to increase labor productivity;

 Introducing new technology

 Producing more per hectare
 Choosing the right enterprises to produce
 Improving farm layout
 Using improved tools and working methods
 Practicing good labor relations and paying wages in relation to the amount and quality
of work done
 Good relations means treating laborers justly, paying fair wages and providing good
supervision for hired labor.
NOTE:
Increased productivity based on intensification of cropping techniques together with
mechanization often results in increases in labor constraints.

Farm Management decisions; physical and financial capital

Decisions made today limit the decisions you can make tomorrow. Farmers need to make both
short-term and long-term decisions about physical and financial capital. Short-term decisions
affect long-term decisions and long-term decisions affect short-term decisions. Capital invested
in livestock, perennial crops, orchard trees or buildings cannot be readily changed into another
form of capital which might earn a higher rate of return. Once capital has been invested in
durable assets it is committed and flexibility is lost. Capital is always limited. It should be used
where it will add most to profits. Different enterprises involve issues when making long- term
capital decisions.

In terms of trees
The capital cost involved in tree production is equal to the cost of growing that tree up to the
stage of full production. Taking good care of trees and controlling diseases and pests is very
important to protect the money that has been spent growing the tree. If the tree dies before it
has produced anything, capital is lost.
In terms of livestock
The capital cost involved in livestock production is equal to the cost of keeping that animal up
to the stage it reaches full production. Animals being kept for meat, milk, eggs or other
products should be kept fit and healthy, so to produce efficiently. Only in this way can the
farmers get high gross margins for their livestock. Farmers want and need to protect
investments. If the animal dies before producing, capital is lost. In cases where farmers cannot
afford to raise livestock, they can also hire.

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In terms of the building
The cost of buildings can be kept very low if the farmers and farm families do most of the
building. Careful repair and maintenance of buildings will make the buildings last longer and
this will reduce depreciation cost. Where possible and practical, a farmer can hire a building.
Buildings that are hired should be put to maximum productive use. An empty building is a
waste of money. There is no use in filling a building with stored produce where it will be losing
value; if produce can be sold at a good price, it should be sold.
In terms of machinery and equipment
Investment in machinery and equipment can be very profitable if the farmer can manage the
finance and if it increases profitability. Mechanization can be costly both in terms of buying it
and in terms of repairs and maintenance. In many countries animal traction with draught
animals is an immediate way of mechanizing.
Mechanization through animal traction

The investment includes the animals and the equipment they will pull such as a plough, a
planter, a cart or other farm implements.
Motorized machinery and equipment, intermediate power driven equipment
This includes two-wheel tractors and light four-wheel tractors. Farmers can also invest in small-
scale post-harvest equipment like threshers, mills or oil-presses; adding value to their products
before taking them to market.
Heavier power-driven equipment
This includes tractors, combine harvesters or trailers. Hiring is an option that can be used by
farmers and this saves on the cost of buying the machine. Hiring is often cheaper than buying.
Cooperative use of machinery or sharing is another option. Shared use of equipment by two or
more farmers has often been more successful than cooperatives.

Short-term decisions about physical and financial capital

Farms require many decisions that affect the farm for a single season;

 Which seed to buy?

 When to plant?
 Which market to use?

Short-term decisions about physical and financial capital Farms also require short-term
decisions which impact on the long-term sustainability of the farm. Often these decisions
involve choices about what to do with limited cash. Should the farmer repair a weakening fence
this year, or use the cash to buy all the seed needed?

Farm management decisions: social capital

Some farm management decisions involving social capital affect the farm directly. Other farm
management decisions involving social capital affect common property, such as in the case of
common forests, grazing land and water to which the farm family has access.

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Decisions affecting the farm directly:
1. What are the sources of crop land available to me? How do I access that land?
2. What sources of labor are available to me? How do I access it?
3. What sources of finance are available to me? Can I borrow from family
members? Should I be part of a group to negotiate better terms?
4. Should I buy my own tractor or alternatively hire from a tractor pool? Is it
possible to borrow from a neighbor?
5. Should I market my own farm produce? Should I be part of an organized
marketing group?
6. Should I buy my own inputs and materials? Should I work with others to buy in
bulk?
7. How can I access water for irrigation? Is there adequate water for irrigation?
8. Should we establish a community forest plantation?
9. How should we as a community treat the watershed? How should we organize
ourselves?
10. What are the sources of grazing land available to me? How do I access this land
and vegetation? What are my responsibilities?
All these decisions have an impact on the farmer’s resource base and income. Farm household
decisions are inseparable from the social relations of farming.
Social capital can lower the costs of performing farm operations. In this way it can improve the
efficiency of farming. This often results in financial savings and increased income. Farmers
coming together as a group facilitate cooperation and foster confidence.
Social capital is useful in promoting collective action such as water saving and communal
grazing. It helps to ensure that farmers get greater benefits when negotiating with powerful
bodies. Social capital can also promote better use of natural and other resources, if managed
correctly.

Joint or group interventions contribute to the formation of social capital by developing

expertise within the group such as;

 Working together for a common good

 Learning and implementing formal rules and procedures
 Democratic election of leaders
 Participatory decision-making in allocation of credit and inputs for farm enterprise
development
Social capital arrangements provide farmers and other members of the rural community with
full control over the use of resources.
There are many benefits from such an association at grass roots level:

 Higher productivity
 Reduced costs
 Increased efficiency
 Building of democratic group organization
 Enhanced self-reliance among the poor

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The strength of social capital arrangements lies in the processes that they offer and their
economic and social benefits.

ACTIVITY 9

Make your own Farm Planning (REFER THIS ACTIVITY TO YOUR INSTRUCTOR FOR FURTHER
INSTRUCTIONS)
Use these following summarized assumptions to make a decision to create your own
farm planning and establish Farm Production.
Content of your Farm Planning
INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT

OBJECTIVES
ASSUMPTIONS

 What to produce

 Whether to produce for food, for income, or for both.

 How to produce it.

 How much to produce.

 What resources will be used and when.

 What inputs to use and where to get them.

 How much of the products to sell and when.

 Where and to whom to sell the products and at what prices.

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 UNIT 9
Inputs, possible markets and farm management

Farmers need to know which inputs to use and where to get them. They need to determine
whether the additional cost of using inputs will generate sufficient additional income to cover
these costs.
Inputs can be obtained from a number of sources:

 The farmer’s own farm

 Another farm
 Private suppliers
 Local general dealers
 Farmer cooperatives
 Product distributors

In each case, the farmer must consider the price, quality and availability offered by the various
sources of inputs.

When deciding on inputs and equipment there are a number of questions a farmer should ask:

 Is it technically effective?
 Is it of dependable quality?
 Is its price reasonable?
 Is it available locally when a farmer needs to use it?
 Is it offered for sale in appropriate sizes or amounts?

Technical effectiveness:

 Seed, fertilizer or other items must be technically effective.

 Does the seed produce as promised?
 Does the fertilizer perform as intended?
 Does the livestock medicine really work?
 Does the implement do the job it is supposed to do?
 Is the input or equipment appropriate to the farmer’s farm system?

Quality and dependability:

 Sustained quality is another important characteristic for inputs and equipment.

 Is equipment built to last?
 Does it come with a guarantee?
 Is the seed within its expiry date?
 Do the pesticides contain any illegal chemicals?
 Have the feeds been properly mixed?
 Is the supplier reliable and honest?

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Price relationships
A farmer should not buy fertilizer or other inputs just because its price is low. The inputs must
also be effective and of a certain quality. In all events the farmers must take into account the
price, especially the relationship between prices and inputs and the prices the farmer can get
for farm products.

Availability when needed

The need for each input is highly seasonal. Seeds must be available shortly before planting and
can seldom be sold at any other time of the year. Fertilizers must be applied at specific times
and few farmers have facilities for storing them satisfactorily. The same is true of pesticides,
although small amounts of them can be held for future use.

Quantity offered for sale

The size of the containers in which many supplies are offered for sale is also important.
Frequently containers hold more than a small farm needs at any one time and the farmer may
not have facilities for storing the extra amount until the following year when it may be needed
again.

Choice of input and equipment supplier

Farmers also need to know who are reliable and trustworthy suppliers of inputs, equipment,
machinery, spare parts and maintenance supplies. Farmers also need to know what each
supplier offers in terms of prices, quality and availability of inputs and equipment.

Operations and maintenance

One of the key factors in profitability is maintaining capital. The better equipment is
maintained, the longer it will retain its productive power. Good farm management includes
care for all of the physical capital on the farm. Maintenance costs money, so as with all farm
management decisions, the value of the maintenance must be measured against the income it
generates.
Decisions about the Market
Decisions about markets are among the most important decisions farmers will make. They can
also be among the most difficult to make because markets generally represent the unknown.
Farmers cannot be certain of the supply of farm products, the demand for certain products and
the market prices.

Farmers can make decisions which are informed by knowledge of how markets have performed
in the past.

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They can make decisions based on the best available information regarding the following
market issues:

 The market
 The product
 The marketing chain
 What can farmers learn about the market for the products they want to sell?

The market: markets and buyers

• How is the crop/livestock produce marketed at present?
• What are the main markets and where is produce sold?
• What has been the demand for the products?
• Who buys the produce and when? In what quantities?
• What is the best day for arrival in the market?
• Who are the most important intermediaries or buyers?
• Which buyers have the best reputation?

The market: prices and pricing

• What prices are paid?
• Is there a wide variation between the prices received by farmers for similar produce in
the same area? If so, why?
• Is there competition between buyers?
• Do buyers provide credit to farmers and on what conditions?
• Do buyers expect credit from farmers in the form of deferred payment?
• What are current price levels, price policies, conditions of sale and payment terms found
in the market?
• Is the farmer a price taker or a price maker?
• What market prices are obtained (average, maximum, minimum, effect of different
quality standards and seasonal conditions on price)?
• How can premium prices be attained?
• If the farmer is a price maker, what price strategy should be followed? What is the
percentage mark-up? Does the set price leave a margin for profit?
• What are the various cost factors to be considered in determining the pricing policy?
• How does the location of the market affect prices?
• How does time of day affect prices?
• How much does the price normally fluctuate during the year?
• What credit does the buyer require and how does this affect price?
• Is the market aware of the product?
• Does the market know the volume available and how to purchase the product?
• Does the product need promotion?
• How can producers give advance notice of changes in their ability to provide the goods?
• What are the overall
• What factors are likely to affect sales (weather, special festivals, day of arrival in
market)?
• What are the potentials and techniques for developing sales?
• What products are farmers interested in producing?
• What market forms (fresh, processed)?

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 • How competitive is the market?
• Who are the main suppliers to that market?
• Is the marketing plan being adjusted to reflect changes in competition?
• What demand needs to be satisfied?
• How large is the market? How much can the market absorb?
• Which market is the farmer willing and able to satisfy?
• What percentage of produce should farmers be interested in producing?
• What are the grades and quality standards of the produce?
• What type of packaging is required? What is the cost of packaging?

The marketing chain: product preparation and packing

• Who can/should prepare and pack the product according to the market requirements?
• What is the cost of preparation and packing?

The marketing chain: handling

• Who can/should handle the product?

The marketing chain: transport

• What is the best way to transport goods to the market?
• Who provides transportation?
• What is the unit price of transport to the different markets?
• How long do the journeys take? How frequently does the transport leave the area?
• How efficient are the transport links?
• Should the transport of produce be pooled or sent individually?

The marketing chain: delivery of products

• How should the product be delivered?
• What method of transportation does the consumer require?
• What methods of transportation does the producer or trader have?
• Can small farmers meet the markets’ delivery requirements?
• Is the crop/livestock produce stored? If so, where and by whom?
• How much of the product should be stored?
• What storage arrangements are required?
• Are storage and stocking required to meet the buyers’ delivery
schedule?
• Are associations and cooperatives a necessary link in reaching the market?
• Are goods delivered directly to the buyer by producers?
• What size units does the buyer require?

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Supporting farmers with inputs and making decisions.
You have an important role in assisting farmers making management decisions about inputs,
equipment and markets. You can help farmers to ask the right questions about sources of
inputs and equipment, and about the inputs and equipment themselves.

You can provide farmers with information about inputs and equipment including:
• Research information on the technical effectiveness of the inputs and equipment
• Experiences of other farmers with the inputs and equipment
• Availability of inputs and equipment in the area.

You can help farmers with reliable information about markets including:
• Prices
• Quality requirements
• Handling
• Packaging and transport
• Niche marketing opportunities

Risk, vulnerability and sustainability

What is risk?
Farmers do not know whether rainfall will be good or bad over the season. They do not
know if the crop will be infected by disease. Risks are usually not under the control of the
farmers themselves, so they develop strategies to cope with them.

Types of risk
Risks have a direct impact on the farm family and their options to increase profitability and
farm income. Good farm management includes making decisions to reduce vulnerability to risk.

1. Production and technical risk

Crop and livestock performance are affected by weather, soils, pests, diseases and wildlife.
These cannot be predicted accurately. Farmers experience a wide range of weather conditions
and refer to them simply as a ‘good’ year, ‘normal’ year and ‘bad’ year.

Poor rainfall leads to poor plant growth which may lead to reduced livestock fodder supplies
and livestock production. Pests or diseases can also cause major yield losses. Seed is planted
and inputs such as fertilizer are applied before the farmer knows what the weather will be.
Inputs do not change the weather.

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 2. Marketing or price risk
The prices of farm products may vary from year to year or even on a daily basis. These changes
are usually beyond the control of the individual farmer. Supply of a product is affected by a
combination of production decisions made by many farmers and the weather. Demand for a
product is affected by the level of income of consumers, the strength of the general economy,
the supply of competing products, and by changing tastes and eating habits. Costs of
production are another source of price risk. While input prices do not usually change suddenly,
they generally increase steadily year to year. Some inputs such as petrol and diesel are subject
to sudden prices increases.

3. Financial risk
Financial risk occurs when farmers borrow money to cover their farm and family needs. Risk
may be caused by uncertainty about the interest rates lenders charge and their willingness to
continue lending. On the other end, financial risk is affected by the ability of the farm to
generate the cash flows necessary for debt payments.

4. Institutional risk
Institutions include organizations and businesses on which farmers rely for inputs, markets,
information or finance. Unpredictable changes in the provision of services such as the supply of
credit, purchased inputs and information from traditional and modern institutions are also risks
faced by farmers.

5. Human and personal risk

Human risk refers to problems of human health and personal relationships that affect the farm
business. Illness and death threaten and disrupt farm performance through loss of labor or
reduced productivity of labor. Labor migration to towns and cities reduces availability of labor
to farms.

Production, marketing, financial, institutional and personal risks exist on most farms and are
often interrelated. The ability to repay debts depends on production levels and prices received
for produce sold. Financing of production depends on the ability to borrow capital and the
performance of the institution to supply capital in time. The different types of risk often need to
be considered together.

Vulnerability
can be defined as the ability to recover from a stress or a shock. Stresses erode the
productivity or value of capital. Part of coping with risk is reducing vulnerability. The less
vulnerable the resources, the more sustainable the farm.

High vulnerability leads to greater negative effect of risk. Risks influence the amount and costs
of inputs farmers use. These risks also affect crop yields and product prices. As a result, farm
profits are always uncertain. But not all of these factors have the same effect on farm profits.

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As a result of vulnerability to risk, farmers often make a trade-off between maximizing profits
and minimizing risks.

Strategy: Choosing low risk enterprises

Based on their knowledge and experience, farmers may select enterprises or crop varieties that
are usually reliable in preference to enterprises that result in variable yields between one year
and the next. Low risk enterprises often give lower, but more predictable incomes.

Strategy: Diversification, growing many things

Diversifying means producing more than one enterprise together on the farm. This can be done
by producing more than one crop or combining with livestock. Diversifying is done with the
expectation that all enterprises will not fail together. If one crop does not do well, the farmer
has other crops on which to rely. This way, the farmers’ income is not totally dependent on a
single enterprise. Intercropping is a common form of diversification, but the benefit of
diversification is often offset by increased costs. The second enterprise may make very little
money. The income the farmer makes from the two crops may not be as high as if the farmer
specialized in growing just one crop.

Strategy: Growing crops on different land parcels or plots

Farmers also rotate crops to protect their soils and stop diseases building up. This reduces costs
and increases yields. Growing crops in different locations on the farm reduces the impact of
localized disease and micro- climatic factors. But in order to increase the scale of their crop
production, farmers must cultivate over a wide area which costs more money; the protection
from risk needs to be weighed against the reduced income. Staggered planting of the same
crop can be used to ensure an even supply of food over as long a period as possible. Staggered
planting can help cope with uncertain rainfall. Earlier planted crops may suffer, but later
planted crops may still do well because the rains come at a better time for them.

Strategy: Selecting and changing production practices

Farmers can spread risk by using different production program. Some farmers may buy inputs
that control diseases or pests or support animal health. These inputs reduce the chances of low
yields. Farmers may use pesticides and fungicides to reduce the risk of low yields. Profits are
also affected by the prices of inputs, using costly inputs could increase the risk of income
shortfall; more stable yields from using costly inputs may not lead to a more stable income.
Farmers may use low cost, conservation practices such as composting and mulching as a way to
manage risks and reduce the amount and cost of purchased inputs. Determining whether or not
an input reduces risk depends on the type of risks that the farmer is trying to address. The
added cost of doing this has to be compared against what could happen if they did not.

Strategy: Maintaining flexibility

Flexibility of the farming system allows farmers to shift from one cropping pattern to another
without a negative effect on farm profitability. Farmers may change the area of land planted or

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the number of livestock kept if, for example, market prices change markedly. To avoid risking
expenditure on inputs, a farmer may decide not to plant when rainfall is low. Intensive small
stock farmers raising pigs or poultry might vary the use of their housing in response to price
changes. If farmers believe prices will be good, they may increase production by intensifying
the use of the facilities. If they believe prices will be low, they may try to increase efficiency and
cut costs. However, the costs associated with maintaining flexibility are often higher than
farmers are willing to pay.

Strategy: Maintaining reserves

Reserves are a quantity of something stored for the future or for possible emergencies. They
can be kept by farmers in the form of money, physical inputs, final products and food. Keeping
reserves of inputs and products could protect farmers from the risk of price changes. Food
reserves also provide some security against the risk of crop failure.

Strategy: Spreading crop and livestock sales

Spreading sales means making several sales of a product during a year and can be used to
reduce risk. Farmers with marketing flexibility can spread cash sales and obtain a price similar
to the seasonal average price. This method of selling enables a farmer to avoid selling all
production at the lowest price in the market.

Strategy: Partial processing

Drying perishable products such as vegetables, fruits and meats can also be used as a strategy
to reduce risk. Dried foods can be sold or used at times when the particular food item is out of
season or in short supply. This strategy can be used together with spreading sales and
maintaining reserves.

Strategy: Traditional institutions and social arrangements

The customs and organization of traditional society tend to provide the individual family with a
measure of security against risk.

Strategy: Maintaining resources

One of the key strategies to reduce the effect of risk is to maintain the farm’s resources.

Sustainability
Sustainability is in a sense a balance between risk and vulnerability.
In terms of farm management, it is useful to assess sustainability in terms of the vulnerability of
the farm’s resources.

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Such an assessment can be made in terms of the following basic factors:
• Availability
• Accessibility
• Affordability
• Appropriateness
• Reliability (trustworthiness)

Availability
A resource is considered available when it is in regular supply. In some African countries, there
is a shortage of land. In other countries labour is in short supply. If farm profits are dependent
on a resource that is in short supply, the farm is vulnerable and therefore less sustainable.

Accessibility

A resource is considered accessible when it is available and within reach of the farmer. In many
African countries, land is accessible only to men, not women. Markets often require
membership, and membership is exclusive. Some social capital is accessible only by select
members of the community. Similarly, credit may be conditioned upon private ownership of
land, making it not accessible to many smallholder farmers. If a farmer plans a farm around a
resource that the farmer cannot readily access, then the farm is more vulnerable, making it less
sustainable.

Affordability
A resource is considered affordable when it is available at a price which allows for profits. Many
technologies are not accessible by smallholder farmers because the technologies are available
only at high prices. Sometimes this is a problem of quantities, other times it is a problem of
exclusivity.

Appropriateness
Many resources are available and accessible, but not appropriate to the farmer’s particular
situation. Often inputs such as seed and fertilizer are available only in quantities too large for
the farmer to handle. Often equipment choices are limited to those which require large land
sizes to make them viable. Another aspect of appropriateness is social or cultural acceptability.
In many African cultures, pork is taboo. So even if it is a profitable enterprise, it may be
inappropriate. As with other factors, when the profitability of a farm relies on a resource that is
inappropriate, the farm is less sustainable.

Reliability (Trustworthiness)
A resource is considered reliable when it produces consistent performance or behavior. Land
that is known to be in good condition is reliable. A supplier that supplies the right inputs at the
right time is reliable.

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Reliability is linked to trustworthiness.
• Can a farmer trust the supplier to deliver according to his/her word?
• Will the equipment or seed variety perform as advertised or promised?
• Is the market information usually correct?

If a farmer must rely on a resource (particularly a human resource such as labor) that is not
reliable or trustworthy, the farmer is highly vulnerable and the farm is not sustainable.

STORAGE OF FARM EQUIPMENT

General Maintenance
All equipment should be thoroughly cleaned with a high-pressure washer to remove dirt and
trash residue. Accumulated trash and dirt can create fire hazards, electrical malfunctions,
corrosion and rust of equipment, which may result in breakdowns next season. Important areas
to clean on all self-propelled machines are the engine compartment, heat exchangers/radiator
fans and the area under the control centers. Once equipment is clean, farmers should
thoroughly service and lubricate the machine.
Also check for worn belts, loose bolts, oil leaks and the condition of all hoses, in addition
to operational/ performance checks. Off-season is the time to make those necessary repairs
and adjustments to avoid undue downtime during the next busy season. Oftentimes,
implement dealers offer service specials during the off-seasons, which can mean real savings.
Watch for them. This also is a good time to apply touch-up paint to scratched or corroded
areas.
Properly maintained equipment that looks good will command a higher trade-in value
when die farmer decides to replace it. Many operators follow a good cleanup with a wax job to
help protect the equipment from the elements, such as corrosion and oxidation. Most
importantly, when equipment is checked carefully, small problems can be identified and
corrected before they cause downtime next season.

Engine/Power
Train After cleaning the outside of the cooling system, check the coolant level amount of anti-
freeze protection and its condition. Dependent upon your service interval, it may be necessary
to drain the system, flush the radiator and refill with proper coolant and service the coolant
filter as required, if so equipped. Harmful acids can accumulate in your equipment's oil pan,
particularly during light-load applications. These acids can damage engine compounds over the
long winter months. Farmers should pay particular attention to the condition of their crankcase
oil during winter operation
Keep in mind, lightly loaded engines during cold weather face one of the most severe
engine applications. The engine never really reaches its proper internal operating temperature
even though the coolant temperature may be normal. Regularly service your engine and
replace both oil and fuel filters. There are several classifications of lubricants listed in the
operator’s manual. We suggest owners read the operator’s manual thoroughly to ensure they
are using the proper lubricant. Contaminants can cause extensive damage to hydraulic systems.

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Dealership recommends that producers analyze the hydraulic fluid in all equipment regularly
and replace it as recommended. Downtime can be avoided by timely action now by checking
for small leaks. Condensation is the biggest threat to fuel systems next to using a poor grade of
fuel high in sulfur content. Equipment owners should check their tractor or combine fuel tanks,
as well as their farm's bulk tanks, for condensation. Drain the condensation often and keep
tanks as full as possible. Always filter the fuel and keep it clean and fresh for operation.
Electrical
Electrical problems often are the most time-consuming to trace and repair. From time to time
check for loose connections, frayed or broken wires and to repair broken gauges, lights and
switches. Although modem batteries do not have to be removed from equipment, except in
extremely cold regions, cleaning the battery, its posts and cable connections is advised. On an
idle machine, the battery ground cable should be disconnected from the battery to avoid
corrosive buildup and possible battery discharge.
Harvesting Equipment
Combine headers require special storage care. We suggest closely inspecting header units, both
corn and grain types, for worn, bent or broken parts and replacing them as needed. Proper
adjustment of belts and chains is critical to prolong wear. Corn Heads Stalk roll knives should be
sharpened or replaced and lubricated, and auger systems checked for proper function. Top off
your corn head check up by lubricating all main points including chains and other moving parts.
Grain Headers Operators should check the reel drive, sickle wobble box drive, auger,
retractable fingers and stripper bars of the grain header. Knife guards and other parts should be
inspected for wear and replaced as needed. Round out the check up by lubricating and properly
adjusting the grain header

Tillage
Tools Farmers are placing greater demands on their tillage equipment. As minimum tillage
requiring chemical incorporation becomes more popular, tillage tools are growing larger and
more sophisticated. Those demands have led to more sophisticated hydraulic systems. Today's
multi-wing folding units require several hydraulic cylinders to properly perform their tasks.
Many owners believe that since the hydraulic cylinder rods are chrome, they won't rust.
Although cylinder rods are resistant to rust, they must be protected from the elements.
Thoroughly coating all cylinder rods with a protective lubricant is advised. Rusted
cylinder rods can quickly damage seals. Before storing the unit, all ground-working tools and
mold boards should be cleaned and coated with a lubricant to guard against rust. Don’t forget
to check the shanks on field cultivators. Worn shank bushings or pins should be replaced. Don't
go into your next season with bent or worn shanks that can leave skips in the fields.

Planters/Drills

Like other equipment, planters and drills should be cleaned of any buildup, especially in the
seed or fertilizer boxes. Make sure all movable parts are free and not stuck due to chemical
corrosion. Operators should check all moving parts for excessive wear. On air planters, the
condition of the cutoff brush is very important and should be adjusted properly. Finally,
lubricate all moving parts and inspect all chains and other drive mechanisms for excessive wear

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or misalignment. Proper off-season storage will add value to your farm equipment, increase its
lifespan and decrease your operating costs.

Off-Season Storage Checklist

 Thoroughly clean all equipment with a high-pressure washer.

 Lubricate all points.
 Coat all parts that rust easily, such as plow shares or chrome hydraulic cylinder rods,
with a high-quality protectant.
 Inspect all equipment for broken, bent or worn parts. Repair or replace as necessary.
 Apply touch-up paint to scratched or rusted areas.
 Apply a generous coating of wax to help equipment fight the effects of the elements.
 Store equipment in a shed or under a tarp or heavy plastic if possible.

Self-Propelled Equipment

 Check or drain, flush and refill the radiator with correct coolant.
 Drain engine oil and analyze it to determine the presence of contaminants.
 Check hydraulic system fluid. Replace if needed.
 Check the transmission fluid level. If needed, drain and refill. Install new filters.
 Check fuel tanks for condensation. Fill tanks with high-grade fuel.
 Disconnect battery ground cables if the machine is idle for several months.
 Check fire pressure frequently during the winter.

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 ACTIVITY 10

Elaborate the following.

I. Based on what you have learned, elaborate each type of risks in making decisions for
your farm production.
a. Production and Technical Risk
b. Marketing or Price Risk
c. Financial Risk
d. Institutional Risk
e. Human and Personal Risk

II. Identify what strategy of reducing risk vulnerability each statement belong.

1. Keep the resources of farm to sustain the needs for production.

2. Continuous irrigating farms until the end of the production according to the
representative of NIA Barangay Organization.

3. Dryer and dryer machine is provided by the organization.

4. Farmers with marketing flexibility can spread cash sales and obtain a price similar to the
seasonal average price.

5. Keeping reserves of inputs and products could protect farmers from the risk of price
changes.

6. Farmers may change the area of land planted or the number of livestock kept if, for
example, market prices change markedly.

7. Farmers may use low cost, conservation practices such as composting and mulching as a
way to manage risks and reduce the amount and cost of purchased inputs.

8. Staggered planting of the same crop can be used to ensure an even supply of food over
as long a period as possible.

9. If one crop does not do well, the farmer has other crops on which to rely.

10. Farmers may select enterprises or crop varieties that are usually reliable in preference
to enterprises that result in variable yields between one year and the next.

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