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iii
CONTENTS
1. Prehistoric Times............................................. 1-5 4.8 Royal Patrons of Jainism.................... 21

1.1 Pre-Historic Period:............................. 1 4.9 Important Jain Literature.................. 22
1.2 Paleolithic or Old Stone...................... 2 4.10 Eight Auspicious Symbols................. 22
1.3 Mesolithic or Middle Stone................. 4 4.11 Jain Architecture................................ 22
1.4 Neolithic Age or New Stone............... 4 4.12 Spread of Jainism............................... 22
1.5 Chalcolithic (Metal) Age:.................... 4 4.13 Contribution of Jainism..................... 22
1.6 Iron Age: 1,000 BC-500 BC............... 5 4.14 Tirthankaras and their Symbols........ 23
2. Harappan Civilization: 2500-1750 BC ......... 6-10 5. Buddhism..................................................... 24-30
2.1 Indus Valley Civilization: Location, 5.1 Philosophy of Buddhism................... 24
River, Excavator, Findings.................... 6 5.2 Important concepts related to
2.2 Prominent Features of ......................... 9 Buddhism.......................................... 24
2.3 Decline.............................................. 10 5.3 Great events in Buddha’s life ............ 26
3. Vedic Culture: 1500-600 BC ....................... 11-17 5.4 Buddhist Sangha and ........................ 26
5.5 Buddhist Councils............................. 27
3.1 Arrival of Aryans............................... 11
5.6 Schools of Buddhism ...................... 28
3.2 Rig Vedic/Early Vedic Period............ 11
5.7 Miscellaneous.................................... 29
3.3 Later Vedic Period:............................ 13
5.8 Contribution of Buddhism................ 30
3.4 Vedic Deities...................................... 14
5.9 Causes for the decline of
3.5 Vedic Texts......................................... 15
Buddhism.......................................... 30
3.6 Vedic Literatures................................ 15
3.7 Officers and their profile 6. Pre-Mauryan Period: 600-300 BCE............ 31-36
in Vedic Period................................... 17 6.1 Age of Mahajanapadas....................... 31
3.8 Key Concepts..................................... 17 6.2 The Sixteen Mahajanapadas.............. 31
4. Jainism......................................................... 18-23 6.3 Socio-Economic Survey of ............... 33
4.1 Factors behind the rise of .................. 18 6.4 The Magadha Empire....................... 34
4.2 Teachings of Mahavira....................... 18 6.5 Foreign Invasions............................... 36
4.3 Vardhaman Mahavira:........................ 18 7. Mauryan Age............................................... 37-41
4.4 Philosophy and teachings 7.1 Sources of Information...................... 37
of Jainism........................................... 19
7.2 The Mauryan Dynasty...................... 37
4.5 Sects/Schools of Jainism.................... 20
7.3 Socio-Economic Survey of................ 40
4.6 Important Terms related to
7.4 Officers in Mauryan State................. 41
Jainism............................................... 21
7.5 Decline of the Mauryan Empire.........41
4.7 Jain Councils...................................... 21
8. Post-Mauryan Age........................................ 42-45 10.2 Harshavardhan (606–647 CE)........... 53
8.1 Source of Information .......................42 10.3 Socio-Economic Survey of
8.2 Shunga Dynasty (187 BC-78 BC)....... 42 Harshavardhan Period....................... 54
8.3 Satavahana Dynasty........................... 43
11. Sangam Age: The History of
8.4 Significance of Satavahana Rule........ 43
8.5 Indo-Greeks South India .................................................. 56-59
(200 BCE-100 BCE)........................... 44 11.1 Sangam Literature............................. 56
9. The Gupta Period......................................... 46-53 11.2 South Indian Dynasties..................... 56
9.1 Sources of Information...................... 46 11.3 Sangam Period: Polity, Economy,
9.2 Important Rulers............................... 47 Society, Religion and Culture............ 57
9.3 Socio-Economic Survey of 11.4 End of the Sangam Age.................... 58
Gupta Period..................................... 48
11.5 Glossary............................................. 59
9.4 Decline of the Guptas........................ 51
9.5 Authors/Scholars and their 12. South Indian Kingdoms: Pallavas,
Works................................................ 51 Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas ...................... 60-63
9.6 Other important concepts in
12.1 Pallavas.............................................. 60
Gupta ................................................ 51
9.7 The Vakatakas of the Deccan: 12.2 Chalukyas of Vatapi........................... 61
Gupta Contemporaries...................... 52 12.3 Ikshvakus........................................... 62
10. Harshvardhan Period (606-647 AD)............ 53-55 12.4 The Kadamba Kingdom.................... 63
10.1 Sources of Information...................... 53 12.5 The Kalabhras .................................. 63
1 Prehistoric Times
Pre-Historic Period
Paleolithic Age Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age Chalcolithic Age Iron Age
(30,00,000–10,000 BC) (9,000–4,000 BC) (7,000–1,000 BC) (3,500–1,000 BC) (1,000–500 BC)
Pre-Harappan Age Harappan Age Post Harappan Age

(3,500–2,500 BC) (2,500–1,750 BC) (2,000–1,000 BC)
Fig.1.1: Prehistoric Period
1.1 PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD: z Robert Bruce Foote discovered what was probably
the first Paleolithic tool discovered in India — the
(30,00,000 BC – 600 BC) Pallavaram handaxe.
z It consists of five periods - Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, z Robert Bruce B Foote is known as the father of
Neolithic, Chalcolithic & Iron Age. Prehistoric Archaeology.
z No written records are available of this period. z Sir Mortimer Wheeler contributed towards our
z Archaeological remains from this period are stone knowledge of the prehistoric cultures of India and
tools, pottery, artefacts, and metal implements used their sequence.
by prehistoric people.
Historical Sources
Sources Evidence Information
Material z Radio-Carbon Dating is a method z Almost every aspect of lifestyle like, use of pottery
Remains for determining the age of an object. type, house construction design, agriculture (grains
z Dendro-Chronology: the scientific produced), animals domesticated, type of tools, weapons
method of dating tree rings (also etc. and burial practices of the time and geography.
called growth rings) to the exact z Vertical Excavations: provides chronological sequence
year they were formed· of material culture.
z Structures: Grand Stone temples z Horizontal Excavation: Gives complete idea of
of Southern India; Brick particular culture.
Monasteries of Eastern India;
vertical & horizontal excavations of
mounds; Megaliths (South India).
Coins z The study of coins is called z Not many symbols were used in earliest coins; Names
Numismatics. of the Kings or issuer (guilds/merchants), Gods or dates
z Coins excavated and collected from are mentioned in the coins from later periods.
the surface and cataloged in various z They help in the construction of religious, cultural and
museums throughout the country economic history with chronology.
and outside. z Local and cross-border transactions done through
these coins tell about various ruling dynasties and
extent of their rule.
z Metal and number of the coins indicates the level of
trade, commerce and wealth in a Kingdom.
z Only a few coins belonging to post-Gupta times indicate
the decline of trade & commerce in that period.
Inscriptions z Epigraphy: the study of Inscriptions. z Pictographic Harappan Inscriptions are yet to be
z Paleography: Study of old writings deciphered.
on inscriptions and other records. z South India: Inscriptions on temple walls.
z Inscriptions carved on seals, stone z Inscriptions conveyed various information like royal
pillars, rocks, copper plates, temple orders and decisions regarding social, religious and
walls and bricks or images. administrative matters (e.g., Ashokan Inscriptions) to
z Earliest in Prakrit (300 BC), later officials and people in general.
in Sanskrit and further later in z Ashokan Inscriptions: Scripts used -Brahmi,
regional languages. Kharosthi, Greek & Aramaic.
z Donations, land grants, and the achievements of
Kings and Conquerors (Example: Samudragupta and
Pulkeshin 2nd etc.).
Literary z The four Vedas, Ramayana z Kautilya’s Arthashastra gives exhaustive coverage of
Sources and Mahabharata, Smritis and affairs that concern a King and his, economy, polity,
Dharmasutras, Epics, Jain & administration and society at large.
Buddhist texts, poetry, Sangam z Purana provides dynastic history up to Gupta rule.
Literature, plays etc. z These sources also indicate the usage of language, script
z In India, the oldest manuscripts and style of writing.
were written on birch bark & palm z Rajatarangini: This is the famous book written by
leaves. Kalhana and depicts the social and political life of 12th
century CE Kashmir
z Sangam literature: This is the earliest south Indian
literature, produced by poets who assembled together
(Sangam). It provides valuable information about the
social, economic and political life of the people living
in deltaic Tamil Nadu.
z Literary work of Kalidasa: The works of the great poet
Kalidasa comprises kavyas and dramas, one of the most
important : Abhijnanasakuntalam
Foreigner’s z Accounts of Greeks, Romans or z Alexander’s invasion: solely reconstructed based on
Accounts Chinese either as official historians, Greek sources.
diplomats, pilgrims or even z Indica of Megasthenes: provides information about
navigators/explorers. the Mauryan period.
z Pliny’s Naturalis Historia: account of trade imbalance
between India and Roman empire.
1.2 PALEOLITHIC OR OLD STONE z Chopper-chopping pebble culture: The implements

of this culture were found first from Sohan river
AGE: (30,00,000 BC – 10000 BC) valley of west Punjab (Pakistan), also called as Sohan
z The Palaeolithic Age is the earliest period of the Culture.
Stone Age, which developed in the Pleistocene z Hand Axe culture: The implements of this culture
period or the Ice Age. were found first in Madurai and Attirampakkam
z There was no knowledge of agriculture, house of Madras, so also called as Madrasian Culture.
building, pottery, or any metal. z Famous sites of Old Stone Age:
Soan valley and Potwar plateau.
z It spread in practically all parts of India except the
Siwalik hills in north India.
alluvial plains of the Indus and Ganga.
Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.
z Quartzite men: Since the stone tools were made of Adamgarh Hills in Narmada Valley.
a hard rock called quartzite, Palaeolithic men are Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh.
therefore also called Quartzite men in India. Attirampakkam near Chennai.
2 Udaan 3.0 Ancient India P

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Fig. 1.2: Important Archaeological Sites in India
1.2.1 Lower Paleolithic Age: 1.2.2 Middle Paleolithic Age:

(5,00,000 to 50,000 BC) (Homoeractus) (50,000 to 40,000 BC) (Neanderthal)
z Evolution: Learned to control fire for roasting meat z Evolution: Language was invented in this period.
and warding off animals. Hunting and food gathering. Men remained hunters and food gatherers.
Lived in trees and in caves. z Tools: Flake culture: due to excessiveness of
z Tools: Simply chopper-chopping i.e., crude and rough implements made from flakes. Refined and lighter
tools prepared out of pebbles. Choppers, Hand Axes tools made of harder stone material like flint were
and Cleavers. used. Diversified tools based on flakes were used, for
z Sites: Soan and Sohan river valley (now in Pakistan), example, blades, pointers, scrapers and borers.
Didwana, (Rajasthan), Hiran Valley (Gujarat), rock z Sites: Soan, Narmada and Tungabhadra river
shelters of Bhimbetka (MP), and Belan Valley of valleys, Potwar plateau (between Indus and Jehlum),
Mirzapur (UP). Sanghao Cave (near Peshawar, Pakistan).
P Prehistoric Times 3
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1.2.3 Upper Paleolithic Age: z Man lived in huts, reared cattle, developed agriculture
(wheat, barley, cotton, rice etc.), used earthenware
(40,000 - 10,000 BC) (Homo Sapiens) (both handmade and wheel-made).
z Evolution: Other hominin species were eliminated by z Domestication of animals: cattle, sheep and goats
this time. Homo sapiens first appeared at the end was also done.
of this phase. There is evidence of art in the form of
z People of Neolithic age lived in rectangular or
paintings.
circular houses which were made of mud and reeds.
z Tools: Flake-Blade culture: due to excessiveness
z Tools: Sharper, symmetrical and polished stone
of implements made from Flake-Blade. Even more
tools for not only hunting but agriculture also.
refined and light tools. These were backed blades with
Daggers, digging sticks, celts, grinding stones, sickle,
two cutting edges. Blades, scrapers, and burns could
saw, sling-stones etc. (continuous rubbing was done
be fitted in handles; Bone tools like needles, harpoons
to smoothen the tools).
were also found.
z Sites:
z Sites: Found in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Kashmir valley, Chirand (Bihar), Daojali Hading,
Maharashtra, Central MP, Southern UP and Chota
Nagpur Plateau. Bone tools found only at cave sites Belan valley (UP), and Maski etc.
of Kurnool and Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi in Chopani–Mando, Belan valley: earliest evidence
Andhra Pradesh. of use of pottery.

Burzahom: unique rectangular chopper, domestic
1.3 MESOLITHIC OR MIDDLE STONE dogs buried with their masters.
AGE: (9000 BC- 4000 BC) Koldihwa and Mahagara: earliest evidence of
rice cultivation in the world.
z This is the transitional phase between the Palaeolithic
South India: Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur and
and Neolithic ages.
Kodekal in Karnataka, Paiyampalli in TN and
z No snakes are depicted in Mesolithic Paintings. Utnur in Andhra Pradesh.
z In India, the credit of discovery of Mesolithic Koldihwa (Belan valley): presence of three-fold
archaeological material goes to John Evan. Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Iron Age settlements.
z Evolution: It was the transitional period between Mehrgarh (Pakistan): earliest Neolithic site
the Paleolithic and Neolithic Age. People used bow known as the Breadbasket of Balochistan.
and arrow and hence, big animals were hunted down
easily. First burials are reported and use of stone- 1.5 CHALCOLITHIC (METAL) AGE:
ornaments also appears. Domestication of animals
like sheep and goats is found. The first human (3500 BC-1000 BC)
colonization of the Ganga Plains happened during z The first metal age of India is called Chalcolithic Age.
this period. It was also called the Stone-Copper Age.
z Tools: Microlith tools i.e., tools made of micro-sized
Chalcolithic age is divided into 3 stages
stones which were very refined. Bow and arrow
and other microliths in various shapes like moon, z Pre-Harappan Age z 3500 BC-2500 BC.
triangular, square, rectangle, crescents and arrow- z Harappan Age z 2500 BC-1750 BC.
head. z Post-Harappan Age z 2000 BC-1000 BC.
z Sites: Bhimbetka, Mahadaha, Sarai Nahar Rai, z Chalcolithic: Chalco + Lithic was derived from the
Adamgarh (MP), Langhnaj (Gujarat), etc. Earliest Greek words khalkos + líthos which means copper
cave paintings are found at Bhimbetka (UNESCO and stone or Copper Age.
World Heritage Site).
z Chalcolithic cultures had grown in river valleys.
Harappan culture is considered part of Chalcolithic
1.4 NEOLITHIC AGE OR NEW STONE culture.
AGE: (7000 BC - 1000 BC) z The Chalcolithic culture corresponds to the farming
z In India, the credit of discovery of Neolithic communities: Kayatha, Ahar or Banas, Malwa, and
archaeological material goes to Dr. Primrose. Jorwe.
z Neolithic revolution: V.Gordon Childe termed the z Evolution:
Neolithic phase as Neolithic Revolution. It introduced a Settled & community life.
lot of important changes in man’s social and economic Crops cultivated were: barley, wheat, lentil, bajra,
life. The Neolithic age saw man turning into a food jowar, ragi millets, green pea, green and black
producer from food gatherer. gram and cotton.

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Rice and Fish was used as food. Chalcolithic
Technically separate but Harappan civilization
Sites
Cultures
evolved out of the Chalcolithic Culture.
Ahara Culture Aahar (Rajasthan), Balathal, Gilund
Unaware of: Iron, horse and script.
etc. The distinctive feature is black and
Marks the beginning of use metal in place of stone red ware.
yet burnt brick was generally absent.
Kayatha Located in Chambal and its tributaries,
High Child Mortality is indicated by a large number
Culture the sturdy red slipped ware with
of child burials. chocolate designs is the main feature.
z Tools/Idols:
Malwa Culture Narmada & its tributaries in Gujarat.
Knives, axes, fishing hooks, chisels, pins, and rods
One of the largest Chalcolithic
were made of copper and its alloys. settlements.
Beads of semi-precious stones and the Terracotta
Savalda Dhulia district of Maharashtra.
image of Mother Goddess are reported.
Culture
Dead were buried in urns; at times with tools and
objects. Prabhas & Both of them are derived from the
Rangpur Harappa culture. The polished red
z Crafts and Pots:
Culture ware is the hallmark of this culture.
Copper and stone tools were used simultaneously.
The chalcolithic people were expert coppersmiths.
Weavers were present.
1.6 IRON AGE: (1,000 BC-500 BC)
Used Black and Red Ware. Painted pottery, in black z The Chalcolithic age is followed by the Iron Age.
pigment; decorated with different shapes. z Iron is frequently referred to in the Vedas.
z Sites: z The Iron Age of the southern peninsula is often related
In India it was mainly found in South-Eastern to megalithic burials. Megalith means large stone.
Rajasthan, Western part of Madhya Pradesh and z The burial pits covered with these stones are
Maharashtra, and in South and East India. extensively found in South India.
Several bronze and copper objects, terracotta
Important Megalithic Sites
figurines and pottery were found at Paiyampalli
in Tamil Nadu. z Hallur and Maski in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda
in Andhra Pradesh and Adichchanallur in Tamil
Important sites: Navdatoli, Jorwe, Daimabad,
Nadu.
Ahar Banas, Malwa, Inamgaon, Songaon, Nashik,
Mehgam, Kausambi, Alamgirpur, Ropar etc.
v v v
P Prehistoric Times 5
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Harappan Civilization:
2 2500-1750 BC
z The Harappan/ Indus Valley civilisation was the first modern day Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat,
urban civilisation in South Asia, contemporaneous and Pakistan.
with the civilisations of Mesopotamia and Egypt. It z Father of Indian archaeology: Alexander
was larger than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia Cunningham, the first Director-General of the
civilisations. Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
z First site excavated: Harappa site by Dayaram Sahni Early Harappan Mature Harappan Late Harappan
in 1921. Phase Phase Phase
z John Marshall: first scholar to use the term Indus (3300-2600 BCE) (2600-1900 BCE) (1900-1300 BCE)
Civilisation.
Fig. 2.1: Phases of Harappan Civilization
z Most accepted timeline: 2500 BC-1750 BC
(Carbon-14 Dating). Additional Information:
z Period: India Civilization belongs to proto-historic
period- Chalcolithic Age/Bronze Age. z Northernmost site : Manda (Jammu-Kashmir).
z Heartland of Indus Civilization: Harappa-Ghaggar- z Southernmost site : Daimabad (Maharashtra).
Mohenjo Daro axis. z Easternmost site : Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh).
z Indus sites found in Afghanistan: Shortughai and z Western-most site :Sutkagendor (Pakistan-Iran
Mundigaq. border).
z Capital cities: Harappa, Mohenjodaro. z Largest site of Indus civilization : Mohenjo Daro.
z Port cities: Lothal, Sutkagendor, Allahdino, z Largest Indian site of Indus civilization : Rakhigarh.
Balakot, Kuntasi. z Oldest script in Indian subcontinent : Harappan
z Area covered: Harappan civilisation was triangular in script.
shape and was largest among the three ancient urban z Oldest deciphered script : Brahmi script.
civilisations, the other two being ancient Egypt and z Shamans are men and women who claim magical
Mesopotamia (present day Iraq). It roughly covers and healing powers, as well as an ability to
communicate with the other world.
2.1 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION: LOCATION, RIVER, EXCAVATOR, FINDINGS

Site Features
Harappa (first State z Pakistan (Punjab).
archaeological site
River z Ravi.
to be discovered)
Excavator z Dayaram Sahni (1921).
Findings z Granaries, Red sandstone Male torso, Stone symbols of Lingam and Yoni,
Painted pottery, Mother Goddess, Dice.
Mohenjo-daro State z Pakistan (Sindh).
River z Indus.
Excavator z R. D. Banerji (1922), E. Makay, Kashinath Dixit, Sir John Marshall
(1930).
Findings z Largest site of Indus civilization, Post cremation burial, Great Granary,
Great Bath (largest building of civilization), Seal with Pashupathi and
mother goddess, Bronze dancing girl.
Chanhudaro State z Pakistan (Sindh), near Mohenjo-Daro.
River z Indus.
Excavator z N.G. Mazumdar (1931) and E. Makay.

Findings z Inkpot, Lipstick, Metal workers, Shell-ornament makers and bead makers
shop, dog’s paw imprint on brick, Terracotta model of bullock cart, Bronze
toy cart.
Lothal State z Gujarat (Ahmedabad District, at the head of the Gulf of Cambay).
River z Bhogava and Sabarmati river confluence.

Excavator z S Rao in 1953.
Findings z Important naval trade site, Cremation site, Dockyard, Granaries, Rice
husk, Double burial (male female together).
Dholavira State z Gujarat.
River z Luni.
Excavator z R Bisht in 1985 ( as per NCERT). Some books mention J.P. Joshi
(1990–91).
Findings z Unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system,
only site divided in 3 parts, Megalithic stone circle, giant water reservoirs.
Surkotada State z Gujarat.
Excavator z J.P. Joshi (1964).
Findings z Only site with bones of horse, Oval grave, Pot burials, Soldiers sign on
potsherds.
Kalibangan (Black State z Rajasthan.
Bangles)
River z Ghaggar.
Excavator z Amlanand Ghosh (1953) Dr. B. B. Lal and B. K. Thapar (1961).
Findings z Bangle factory, Ploughed field surface, Camel bones, Fire altars.
Banawali State z Haryana.
River z Ghaggar.
Excavator z R.S. Bist (1973 – 74).
Findings z Oval shaped settlement, Lack of systematic drainage system, Barley

grains, Lapis Lazuli, Fire altars, Only city with Radial streets; Centre of
pre-Harappan, Mature Harappan as well as Late Harappan civilization.
Ropar State z Punjab.
River z Sutlej.
Excavator z Y.D. Sharma (1955–56).
Findings z Dog buried with human oval pit burials, copper axe , first site to be
excavated after independence.
P Harappan Civilization: 2500-1750 BC 7

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Rakhigarhi State z Haryana.
Findings z Largest Indian site of Indus valley civilization. Granary, cemetery, drains,
terracotta bricks. Shows all three phases of Harappa Culture.
Rangpur State z Gujarat (Near Lothal).
River z Madar River.
Excavator z M.S. Vatsa (1931) S.R. Rao (1953-54).
Findings z Remains of both pre-Harappan and mature Harappan culture; Yellow and
gray color pots of pre Harappan people.
Alamgirpur State z Uttar Pradesh.
River z Hindon.
Excavator z Y.D. Sharma (1958).
Findings z Broken copper blade, ceramic items and impression of cloth on a trough.
Daimabad State z Maharashtra.
River z Pravara.
Excavator z Y.D. Sharma (1958).
Findings z Bronze images (charioteer with chariot, ox, elephant and rhinoceros).
Koti-Diji State z Sindh (Pakistan).
River z Sindh.
Excavator z Ghurey (1835) Fazal Ahmed (1955).
Findings z Bronze images (charioteer with chariot, ox, elephant and rhinoceros).
Amri State z Sindh (Pakistan).
River z Sindh.
Excavator z Ghurey (1835) Fazal Ahmed (1955).
Findings z Pre-Harappan settlement; Transitional culture between pre and post-

Harappan culture; Actual remains of rhinoceros, trace of jhangar culture
in Late Harappan fire altars.
Suktagendor State z Sindh (Pakistan).
River z Dasht/Dashak River.
Excavator z A Stein, George Dales.
Findings z Ash filled pot, copper axe , earthen bangles & pottery; Originally port
but later cut off from sea due to coastal upliftment; Had trade links with
Babylon.

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2.2 PROMINENT FEATURES OF z Technology and Craft:
HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION This is known as the first urbanization in India.
Along with stone, they were well acquainted with
z Town Planning And Structures: copper, silver, gold and bronze (occasionally
The towns were in a rectangular grid pattern mixed arsenic with copper instead of tin).
with roads at right angles. Iron was not known to the people.
Used burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum Important crafts: spinning (Spindle whorls),
mortar (contemporary Egyptian dried bricks bricklaying, boat-making, seal making, terracotta
were used). manufacturing (potter’s wheel), goldsmiths, bead
The city was divided in two parts, the city on making.
raised platform, known as Upper citadel & the They were aware of the use of the wheel.
lower town known as Lower citadel (working z Trade and Commerce:
class quarters). Fortified citadel was found, except The importance of Trade is established by the
in Chanhudaro. presence of Granaries, seals, a uniform script,
Most buildings have private wells and properly and regulated weights and measures.
ventilated bathrooms. They engaged in inter-regional as well as foreign
Do not have large monumental structures such trade. Sumerian texts refer to trade relations with
as temples or palaces for rulers unlike Egyptian Meluha i.e. ancient name given to Indus region
and Mesopotamian Civilization. & mentions two intermediate trading stations-
Evidence of an Advanced drainage system. Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast).
At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), Used boats and bullock-carts for transportation.
the entire settlement was fortified, and sections No metallic money in circulation and trade was
within the town were also separated by walls. conducted by means of barter.
The Citadel within Lothal was not walled off, but Import: Gold, Silver, Copper, Tin, Jade, Steatite.
was built at a height. Exports: Agricultural products, cotton goods,
z Agriculture: terracotta figurines, beads from Chanhudaro,
Main crops: Wheat and Barley. Evidence of conch- shell from Lothal, ivory products, copper,
cultivation of rice in Lothal and Rangpur (Gujarat) etc.
only. Harappan Imports sources:
Other crops: Dates, Mustard, Sesamum, Cotton, Gold: Afghanistan, Iran, Kolar (South India);
Rai, Peas etc. Copper: Khetri (Rajasthan), Balochistan;
First to produce cotton in the world and used it Tin: Afghanistan, Iran;
for textiles, Called Sindon by the Greeks. Lapis lazuli: Afghanistan;
Used animal drawn wooden plough, and stone Jade: Pamir;
sickles. Turquoise: Khorasan;
Gabarbands or Nalas enclosed by dams were Steatite: Tapi Chahya (Iran);
found but channel or canal irrigation was Bitumen: Balochistan, Mesopotamia;
probably not practiced.
Lead: South India;
Produced sufficient food grains and cereals
z Social Organization:
were received as taxes from peasants and stored
Hierarchy in urban habitation. Merchants and
in granaries for wages and emergencies same as
priests were an important class of this period.
Mesopotamia.
Harappans were fashion conscious. Different
z Domestication of Animals:
hairstyles and wearing a beard were popular.
Animals: Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, and pigs,
The use of cosmetics was common (Cinnabar,
dogs, cats, asses and camels domesticated. lipstick and collyrium)
Humped bulls were favored by the Harappans.
Necklaces, filets, armlets and finger rings were
Neither horse centered nor were they aware of worn by both men and women but bangles,
it, but evidence of horses are found in Surkotada, girdles, anklets, ear-rings were worn by women
Mohenjo Daro and Lothal. only.
Lion was not known. Beads were made from gold, copper, bronze,
Elephants and Rhinoceros (Amari) were well cornelian, quartz, steatite, lapis lazuli etc. -
known. naturalistic animal models as pin-heads and beads.
P Harappan Civilization: 2500-1750 BC 9

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z Polity: Most of the pottery is wheel-made. This implies
Central authority may have contributed to they were well aware of the wheel.
uniform culture. Rare polychrome pottery has also been found
No clear idea of an organized force or standing (geometric patterns in red, black, green, rarely
army. white and yellow).
Priests did not rule in Harappa as they did in z Seals and Sealings:
the cities of lower Mesopotamia but were possibly Most of the seals are square shaped (2x2 square
ruled by a class of merchants. inches) made mostly from Steatite.
z Religious Practices: Seals had an animal (except cow and horse) or
Seal: Male deity Pashupati Mahadeva (proto- human figure on one side and an inscription
siva), three-horned heads, and is represented in on the opposite side or inscriptions on both the
the sitting posture of a yogi, surrounded by an sides.
Elephant, Tiger, Rhinoceros, and Buffalo, and Seals were primarily used for commercial
two deer at his feet. purposes, as an amulet, as a form of identification,
Harrapan was a predominantly secular for educational purposes as well.
civilization. Seals with symbols similar to Swastika design
Prevalence of the Phallus (Lingam) and Yoni, have also been found.
two deer. The round Persian Gulf seal found in Bahrain
Chief female deity was mother Goddess. They sometimes carries Harappan motifs.
worshiped both male and female deities. Interestingly, local Dilmun weights followed the
The people of the Indus region also worshiped Harappan standard.

trees (pipal), fire and animals (unicorn, humped z Art:
bull etc). Bronze Casting:Practiced on a wide scale using
Harappans believed in ghosts and evil forces. the lost wax or Cire Perdue technique. They
They used amulets against them. mainly consist of human and animal figures.
Burials: At burials in Harappan sites the dead Example: Dancing Girl. She stands in a Tribhanga
were generally laid in pits. Some graves contain dancing posture.
pottery and ornaments, perhaps indicating a Stone Statues:Bearded man: found in Mohenjo-
belief that these could be used in the afterlife. daro and made of Steatite, interpreted as a priest.
Jewelry has been found in burials of both men Red sandstone: a figure of a male torso is found
and women. in Harappa and made of Red sandstone.
z Script: Terracotta Figures: Found are less in number
Oldest script in Indian subcontinent. and crude in shape and form. Examples: Mother
Pictographic script also found, yet to be Goddess, mask of horned deity, toys, etc.
deciphered. z Weights and Measures:
Writing was Boustrophedon - writing from right Cubical weights in graduated sizes. These weights
to left in one line & then left to right in the next conform to the standard Harappan binary weight
line. system that was used in all of the settlements.
z Pottery:
Plain pottery is more common than painted
2.3 DECLINE
ware and is generally of red clay, and is uniformly z After 2000 BC Indus Valley Civilization declined &
sturdy and well baked. gradually faded away. Causes of the decline of this
The painted pottery is also known as Red and civilization have not been firmly established.
Black Pottery as it used red color to paint the z Possible reasons – declined soil fertility, depression
background and glossy black paint was used to in land, Aryans invasion, decline of trade, Floods,
draw designs and figures on the red background. Earthquake etc.
Trees, birds, animal figures and geometrical z Most acceptable reason is ecological imbalance.
patterns were the recurring themes of the
paintings.
v v v

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Vedic Culture:
3 1500-600 BC
3.1 ARRIVAL OF ARYANS z The 3rd Mandala, composed by Vishwamitra,

contains Gayatri Mahamantra addressed to Goddess
z With the advent of Aryans began the history of Vedic Savitri.
Period (1500 BC-600 BC). z Geographical Expansion:
z The original home of the Aryans is a debatable Early Vedic people or Aryans settled in the land
question and there are several views. Aryans of seven rivers, called Sapta Sindhu: Sindhu
originally lived in the Steppes region. Later they (Indus), Vitasta (Jhelum), Asikani (Chenab),
moved to central Asia and then came to the Punjab Parushni (Ravi), Bipasa (Beas), Sutudri (Satluj),
region of India around 1500 BC. and Saraswati (Ghaggar).
z Vedic period is divided into Early Vedic or Rigvedic Their region covered present day parts of
(1500 BC-1000 BC) & Later Vedic (1000 BC- 600 Afghanistan, Punjab and Haryana.
BC) periods.
Sindhu (Indus) is the most mentioned and
z The name ‘Aryan’ appears in Hittite inscription Saraswati is the most revered (holy) river.
(Anatolia), Kassitte inscription (Iraq) & Mittani
Saraswati Valley was called Brhmavarta.
inscription (Syria).
The Himalayas were called Himavat.
z An Iranian text, Zend Avesta, talks about names of
Hindu Kush was called Munjavant.
Aryan Gods like Indra, Varuna, etc.
z Language: spoke the Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit. z Society:
Rig Vedic communities comprised populations
z The word Veda is derived from the root vid, which
means to know. The term ‘Veda’ signifies superior called Janas.
knowledge. Society was divided into Aryans and Non-Aryans;
z The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was the direct result non-Aryans were called Dasas and Dasyus.
of this socio-economic problem arising due to Vedic It was an egalitarian society. Unlike the later
Culture. Vedic period, social divisions were not rigid
during the Rig Vedic period.
Additional Information:
Rig Vedic society was patriarchal.
z Boghazkoi Inscription:
Basic unit of society was family or Graham. The
z Mentioning four Vedic gods – Indra, Varuna, Mitra, head of the family was known as Grahapathi.
Nasatyas– proves Central Asian Theory as their
Slaves were used for domestic purposes & not for
homeland.
agriculture.
3.2 RIG VEDIC/EARLY VEDIC PERIOD The term Varna is used in Rigveda with reference
to Aryans & Dasa having fair & dark complexion
(1500 BC- 1000 BC) respectively.
z The Main source of information about this age is the Women poets: Viswara, Lopamudra, Ghosha,
Rig Veda (10 Mandalas and 1028 Hymns). Sikta, Nivavari, and Apala were female sages of
z Mandalas/Chapters from 2 to 8 are called Saptarishi the time and contributed to the composition of
Mandalas as these are composed by the seven great Rig Veda.
sages. Women could even attend the popular assemblies.
z Mandalas 2 to 7 form the earliest portions of the Child Marriage and Sati were absent and a
Rigveda while 1 and 10 were latest additions. special widow-remarriage, called Niyoga (levirate)
z 10th Mandala has the famous Purush Sukta that was prevalent. This was done to increase the
describes cosmic creation (Adi Purush) along with population of the Jana.
the 4-fold Varna System.
Two Drinks – Soma & Sura – Soma was sanctioned wealth i.e. cow and cattle and was won by Rajana
by religion & was drunk at sacrifices. Sura was Sudas of Bharat Jana (tribe).
disapproved by priests. Right to property existed.
A wealthy person was known as Gomat and the Rig Vedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet
daughter called Duhitri which means one who in warfare.
milks the cow. z Economy:
Favorite pastimes: Chariot racing, horse racing,
Rig Vedic society was pastoral and secondary
dicing, music and dance. occupation was agriculture. Cattle was the main
Monogamy was generally practiced while form of wealth;
polygamy was prevalent among the royal and Agriculture production was for consumption
noble families. only. They had better knowledge of agriculture.
Women were given equal opportunities as men Rigveda mentions wooden ploughshare.
for their spiritual and intellectual development. Yava was the common name for any grain.
A variety of ornaments were used by both men
Bali was a voluntary gift from producers to the
and women. Rajana.
The eating of cow’s meat was prohibited since
Trade was conducted on a barter system. In the
it was a sacred animal. later times, gold coins called Nishka were used
z Political System: as media of exchange in large transactions. Coins
The basic unit of political organization was kula were not known.
or family. Neither tax was imposed nor treasury was
Rig Vedic polity was normally monarchical and maintained.
the succession was hereditary. Copper tools of this era are reported from Punjab
The Purohita or domestic priest was the first and Haryana.
ranking official. Ayas is the common name used for any metal. Gold
Janas were headed by a Rajana who was assisted was called Hiranya.
by Purohit, Gramani and Senani and popular Aryan introduced spoked wheels.
bodies like Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata, Gana and Horses played a significant role in their life. Rig
Sardha were present. Veda has mentioned a horse-drawn chariot with
Sabha had few chiefs while Samiti was a larger spoked wheels.
body. Economic activities: Hunting, carpentry, tanning,
Vidhata was the oldest. weaving, chariot-making, metal smeltery etc.
Janas were further divided into Vis and Vis in turn Pottery type: Ochre Colored Pottery and Painted
was divided into many Kul or Kutumb. Kul has Grey Ware (PGW).
Griha as its unit and Kulapa as its head while the z Religious Aspect:
Griha was headed by Grihapati or Dampati.
Important Rig Vedic gods: Prithvi (Earth), Agni
Gaun was the place where cattle were kept and
(Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain) and Indra
Gavishthi was a quest or war for cows. (Thunder). Indra was the most popular.
Group of Kulas made a Gram and Gram was
Other important gods: Rudra, Dyaus, Ashwin,
headed by Gramani. Yama and Soma.
Vajrapati: Had authority over a large land and was
Female gods: Aditi, Sindhu and Ushas.
leader of Kulupa & Graminis.
Agni was regarded as an intermediary between
Rajana ruled over his people (Jana) and not over
the gods and people.
any specified area of land and hence, was called
Elaborate rituals were followed during the
their protector (Gopa Janasya or Gopati Janasya).
worship.
There were few non-monarchical states, whose
Chanting of mantras was an important part of
head was Ganapati or Jyestha.
the ritual.
Rajana had no standing army and bureaucracy too
Sacrifices were practiced mainly for praja and
was absent. Military functions were performed by
pashu i.e. increasing population, protecting cattle,
tribal groups called – Vrat, Gana, Grama, Sardha.
birth of male child and against disease. Magic and
Tribal kingdoms: Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and
Omen were not prevalent.
Purus.
Maharishi Vasistha & Vishwamitra were
The Battle of Ten Kings (Dasrajan war) was
important priests.
fought on the banks of Ravi river for protection of

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3.3 LATER VEDIC PERIOD: Child marriages had become common. According
to Aitareya Brahmana a daughter has been
(1000 BC - 600 BC) described as a source of misery.
z Sources of Information about this phase are: Sam Institution of Gotra & practice of gotra exogamy
Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. appeared.
z Other sources: Maitrayani Samhita mentions 3 evils – liquor,
Brahmanas: Detailed commentaries and women and dice.
explanations on the Vedas. z Political System:
Aranyakas (forest books): Explains metaphysics Janas evolved to become Janapadas. Hastinapur
& symbolism of sacrifice. and Indraprastha were capitals of Kuru janapada.
Upanishads: or books on philosophy or deeper Frequent battles among these janapadas were
knowledge about Aatma, Brahma etc. fought for territory.
z They are anti-ritualistic. Authority of the rajana became more evident and
z The motto Satyameva Jayate written in Devnagari a support staff called ratnin; they were 12 jewels
script below the profile of Lion Capital is a part of the of the king, working for rajana.
State Emblem of India. It is taken from the Mundaka Chiefship became hereditary. Still, there was no
Upanishad. standing army.
z Geographical Expansion: Rajana started various sacrifices like Rajsuya
Western Ganga-Valley was called ‘Aryavarta’ (consecration ceremony), Ashwamedh (horse

Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean, Several
sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race).
Himalayan peaks and Vindhya mountains Kings assumed titles: Rajavisvajanan,
(indirectly) are mentioned. Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of all earth), Ekrat and
Growth of large kingdoms: Kuru (famous rulers:
Samrat (sole ruler).
Parikshat and Janamejaya) and Panchala (popular Dependence on Sabha and Samiti reduced.
king: Pravahana Jaivali) kingdoms. Kosala, Videha Vidhata completely disappeared.

(King: Janaka; Scholar in court: Yajnavalkya) and Women lost their political rights of attending
Kasi (King: Ajatasatru) came into prominence. assemblies.
Later Vedic texts also refer to the three Term Rashtra, indicating territory first appeared
divisions of India: Aryavarta (Northern India), in this period.
Madhyadesa (Central India) and Dakshinapatha Rajana assumed titles like Samrat, Ekrat,
(Southern India). Sarvabhouma and Virat.
Easternmost tribal kingdoms: Magadha, Anga z Economy:
and Vanga. Later Vedic culture is also called Painted Grey
z Society: Ware (PGW) – Iron Phase culture.
The 4-fold varna system (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Iron (krishna/shyama ayas) was discovered
Vaisyas and Sudras) and appearance of several and use of fire for clearing forest for cultivation
jatis or castes made the social system complex. increased.
Untouchability appeared; women’s position Tin, lead, silver, Iron, gold, bronze, and copper
degraded as they no longer got formal education. were known to Later Vedic people.
Gotra was the place where cattle resided together Predominantly pastoral society of Early Vedic
with ‘janas’ and later developed into an identity times had become agricultural - Wheat, Barley,
for the janas. Rice, Beans, Moong, Urad and Sesamum were
Nishad, Chandala and Shabar were the cultivated.
untouchables mentioned. Guests were called Surplus produce led to Bali and Bhaga (1/6th
Goghna (cow-killer). or 1/12th) i.e. customary contributions (minor
Niyoga too was considered a negative activity. taxes) to the King’s treasury.
Male members of the upper three varnas were Treasurer, called Samgrahitri and Bhagdukha,
called dvija or twice born. Only these were entitled collected the taxes and Vaishya were only taxpayers.
to Upanayan i.e. wearing the sacred thread. Shataman Krishnala are believed to be coins
Women like Gargi and Maitreyi accomplished used but have no archaeological backing; there is
in the knowledge arena; Gargi outwitted reference to money lending (Satapatha Brahmana
Yajnavalkya in a philosophical discourse. describes a usurer as kusidin).
P Vedic Culture: 1500-600 BC 13

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Arts and crafts: smelting, carpentry, weaving, Priesthood became a profession and a hereditary
leather-working, jewelry- making, dyeing and one.
pottery-making, glass hoards and bangles. There were no temples, no idol worship.
Commerce and trade are indicated by mention of Magic and Omen entered the socio-religious life.
sea voyages. At the end of the later Vedic phase Upanishadik
Pottery type: Painted Grey Ware (PGW). philosophers made efforts to simplify the
z Religious Aspect: religious practices.
Religion of early Vedic Aryans was primarily Few Kshatriyas, in Later Vedic phase, like Janak
worship of nature (natural forces such as earth, and Vishswamitra succeeded in knowing the
fire, wind, rain and thunder) and Yajanas. supreme i.e. ‘Brahma’.
Varun and Indra, the most important gods of Rig Dharma meant one’s duties to oneself and
Vedic age, lost prominence in later Vedic phases. to others. Rita was the fundamental law that
Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) governed the working of Shrishti (Universe).
and Rudra (the destroyer) became prominent Towards the end of this period there was a
during the Later Vedic period. strong reaction against priestly domination
Rituals, sacrifices and the requirement of a and against sacrifices and rituals. The rise of
supervising priest (Purohita) made religious life Buddhism and Jainism was the direct result of
complex. The importance of prayers declined and these elaborate sacrifices.
that of sacrifices increased.
3.4 VEDIC DEITIES

Deity Information
Indra z God of Lightning.
z Most Mentioned, 250 hymns, known as Purandhar or destroyer of forts.
z Lost prominence in the Later Vedic Phase.
Vayu z God of Air.
Agni z God of Fire.
z For purity and Yajna.
Surya z God of Life Source.
z Had Vishnu, Savitri (Gayatri), Mitra and Pushan (vegetation, cattle-wealth and marriage)
as its attributes.
Rudra z God of Destruction.
z Also worshiped for healing from diseases.
z Merged with Shiva in the later Vedic phase.
Aditi z Mother of Gods.
Usha z Goddess of Dawn.
Varun z God of Water and Morals.
z Most Powerful, maintained cosmic order/laws.
z Lost prominence in the Later Vedic Phase.
Vishnu z An aspect of Surya.
z Least Mentioned, mentioned in 3 hymns.
Marut z God of Wind.
Prithvi z Goddess of Fertility.
Aranyani z Goddess of Forest.
Parjanya z God of Rain.
Prajapati/ z Supreme God.
Adipurush z Most prominent during the Later Vedic period.
Pushan z God of the Shudras.
z Supposed to look after cattle.

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3.5 VEDIC TEXTS
Shruti Smriti
z Shrutis are the texts ‘that are heard’ or product of z ‘Smritis’ on the other hand are those that are
Godly revelation to the great sages (rishis) while in recollected by normal humans.
meditation (‘dhyaan’). z The detailed commentaries/ explanations on the
z The four Vedas and Samhitas are included in the Vedas (Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads), 6
shrutis. Vedangas and 4 Upavedas make the smritis.

3.6 VEDIC LITERATURES
3.6.1 The four Vedas
Veda Upaveda Brahmana Upanishad Aranyakas Mantra Priest

Rig Veda Ayurveda Aitareya, Kaushi- Aitareya, Aitareya, 1028 Hotr/Hotar
(Medicine) tiki/ Sankhyana Kaushitiki Kaushitiki
Comment z Oldest surviving text.
z Mentions the concept of Origin of the Universe.
z Hymns are dedicated to several deities mostly to Indra
z Themes: Life, death, creation, sacrifice and ‘soma’ (godly pleasure).
z Recently, the Rig Veda has been included by UNESCO in the list of literature
signifying World Human Heritage.
Sam Veda Gandharva Veda Panchvimsh/ Kena, Jaiminiya, 1810 Udgatar
(Music) Tandya, Chandogya Chandogya
Jaiminiya
Comment z Earliest book on music (Sama = Melody; ragas & raginis).
z Poetic text, derived from Rig Veda.
z Contains the famous Dhrupada raga, later sung by Tansen.
Yajur Veda Dhanurveda Taittiriya, Taittiriya, Taittiriya 2000 Adhvaryu
(Warfare) Shatapatha KathaIsa,
Brihadaranyaka
Comment z Sacrifices and rituals, composed both in prose and poetry.
z Two related samhitas: Shukla and Krishna.
Atharva Sthapatya Veda/ Gopatha Mandukya, - 6000 Priests
Veda Shilp Veda Mundaka (Brahmins)
(Architecture) Prashan didn’t recite it.
Comment z Magic, charms, omen, agriculture, industry/craft, cattle rearing, cure for
disease; composed by Non-Aryans.
3.6.2 Other Texts

Upanishads z Philosophical texts dealing with topics like the soul, the absolute, the origin of the world and
the mysteries of nature.
z Upanishad indicates knowledge acquired by sitting close to the teacher.
z A collection of over 200 Upanishads are known but out of these 108 are called muktikas.
z Mundaka Upanishad (largest of all): contains the famous phrase Satyameva Jayate.
z Maitrayani Upanishad: Doctrine of Trimurti.

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Brahmanas z Brahmanas describe the rules for the performance of sacrificial ceremonies.
z Most important Brahmana is the Satapatha Brahmana, which is attached to the Yajur Veda.
Vedanta z Vedanta literally signifies the end of the Vedas, as they reveal the final aim of the Vedas.
z They condemn sacrifices and ceremonies and denote the last phase of the Vedic period.
z Sankaracharya, Ramanujacharya and Swami Vivekananda promoted the Vedanta school.
Vedanga z The word Vedanga means the limbs of the Vedas.
z For proper understanding of the Vedas, one needs to know Vedangas which are supplements
to the Vedas. These are 6 in number:
Siksha: Pronunciation of the words; education.
Nirukta: Origin of the words.
Chhanda: Metrics used in Sanskrit verses.
Jyotish: Understanding of astronomy.
Vyakaran: Sanskrit grammar.
Kalpa: Knowledge of rituals (Dharma sutras).
Aranyakas z Called forest books and they deal with mysticism, rites, rituals and sacrifices.
Ramayana z Roughly composed between 400 BCE-300CE.
z Author was Valmiki, known as Adi Kavya, the oldest epic of the world.
Mahabharata z Roughly composed between c. 400 BCE-400 CE.
z Author was Ved Vyasa; the longest epic of the world; Bhagavad Gita is extracted from Bihshama
Parvan of Mahabharata. Shanti Parvan is the largest Parvan (chapter) of Mahabharata.
Purana z Puranas literally means old.
z Puranas mention four ages: Krita, Treta, Dvapara and Kali.
z Some Puranas such as the Brahma, Matsya, Harivamsha, Vishnu, Brahmanda, and Vayu provide
useful information on historical dynasties (of Haryankas, Shishu Nagas, Nandas, Mauryas,
Shungas — till the Guptas).
Dharamshastra z Sanskrit texts dealing specifically with Dharma (code of conduct) that conceptually signifies
a righteous moral law.
z Jabala Upanishad: 4-fold ashram (stages) for 4 purusharthas (goals): it was not applicable
to women or shudras -
Brahmacharya (Celibate Student) for knowledge i.e. Dharma.
Grihastha (Householder) for wealth and progeny i.e. ‘Artha’ and ‘Kama’.
Vanaprastha (hermit in retreat) for spiritual wisdom.
Sanyasa (Renunciation) for liberation i.e. Mukti/Moksha.

z Out of the four varnas, three varnas, i.e., Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas were
considered Dvija (twice born, as they had the right to the sacred thread ceremony considered
akin to second birth).
The Six Theistic Philosophies z Samkhya: theoretical foundation; by Kapil.
(Darshan) z Yoga: union of soul with God; by Patanjali.
z Vaisheshika: discusses atomic theory; by Kanad.
z Nyaya: philosophy of logic; by Gautam.
z Mimansa: rituals; by Jaimini.
z Vedanta: most important; by Badrayan.
Atheistic Philosophies z Buddhist School of Siddhartha Gautama.
z Jaina School of Mahavir Swami.
z Charvak or Lokayat School was actually propounded by Brihaspati but was
systematized by Charvak.

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3.7 OFFICERS AND THEIR PROFILE IN VEDIC PERIOD
Officers Profiles Officers Profiles

Vrajapati z Officer-in-charge of pasture land Jivagribha z Police official
Kshatri z Chamberlain Senani z Supreme commander-in-chief
Sthapati z Chief Judge Gramani z Head of the village
Bhagadugha z Revenue collector Kulapati z Head of the family
Mahishi z Chief Queen Spasas z Spies & Messengers
Suta z Charioteer Madhyamasi z Dispute resolving
Takshan z Carpenter Palagala z Messenger
Sanghrahriti z Treasurer Govikartana z Keeper of forests & games
Akshavapa z Accountant Purohita z Priest of highest order
3.8 KEY CONCEPTS
Key Concepts Source

Gotra z Atharva Veda
Purusha Sukta Hymn (Four-fold division of society) z Rig Veda (Tenth Mandala)
First three ashramas (Brahmacharya, Grihasthya, Vanaprastha) z Chandogya Upanishad
Four ashrams (Brahmacharya, Grihasthya, Vanaprastha, Sanyasa) z Jabala Upanishad
Samsara (transmigration of soul) z Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
Sabha and Samiti as the two daughters of Prajapati z Atharva Veda
Doctrine of Trimurti z Maitrayani Upanishad
Mention of the Great Flood z Satpatha Brahamana
v v v

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4 Jainism
ORIGIN OF JAINISM z The teachings of Upanishads, an alternative to the

system of sacrifices, were highly philosophical in
z The doctrine of Jaina is older than the Buddhist nature therefore not easily understood by all
doctrine and as old as Vedic religion.
z Rig Veda mentions names of Rishabha and 4.2 TEACHINGS OF MAHAVIRA
Arishtanemi Jain Tirthankara.
z Rejected authority of the Vedas & Vedic rituals.
z Vishnu Purana and Bhagavat Purana describe
Rishabha as an incarnation of Narayana. z Did not believe in the existence of god.
z Jainism does not have a single founder. It is z Believed in Karma & transmission of Soul.
commonly mistaken that Mahavir was the founder of z Emphasized the equality but did not condemn the
Jainism. However, he was the last Tirthankara. Varna system.
z Jainism came into prominence in 6th century B.C., z Advocated a life of austerity and non-violence.
when Lord Mahavira propagated the religion. z Women had an equal role to play and were not looked
z The word Jain is derived from Jina or Jaina - means down upon.
the Conqueror. A Jina is said to possess Avadhi z Man may be ‘good’ or ‘bad’ as per his actions and not
Jnana, (Superhuman cognition or psychic power.). All birth.
the Tirthankara were Kshatriyas by birth.
z The symbol hand with a wheel on the palm Additional Information: There were 24 Tirthankara
symbolizes Ahimsa in Jainism. There is a word (teachers)
ahimsa written in the middle of it. 1st Tirthankara z Rishabhnath or Rishabhdev.
Additional Information: 22 Tirthankara
nd z Arishtanemi.
z Jain community makes for 4.5 million or 0.36 z Parshvanatha: born in
23 Tirthankara
rd
percent of the Indian population as per 2011 Varanasi.
census, the sixth community to be designated 24th Tirthankara z Vardhaman Mahavira.
this status as a national minority, after Muslims,
Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists and Parsis. Gujarat and
Rajasthan have the highest concentration of Jain 4.3 VARDHAMAN MAHAVIRA:
population in India. (539-467 BC)
4.1 FACTORS BEHIND THE RISE OF z Birth: Kundagrama near Vaishali. Belongs to Gnatrika
JAINISM Clan. Buddha and Mahavira were contemporaries.
z Parents: Siddhartha (Head of Jnatrika Clan) and
z Vedic religion had become highly ritualistic. Trisala (Sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka).
z It was accessible to people of all castes. z Wife & daughter: married to Yashoda and had a
z The early Jainas adopted the Prakrit language of daughter Anojja or Priyadarshana.
the common people to preach their doctrines and
z Teachers: Alarakama and Udraka Ramputra.
discarded Sanskrit language (which was mainly
patronized by the Brahmanas). z Kaivalya (highest spiritual knowledge): attained
at the age of 42 under Sal tree at Jrimbhikagrama,
z Jainism offered lower people an honorable place in
on the bank of River Rijupalika. Henceforth, they
the society.
are called Mahavir (brave), Jina or Jitendriya (one
z The sacrificial ceremonies were also found to be too
who conquered his senses), Nigrantha (free from all
expensive.
bonds), Arhat (blessed one), Kevalin (perfect learned).
z It accorded equal status to women.
z First sermon: on the Vipula Peak at Rajgir to his 11 z Symbol:
disciples – known as Gandharas/Gandharvas. Mahavira’s symbol was a lion.
z First disciple: Indrabhuti Gautama (female) Rishabhnatha’s symbol was a bull.
z Death: at the age of 72 years in c. 527 BCE at Pavapuri Parsvanatha’s symbol was a hooded serpent.
near Patna.
4.4 PHILOSOPHY AND TEACHINGS OF JAINISM

Tenets of Jainism z Belief in God: Jainism recognised the existence of god but placed them lower than Jina
(Mahavira).
z It did not condemn the varna system but attempted to mitigate the evils of the varna order
and the ritualistic Vedic religion.
z According to Mahavira, a person is born in higher or lower varna as the consequence of
the sins or the virtues in the previous birth. Thus, Jainism believes in transmigration of the
soul and theory of Karma.
Anekantavada z Emphasizes that the ultimate truth and reality is complex, and has multiple-aspects i.e. theory
of plurality.
z It refers to the simultaneous acceptance of multiple, diverse, even contradictory viewpoints.
Syadvada z All judgments are conditional, holding good only in certain conditions, circumstances, or
senses.
z Syadavada literally means the method of examining different probabilities.
z Seven modes of prediction (Saptabhangi Nayavada).
Five Doctrines of z Parshvanatha’s teachings (Chaturthi):
Jainism Ahimsa: Non-injury to a living being.
Satya: Do not speak a lie.
Asteya: Do not steal.
Aparigraha: Do not acquire property.
z Mahavira added One more teaching:

Brahmacharya: Observe continence.
z It mainly aims at the attainment of liberation, for which no ritual is required.

Three z Right Faith: Samyak Darshan – belief in Tirthankara.
Jewels/Triratna z Right Knowledge: Samyak jnana – knowledge of the Jain creed.
z Right Action: Samyak charitra – practice of 5 vows of Jainism.
Two elements of z Jiva- meaning conscious.
the world z Atma- meaning unconscious.
Three Sources of z Pratyaksha: Direct Knowledge.
Knowledge z Anuman: Contemplation.
z Sayings of Tirthankara.
Five types z Mati Jnana – perception through activity of sense organs.
of Knowledge z Shruta Jnana – knowledge revealed by scriptures.
z Avadhi Jnana – clairvoyant perception.
z Mana Paryaya Jnana – telepathic knowledge.
z Keval Jnana – temporal knowledge.
Jain Metaphysics z Nirjana: Destruction of karma.
z Moksha: complete deliverance from karma.
z Jiva: living matter or soul.
z Ajiva: non-living matter.
z Paap: sin.
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z Punya: actions which lead to good karma.
z Asrava: flow of karma.
z Samvara: impediment of flow of karma.
z Bandha: bondage of soul to karma.
Anuvrata z Anuvrata means the ‘lesser vows’ which Jain lay-people take, as a kind of parallel to the great
vows of the ascetics. They are applied to the practice of daily life.
z The five great vows apply only to ascetics in Jainism, and in their place are five minor
vows for householders.
z The five minor vows in Jainism are modeled after the great vows, but differ in degree and they
are less demanding or restrictive than the same “great vows” for ascetics.
4.5 SECTS/SCHOOLS OF JAINISM z During the 12 years famine, the group in South India
stuck to the strict practices while the group in
z Jain order has been divided into two major sects: Magadha adopted a more lax attitude and started
Digambara and Svetambara. The division occurred wearing white clothes.
mainly due to famine in Magadha which compelled a z After the end of famine, when the Southern group
group led by Bhadrabahu to move South India. came back to Magadha, the changed practices led to
the division of Jainism into two sects.
Digambara z Monks of this sect believe in complete nudity. Male monks do not wear clothes while female monks
wear unstitched plain white sarees.
z Follow all five vows: Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha and Brahmacharya.
z Believe women cannot achieve liberation.
z The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of Kundakunda.
z Monasticism rules are more rigid under Digambara School.
z Bhadrabahu was an exponent of this sect.
z Major Sub-Sects: Mula Sangh, Bisapantha, Terapanth, Taranpantha or Samaiyapantha.
z Minor Sub-Sets: Gumanapantha, Totapantha.
Svetambara z Monks wear white clothes.
z Follow only 4 vows (except brahmacharya): Satya, Ahimsa, Asteya, Aparigraha.
z Believe women can achieve liberation.
z They believe tirthankaras can be men or women.
z Svetambara tradition of Jainism indicates five eternal substances in existence: Soul (jiva), Matter
(pudgala), Space (akasha), motion (Dharma) and rest (Adharma), unlike Digambaras which add the
sixth eternal substance as time (Kala).
z Sthulabhadra was an exponent of this sect.
z Major Sub-Sects: Murtipujaka (Deravasi), Sthanakvasi, Terapanthi.
Ajivikas z The Ajivikas or ‘Followers of the way of life,’ were an ascetic order that started at the time of Buddha
and Mahavira, and lasted until the 14th century.
z Makkhali Gosala left Mahavira to found the sect of the Ajivikas (pre-determinism or ‘Niyati’).
z No human effort could have any effect against Niyati, and therefore karma is a fallacy.
Other Sects z Uchche Dvd: Its promoter was Ajita Kesh Kambali. According to him, everything is destroyed after
death.
z Akriyavad: According to this view promoted by Puran Kasayap, there is no fruit of good and bad
deeds of human beings.
z Nityavad: Its promoter was Pakudha Kachaiyan. He told only seven elements, such as earth, water,
fire, air, happiness, sorrow and soul (these elements do not interact with one another).
z Sandehvad: Its promoter was Sanjay Beluttaputra. He neither accepted any opinion nor denied
any opinion.
z Sthanakvasi: It is a sect of Svetambara Jainism founded by a merchant named Lavaji in 1653 AD.
It believes that idol worship is not essential in the path of soul purification and attainment of
Nirvana/Moksha. Svetambaras who are not Sthanakavasins are mostly part of the Murtipujak sect.

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4.6 IMPORTANT TERMS RELATED TO JAINISM
Terms Information
Asrav z Inflow of karmas to the soul that occurs at every second in life.
Shramana z Seeker, one who performs acts of austerity and ascetic.
Samvara z Stopping the influx of the material karmas into the soul consciousness.
Nirjara z Shedding or removal of accumulated karmas from the Atma (soul), essential for breaking free
from samsara, the cycle of birth-death and rebirth, by achieving moksha, liberation.
z It is one of the seven fundamental principles, or Tattva in Jain philosophy.
Sallekhana z It is the religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by gradually reducing the intake of
food and liquids, also called Santhara.
Kaivalya z Also known as Kevala Jnana, means omniscience in Jainism and is roughly translated as
complete understanding or supreme wisdom.
Pratikraman z It is a process during which Jains repent for their sins during their daily life, and remind
Posadha themselves not to repeat them.
z Fasting by a Jaina member on full Moon and new Moon day.
Theravali z The second section of the Jaina Kalpasutra contains a list of schools.
Ajnanavada z The Jaina doctrine of agnosticism. The Jain texts mention 67 kinds of Ajnanavada.
Mahavratas z Five principles observed by Jain monks.
Siddha z Fully liberated.
Jiva z Soul.
Gunasthana z Stage of purification.
Basadis z Jaina monastic establishment.
Guna z Quality.
4.7 JAIN COUNCILS
Council Venue Chairperson Outcome
First 300 BC Patliputra. Sthulabahu, z Compilation of 12 Angas to replace 14 Purvas.

Patron-Chandragupta Maurya.
Second 512 AD Vallabhi. Devardhigani. z Final compilation of 12 Angas & 12 Upanga.
4.8 ROYAL PATRONS OF JAINISM
North India Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, Harshavardhana, Bindusara, Kharavela,
Udayan, Pradyota.
South India Kadamba dynasty, Ganga dynasty, Amoghavarsha (Rashtrakuta dynasty), Kumarapala (Chalukya
dynasty).
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4.9 IMPORTANT JAIN LITERATURE z Jainism believed in the transmigration of soul i.e.
z Traditionally, the original doctrine of Jainism was reincarnation while Buddhism does not.
contained in scriptures called Purva. There were z Buddhism prescribes a middle path while Jainism
fourteen Purva. Jain literature is mainly written in advocates its followers to live the life of complete
Prakrit language. austerity.
z These Agamas are further divided into: Angas,
Mulasutra, Upangas, Prakirnaka Sutra, Chedasutra & 4.11 JAIN ARCHITECTURE
Ulikasutras.
z Manastambha: It is found in the front side of
z Kalpasutra: written by Bhadrabahu. It contains the temple, having religious importance with an
biographies of Jain Tirthankaras. ornamental pillar structure carrying the image of
z Agam or Canonical Literature (Agam Sutras): Agam Tirthankara on top and on all four cardinal directions.
(‘what has come down to us’ or tradition) literature z Basadis: Jain monastic establishment or temples in
consists of many texts, which are the sacred books Karnataka.
of the Jain religion. They are written in the Ardha-
magadhi, a form of Prakrit language. The canonical
Jain literature is claimed to have started from Layana/ z Ellora Caves (Cave No. 30-35)-
Adinatha (Rishabhnath) (first Tirthankara). Gumphas Maharashtra.
z Non Agam Literature: consists of commentary and (Caves) z Mangi Tungi Cave- Maharashtra.
explanation of Agam literature, and independent z Gajpantha Cave- Maharashtra.
works, compiled by ascetics and scholars. They are z Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves- Odisha.
written partly in Prakrit dialects (such as Maharashtri) z Hathi-gumpha Cave- Odisha.
and partly in Sanskrit. z Sittanavasal Cave- Tamil Nadu.
4.10 EIGHT AUSPICIOUS SYMBOLS Statues z Gomateshwara/Bahubali Statue-
UNDER JAINISM Shravanabelagola, Karnataka.
z Statue of Ahimsa (Rishabnatha)-
Mangi-Tungi hills, Maharashtra.
Swastika z It signifies peace and well-being
of the humans. Jainalaya z Dilwara Temple- Mount Abu,
Nandyavarta z It is a large swastika with nine (Temple) Rajasthan.
end points. z Girnar and Palitana Temple- Gujarat.
Bhadrasana z A throne which is said to be z Muktagiri Temple- Maharashtra.
sanctified by the Jaina’s feet.
Shrivasta z A mark which manifested on 4.12 SPREAD OF JAINISM
the Jain’s chest and signified his
pure soul. z Through Sangha, it consists of women & men.
Darpana z The mirror which reflects the z Under the patronage of Chandragupta Maurya,
inner self. Kharavela of Kalinga and the royal dynasties of south
India such as the Ganges, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas
Minayugala z A couple of fish which signifies
and the Rashtrakutas.
the conquest over sexual urges.
z When Bhadrabahu (Guru of Chandragupta Maurya)
Vardhamanaka z A shallow dish used as a lamp left for South India, Sthulabahu remained in the
which shows the increase in North with his followers.
wealth, due and merit.
z Chandragupta Maurya (he himself became a Jaina
Kalasha z A pot filled with pure water ascetic and spent his last years in Karnataka).
signifying water.
4.13 CONTRIBUTION OF JAINISM
Comparison between Jainism and Buddhism: z Preached Non-violence toward all living beings.
z Jainism recognised the existence of god while z Growth of Prakrit & kannada language.
Buddhism did not. z Vardhaman Mahavir preached in ‘Ardha-Magadhi’
z Jainism does not condemn the varna system while language, the language of the common man.
Buddhism does. z Introduced new philosophy – Syatvad.

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z Art & architecture - statue of Gomateshwara (Shramanbdlogola), temples of Khajuraho and Abu. Tiger cave of
Udayagiri and Indra Sabha of Ellora.
z Jainism contributed to the growth of the trading community.
4.14 TIRTHANKARAS AND THEIR SYMBOLS

Tirthankara Symbol Tirthankara Symbol
Rishabhanatha z Bull Vimalanatha z Hog
Ajitanatha z Elephant Anantanatha z Hawk or Porcupine

Sambhavanatha z Horse Dharmanatha z Thunderbolt
Abhinandananatha z Ape (Monkey) Santinatha z Antelope
Sumatinatha z Heron Kunthunatha z Goat
Padmaprabhu z Red lotus Aranatha z Fish
Suparsvanatha z Swastika Mallinatha z Jar
Chandraprabha z Moon (Crescent) Suvrata z Tortoise
Suvidhinath z Dolphin Neminatha z Blue lotus
Sitalanatha z Wishing Tree Arishtanemi z Conch
Shreya Sanatha z Rhinoceros Parshvanath z Hooded serpent
Vasupujya z Buffalo Mahavira z Lion
Mahavira’s Disciples
Agnipath Indrabhuti, Vayu Bhuti, Sudharman, Mandit Moriyaputra
Achala Putra Prabhas, Metarya, Aleampit, Vyakta, Chetak
Pradyot Bimbisara Ajatshatru Dadhivahan Malliray Sastipal
v v v
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5 Buddhism
z During the later Vedic period, (around 5 circa B.C) two z Liberal & democratic: Unlike Brahmanism, it was far
important religions -Buddhism and Jainism - came more liberal & democratic. It won the hearts of the
up with new philosophies. lower classes as it attacked the varna system.
z Simple language: The Pali language which Buddha
5.1 PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHISM used was the spoken language of the masses.
z The religion is based upon the teachings, life z Personality of the Buddha: He was kind and ego-less.
experiences of its founder Siddhartha Gautam, born His calm composure, simple philosophy and his life of
in circa 563 BCE. renunciation drew the masses to him.
z Buddha asked his followers to avoid the two extremes z Royal patronage: Kings like Prasenjit, Bimbisara,
of indulgence in worldly pleasure and the practice of Ashoka, Kanishka patronized Buddhism and helped
strict abstinence and asceticism. it spread throughout India and outside as well.
z He ascribed instead the Madhyam Marg (Madhya Ashoka sent his children to Sri Lanka for the spread
Pratipada) or the middle path which was to be of Buddhism.
followed. z Inexpensive: Buddhism was inexpensive, without the
z Roots of Buddhism in the past: Vedanta, Sankhya expensive rituals that characterized the Vedic religion.
philosophy & Upanishad. 5.1.2 Causes of Origin of Buddhism
z Expensive & complicated Vedic rituals, Superstitious
5.1.1 Reasons for the Spread and beliefs, mantras confused the people.
Popularity of Buddhism z The teachings of the Upanishads were highly
philosophical, therefore not understood by all.
z The rigid caste system prevalent in India generated
Liberal and Simple Personality Royal
Democractic
Inexpensive tensions in society.
language of Buddha Patronage
order. z Desire of Vaishya to improve their social position due
to the increase in trade and economic prosperity.
Fig. 5.1: Reasons for the Spread and popularity of Buddhism z Unrest in society due to supremacy of the Brahmins.
z Practice of killing cows became a hindrance to the
new Agricultural economy.
5.2 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATED TO BUDDHISM

Gautama Buddha z He is also known as Siddharta, Sakyamuni & Tathagata.
(563 BC-483 BC) z Belonged to the Sakya Clan.
z Father: Suddhodana.
z Mother: Mahamaya (princess of the Kosala dynasty); brought up by his maternal aunt,
Prajapati Gautami. She gave him the name ‘Gautama’.
z Wife: Yashodhara and had a son, Rahula.
z Birth Place: Lumbini, Kapilavastu (in present Nepal) capital of Sakya republic.
z Teachers: Alara kama and Udraka Ramputra
z Enlightenment: At age of 33 under Peepal tree at Uruvela (Bodhgaya) on banks of river
Niranjana (Falgu).
z First Sermon: Sarnath (Deer park) (Varanasi) to 5 disciples including Mahakasyapa (first
disciple); known as Dharma Chakra Parivarthana (turning of the wheel of law).
z Mahaparinirvana: Under Sal tree at Kushinagar (in UP) at age of 80.
z Idea of renunciation:Sight of Sick man, Old man, Corpse and Ascetic.
z Contemporaries of Buddha: Mahavira Jaina, Kings Prasenjit, Bimbisara and Ajatasatru.
Doctrine of z Did not involve himself in debates of soul & Brahma but concentrated on worldly problems.
Buddhism z Buddhism accepts transmigration and impermanence.
z Buddha did not believe in God or soul.
z Stressed on karma and ahimsa.
z Against the varna system.
z World is full of sorrows & people suffer on account of desires.If desires are conquered,
Nirvana will be attained & there will be freedom from the cycle of birth & death.
Literary Sources z Ceylonese Chronicles: Mahavamsa by Mahanama, Dipavamsa and Attakatha by
Wattagamani.
z Tibetan Chronicles: Divyavadana-Kalachakra.
z Tripitaka/ Three baskets of Buddhist scripture:
Sutta Pitaka: Sutra related to Buddha and companions.
Vinaypitaka: monastic rules.
Abhidhampitaka: Doctrine and philosophy of Buddhism.
z Jataka Folklore: stories related to the birth of Buddha/in Chinese they are called Sadok.
z Milindapanha: Questions of Milinda i.e Greek king Meander and answers of Buddhist monk
Nagasena.
3 Jewels of z Buddha: Founder/Teacher.
Buddhism z Dhamma: Teachings.
(Triratna) z Sangha: Order of Buddhist monks/nuns.
Three Pitakas z Vinaya Pitaka: consists of rules of conduct and discipline applicable to the monastic life of
the monks and nuns.
z Sutta Pitaka: consists of the main teaching or Dhamma of Buddha. It is divided into five
Nikayas or collections: Digha Nikaya, Majjhima Nikaya, Samyutta Nikaya, Anguttara Nikaya,
Khuddaka Nikaya.
z Abhidhamma Pitaka: philosophical analysis and systematization of the teaching and the
scholarly activity of the monks.
z Other important Buddhist texts include Divyavadana, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Milind
Panha etc.
4 Noble Truths: z Truth of Suffering (Dukkha): Buddha taught that everything is suffering (Sabbam Dukkham).
‘Chatwari Arya It refers not only to the actual pain and sorrow experienced by an individual, but also to the
potential to experience these things.
Satyani’
z Truth of the cause of Suffering (Samudaya): Suffering is part of living. Desire (Trishna) is
the main cause of suffering.
z Truth of the End of Suffering (Nirodha): This suffering can be ended by attaining Nirvana/
Nibbana.
z Truth of the Path Leading to the End of Suffering (Astangika-Marga): There is a path
that leads to the end of suffering.
5 Buddha’s z Buddha also established code of conduct both for the monastic order and the laymen to
Teachings follow which are also known as the Five Precepts or Panchshila:
(Panchshila) No killing and respect for life.
Abstention from theft.
Abstention from sexual misconduct.
Abstention from falsehood.
Abstention from intoxication.
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The Five z Buddha believed that a human being is a collection of Five Aggregates and a proper
Aggregates understanding of these is an essential step towards the attainment of freedom from suffering.
(Pancha-khanda z Material Form (Rupa): It includes the five physical organs (ear, eye, tongue, nose & body)
or Panch and the corresponding objects of the sense organs (sound, sight, taste, smell and tangible
objects).
skandha)
z Feeling or Sensation (Vedana): The aggregate of feelings arising out of contact with the
objects of the senses is of three kinds-pleasant, unpleasant and indifferent.
z Perception (Sanna): This aggregate is the capacity to recognize & conceptualize things by
associating them with other things.
z Mental formation (Santharas): This aggregate may be described as a conditioned response
to the object of experience.
z Consciousness (Vinnana): The aggregate of consciousness is an indispensable element in
the prediction of experience. It is essential to understand that consciousness depends on the
other aggregates and does not exist independently.
Eight-Fold Paths z The path consists of various interconnected activities related to knowledge, conduct, and
(Astangika meditative practices. Eight-Fold Path is more about unlearning rather than learning:
Right understanding (Samma-Ditthi): Understanding that the Four Noble Truths are
Marga)
noble and true.
Right thought (Samma-Sankappa): Determining and resolving to practice Buddhist
faith.
Right speech (Samma-Vaca): Avoiding slander, gossip, lying, and all forms of untrue
and abusive speech.
Right conduct (Samma-Kammanta): Adhering to the idea of nonviolence (ahimsa), as
well as refraining from any form of stealing or sexual impropriety.
Right means of making a living (Samma-Ajiva): Not slaughtering animals or working
at jobs that force you to violate others.
Right mental attitude or effort (Samma-Vayama): Avoiding negative thoughts and
emotions, such as anger and jealousy.
Right mindfulness (Samma-Sati): Having a clear sense of one’s mental state and bodily
health and feelings.
Right concentration (Samma-Samadhi): It signifies ‘Samadhi’ in the sense of
enlightenment or Buddhahood.
5.3 GREAT EVENTS IN BUDDHA’S LIFE 5.4 BUDDHIST SANGHA AND

AND SYMBOLS ITS FEATURES
z The oldest prayer place in history where slaves,
Great Events in Buddha’s Life Symbols
Insolvents, and diseased were not allowed.
Avakranti z White Elephant. z There were 64 types of crimes called Pathimokshas,
(conception or descent) which were prohibited.
Janma (birth) z Lotus and Bull. z Women were also allowed to join.
Mahabhinishkramana z Horse. 5.4.1 Important Buddhist Scholars
(Great Renunciation) z Moggaliputta Tissa: launched Ashoka’s dhamma
Nirvana/ Sambodhi z Bodhi tree. campaign.
(enlightenment) z Asvagosha: wrote Buddhacharita and Sanskrit
drama Sariputra Prakarana (Sariputra - the disciple
Dharmachakra Parivarthana z Wheel. of Buddha).
(first Sermon) z Nagarjuna: Founded Madhyamaka school of
Mahaparinirvana (Death) z Stupa. Mahayana Buddhism, gave theory of Sunyavada-
Emptiness and important work including
Mulamadhyamakakarika.

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z Buddhaghosa: most important commentator of z Dinnaga: The last mighty intellectual of the fifth
Theravada, important work is Visuddimagga. century, also well known as the founder of the
z Dharmakirti: Teacher at Nalanda, called as Kant of Buddhist logic
India.
z Asanga and Vasubandhu: Two brothers who
5.4.2 Bodhisattvas
flourished in the Punjab region in the fourth century z In Mahayana, Buddhism Bodhisattva is a person
CE. who can reach nirvana but delays doing so through
compassion for suffering beings.
Asanga was the most important teacher of
Yogacara or Vijnanavada school founded by his z It is similar to the concept of incarnations in Hindu
guru, Maitreyanatha. Mythology.
Vasubandhu’s greatest work, Abhidharmakosa, z Bodhisattvas are common figures in Buddhist
is still considered an important encyclopedia of literature and art.
Buddhism.
Bodhisattva Traits
Maitreya z Future Buddha & earliest bodhisattva.
z Also known as Ajita-Bodhisattva.
z Holds a waterfall in his left hand.
z Popular laughing Buddha is claimed to be an incarnation of Maitreya.
Samantabhadra z Universal Bodhisattva.

z Associated with Meditation.
z Manifestation is action.
Vajrapani z Like Indra, holds a thunderbolt (depict power).
z Depicted as one of the 3 protective deities around Buddha.
z Others two: Manjusri and Avlokiteshwara.
Avalokitesvara z Kind-hearted.
z Manifests Buddha’s compassion.
Kshitigarbha z Guardian of purgatories and children.
z Bodhisattva of hell-beings or earth immortal beings.
Amitabha z Buddha of Heaven.
Sadaparibhuta z Manifests never disparaging spirit.
Manjushri z Stimulator of understanding and he holds a book describing 10 paramitas.
z Depict male Bodhisattva wielding a flaming sword in his left hand.
Akasagarbha z He is boundless as space.
z Manifestation of wisdom.
5.5 BUDDHIST COUNCILS

Council Venue Chairman Patron
First - 483 BC Sattapani cave Mahakasyapa. Ajatasatru (Harayanka).
at Rajgriha.
Outcomes:
It was held soon after the Mahaparinirvan of the Buddha.
The council was held with the purpose of preserving Buddha’s teachings (Sutta)
and rules for disciples.
During this council, the teachings of Buddha were divided into three Pitakas.
Compilation of Sutta pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka by Upali
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Second - 383 BC Vaishali Sabakami Kalashoka (Shishunaga)
Outcome: Division into Sthaviradins & Mahasanghikas.
Third - 250 BC Pataliputra Mogaliputta Tissa Ashoka (Maurya)
Outcome:
Compilation of Abhidhamma Pitaka.
Decision to send missionaries to various parts of the world.
Fourth - 98 AD Kashmir Vasumitra & Vice-chairperson: Kanishka (Kushana)

Ashvaghosa
Outcomes:
Compilation of Mahavibhasha sastra.
All deliberations were conducted in Sanskrit.
Division of Buddhism into Hinayana (the Lesser Vehicle) and Mahayana (the
Greater Vehicle).
Abhidhamma texts were translated from Prakrit to Sanskrit.
5.6 SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM

5.6.1 Major Schools: Mahayana & Hinayana
Mahayana Buddhism Hinayana Buddhism
z The term Mahayana (Sanskrit word) which literally z Considered a Lesser Vehicle. Also known as
means Greater Vehicle. Abandoned Vehicle or Defective vehicle.
z Sought salvation through grace & help of Buddha & z It believes in the original teaching of Buddha or
Bodhisattvas. Doctrine of elders.
z It originated in northern India and Kashmir and z Orthodox, conservative schools of Buddhism.
then spread east into Central Asia, East Asia and some z Followed the original teachings of Buddha.
areas of Southeast Asia: China, Mongolia, Korea, Tibet z Sought individual salvation through self-discipline
and Japan. & meditation.
z Believed that Buddha will be born again. z Buddha will never be reborn.
z Worship Buddha in idol form. z Did not believe in Idol worship.
z Language: Sanskrit. z Language: Pali.
z Mahayana sects include: Pure Land, Zen, and Vajrayana z Buddha was an intellectual, not a god.
(or Tantric) Buddhism.
z Encompasses 18 sub schools. Most important:
z Sub-schools: Chittmatra & Madhyamaka. Sarvastivada, Theravadin & Sautantrika.
z Zen is a sub school of Mahayana which is prevalent in z Buddhism preached by Emperor Ashoka was
China, Korea and related to Taoism. Hinayana.
5.6.2 Other Schools: Theravada, Vajrayana & Zen
Theravada and Sarvastivada z Theravada Buddhism is older and the more conservative of the two main
divisions of Buddhism and is often referred to as the ‘Tradition of the Elder’.
z Theravada is a Hinayana sect.
z Theravada Buddhists strive to become Arhats and gain freedom from the cycle
of samsara.
z Sarvastivadin considers everything empirical to be impermanent, they
maintain that the dharma factors are eternally existing realities.
z Theravada Buddhism developed in Sri Lanka and subsequently spread to the
rest of Southeast Asia. It is the dominant form of religion in Cambodia, Laos,
Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.

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Vajrayana z Vajrayana means The Vehicle of the Thunderbolt, also known as Tantric
Buddhism.
z This Buddhist school developed in India around 900 CE.
z Believed in acquiring magical power for liberation.
z Developed in Tibet and believes in the worship of female deities - Taras.
z It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.
Zen z It is a sub-school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the
Tang dynasty as the Chan school of Chinese Buddhism and later developed
into various schools.
z It spread to Japan in the 7th century C.E.
z Meditation is the most distinctive feature of this Buddhist tradition.
5.7 MISCELLANEOUS
5.7.1 Buddhist Universities with their Location and Founder

University Location Founder
Nalanda z Bihar z Kumaragupta I (Gupta Ruler)
Odantapuri z Bihar z Gopala (Pala Ruler)
Vikramshila z Bihar z Dharampala (Pala Ruler)
Somapuri z North Bengal z Dharampala (Pala Ruler)
Jagadal z Bengal z Rampala (Pala Ruler)
Vallabhi z Gujarat z Bhattarika (Maitrak Ruler)
5.7.2 Important Terms and Meanings Related to Buddhism

Term Meaning
Arhats Liberated beings.
Nirvana State of Supreme Bliss.
Sheel Refers to when a layperson leaves home to live the life of a Buddhist renunciate among
a community of bhikkhus.
Sarma One who labors, toils, or exerts themselves (for some higher or religious purpose) or a
seeker, who performs acts of austerity, ascetic.
Upasampada Refers to the rite and ritual of ascetic vetting (ordination) by which a candidate, if
deemed acceptable, enters the community as Upasampada (ordained) and authorized
to undertake ascetic life.
Vassa Three-month annual retreat observed by Theravada practitioners. It lasts for three
lunar months, usually from July to October (wet months).
Uposatha It is a Buddhist day of observance. The Buddha taught that the Uposatha day is for the
cleansing of the defiled mind, resulting in inner calm and joy.
Pavarana Assembly at the end of Vassa.
Posadha Restoration of vows.
Mahabhinishkramana Great going forth – renunciation.
Chaityas Prayer halls of monks.
Viharas Monasteries.
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Parajika Literally meaning defeat, it included four most serious offenses involving expulsion from
the Sangha.
Upasakas Male followers who have taken refuge in the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, but who
have not taken monastic vows.
Upasikas Female followers who have taken refuge in the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, but who
have not taken monastic vows.
5.8 CONTRIBUTION OF BUDDHISM

Socio- Religious Sphere Art and Culture Sphere
z Stressed on ethical living rather than rituals, animal z The stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut and Gaya, the
sacrifices, etc. chaityas and viharas.
z Does not recognize the existence of God/soul. z Promoted education through residential univer-
z Taught the Middle path for salvation. sities like those at Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramasila.
z Propagated Liberal & democratic values Women z The language of Pali and other local languages
were given equal status as men. developed through the teachings of Buddhism.
z Opposed caste and Varna system, any form of z Promoted the spread of Indian culture to other
hierarchy and discrimination. parts of Asia.
z Authority of Vedas was challenged. Faith was given a
rational basis.
z Concept of ahimsa was its chief contribution.
5.9 CAUSES FOR THE DECLINE OF BUDDHISM

z Decline of Buddhist Sanghas due to violation of Buddhist principles & discipline.
z The Buddhists began to adopt Sanskrit, the language of the elite. So the masses moved away.
z The attack of Huns in 5th & 6th centuries and Turkish invaders in the 12th century destroyed the monasteries.
z Buddhism was mainly an urban religion with rural India always Hindu. When Islam came to India, it impacted
the urban regions & thus Buddhism was impacted.
z Revival of Brahmanism and division among Buddhists.
z Rajput rulers were warlike and could not follow the policy of Ahimsa.
z Loss of Royal Patronage.
z Image worship was started in Buddhism by the Mahayana Buddhists.
UNESCO’s Heritage sites related to Buddhism: z Heritage City Development Scheme (HRIDAY)
z Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavira at Nalanda, and identification of 3 Buddhist circuits are some
Bihar. of the few initiatives by the central government to
harness the Buddhist pilgrims to both augment the
z Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi, MP.
Tourism and employment opportunities.
z Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya, Bihar.
z Ajanta Caves, Aurangabad, Maharashtra.
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Pre-Mauryan Period:
6 600-300 BCE
6.1 AGE OF MAHAJANAPADAS z It was the phase during which Janapadas became
greater in size and got involved in expansion of
z The sixth century BCE is known as an era of Second territory resulting in the formation of Mahajanapadas.
Urbanisation in the Indian Subcontinent.
z Sources of information: Anguttara Nikaya (Buddhist
z The center of economic and political activity shifted texts) and Bhagwati Sutra (Jain texts).
from the North-West, Punjab, Haryana, and Western
z Magadha displayed the tendency and potential of
UP, to Eastern UP and Bihar (Ganga Basin).
becoming an empire.
z According to Buddhist texts, Anguttara Nikaya (land
z This period of Indian history was deeply influenced and
between Himalayas and Narmada) was divided into
driven by development of philosophical movements
16 independent states (Mahajanapadas).
like Jainism and Buddhism.
6.2 THE SIXTEEN MAHAJANAPADAS
Fig. 6.1: The Sixteen Mahajanapadas

z Mahajanapadas were either monarchical or and first use of coins is also reported from this
republican: period; they were called punch-mark coins.
Monarchies: on the Gangetic plain – Magadha, z Large scale use of iron tools, spread of agriculture
Kosala, Vatsa, Aanti, Anga, Kashi, Gandhara, and North Black Polished Pottery is also associated
Shursena, Chedi and Matsya. with this age.
Republics: on the foothills of the Himalayas and z During this period ‘Brahmi’ script appeared for the
in north- western India – Malla, Vajji, Kamboja first time.
and Kuru. z Taxation added to the wealth of the state, prostitution
z Economic growth led to development of urban centers too appeared in the cities.
Mahajanapada Capital Information

Kamboja Pooncha/Rajpura z Laid in Afghanistan & Some parts of Jammu & Kashmir.
z The kambojas were famous for their excellent horse breeds.
Ashmakas Paithan z Situated on the banks of the river Godavari near modern Paithan in
Maharashtra.
z It was the only Mahajanapada situated to the south of the Vindhya
Range, and was in Dakshinapatha.
Vatsa Kaushambi z Central Malwa and the adjoining areas of Madhya Pradesh.
z The Vatsa capital is located 64 km from Allahabad at Kaushambi on
the bank of the Yamuna.
z Swapna Vasavadatta was written about king Udayana (ruler of
Vatsa) love affairs.
Avanti Ujjaini (North)/ z The Avanti’s king Pradyota is famous in legends, and had relations
Mahishmati (South) with Udayan, the ruler of Vatsa.
Shurasena Mathura z It was marked by uneven roads, excessive dust, vicious talks and
‘Yakshas’. Belonging to the Yadava clan which is also associated with
Krishna.
Chedi Suktimati z Eastern parts of Bundelkhand and adjoining areas.
Malla Kusinara/ Pava z Non-monarchical, Kusinara is identified with Kasia in Gorakhpur
district and Pava is possibly identical with Pawapuri in Patna district.
Kuru Hastinapur/ z Delhi-Meerut region.
Indraprastha z Tribal polity.
z Formed because of the alliance and merger between the Bharata and
Pura tribes.
Panchala Ahichhatra z Modern Kampil in Farrukhabad district.
(W.Panchala), z Tribal polity.
Kampily (S. Panchala)
Matsya Virat Nagari z Associated with modern Jaipur- Bharatpur-Alwar region of
Rajasthan.
Vajji (Vrijji) Vaishali z From north of the Ganga and up to as far as the Nepal hills.
z A confederation of eight clans (atthakula), of whom the Videhans, the
Lichchhavis, the Jnatrikas and the Vrijjis were the most important.
z A flourishing non-monarchical state in the time of Mahavira and
Gautama Buddha.
Gandhara Taxila z Extended up to the Kabul valley.
z Gandhara king Pukkusati exchanged gifts with Bimbisara in Magadha
and went on foot to see the Buddha.
z According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Gandhara formed the
twentieth province of the Achaemenid empire of Persia.

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Anga Champa z Modern districts of Munger and Bhagalpur, Bihar. Noted for its
wealth and commerce.
Kashi Banaras z Initially, the most powerful of them played an important part in the
subversion of the Videhan monarchy.
z Leading center of textile manufacture in the time of the Buddha; the
kashaya (orange brown) robes of the Buddhist monks are said to
have been manufactured here.
Koshala Shravasti z Ayodhya on the Saryu, Saketa adjoining it and Shravasti (modern
Sahet- Mahet) on the borders of the Gonda and Bahraich districts of
Uttar Pradesh, were three important Koshalan cities.
Magadha Rajagriha/Girivraja z Modern Patna and Gaya districts of Bihar; bounded on the north and
west by the rivers Ganga and Son respectively.
z Did not follow the varna system, hence Brahmanical texts make
derogatory remarks for Magadha and Buddhist text hold it high in
regard as being the place of Buddha’s enlightenment (Gaya).
z Details of the king and people of Magadha are mentioned in the
Anguttara Nikaya.
6.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY OF Two major trans-regional routes of the time:

Uttarapatha: of northern India, stretching from
MAHAJANAPADA PERIOD the north-west across the Indo-Gangetic plains to
z Economy: the port city of Tamralipti on the Bay of Bengal.
Most urban settlements were inhabited by Dakshinapatha: of southern India, stretching
merchants and artisans (organized into a ‘sartha’ from Patliputra in Magadha to Pratishthana on the
guild). Godavari, and connected to ports on the western
Practice of trade and crafts was hereditary. coast.
Most important cities of the time were settled on z Society:
the banks of the rivers and trade routes. The Pali texts (Vinay Pitaka) suggests three types
Money economy: Trade was facilitated through of villages (grama).

use of money called ‘Nishka’ and ‘Satamana’ Typical villages: inhabited by various castes
(mentioned in Vedic texts; no archaeological and communities – headed by gramabhojaka,
evidence). gramini or gramakas.
Mahajani System (banking system): Buddhism Suburban villages: which were in the nature of
and Jainism recognized Mahajani or money craft villages.
lending. Border villages (anamika-grama): which were
Agriculture was made easier with the use of iron situated on the periphery of the countryside
tools. Paddy transplantation was practiced. Barley, Society was divided into four varnas: Brahmans,
cotton, pulses, millets and sugarcane were also Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
produced. Writing had started and was used for book
1/6th of the farm produce was to be paid to the keepings in trade, taxation and the large size of
royal agent as tax and there were no intermediate the army.
landlords. Lower varnas were subjected to many
Rich peasants were called ‘Grihapatis’. Vessa discriminations.
meant Merchants Street. The strengthening of patriarchal control within
‘Balisadhakas’ collected the compulsory taxes the household led to the increased subordination
called ‘bali’ from peasants and Vaishyas only. of women. Position of women degraded further
Land route: A route led from Taxila to north except in Buddhist and Jain orders.
Afghanistan and Iran and from there silver, gold, Number of castes appeared and the condition of
Lapis lazuli, jade (ornamental mineral) were untouchability further worsened.
obtained as raw materials. The age of marriage of women was reduced
Sea route: The Pali texts of this period throw compared to the Vedic period.
light on foreign trade. There is a mention of sea Severe punishments were awarded by royal
merchants in the Angutar Nikaya. agents.
P Pre-Mauryan Period: 600-300 BCE 33

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z Administration and Army: Another class of officers performing similar
Jatakas or stories of previous lives of Buddha functions were called Aayuktas.
mention that land grants were given in favor of Administration of the village was under a village
great religious leaders. headman called Gramabhojaka, Gramini or
The King was the highest administrative Gramika.
official who was supported by other officials Large, professional and permanent army.
called Mahamantras who performed functions This period marks the origin of the Indian legal
of Mantrin (minister) and Senanayaka and judicial systems. The civil and criminal law
(Commander), judge and chief accountant etc. was based on the varna division.
6.4 THE MAGADHA EMPIRE
Magadha Empire
Harayanka Dynasty Shishunga Dynasty Nanda Dynasty
Bimbisara Ajatshatru Udayin Shishunga Kalasoka Mahapadma Dhana
Fig. 6.2: The Magadha Empire
z The Magadha word was first mentioned in z Magadha had a strategic position between the upper
Atharvaveda. and lower part of the Gangetic valley.
z Kashi, Koshala, Magadha and the Vajji confederacy— z The iron ores in the hills near Rajgir and copper and
remained significant in the sixth century BC. iron deposits near Gaya were the natural assets of
z Jarasandha, who was a descendant of Brihadratha Magadha.
(eldest of the five sons of Vasu, the Kuru king of Chedi) z Capital of Magadha: Rajgriha
founded the empire in Magadha. z First King of Magadha was Brihadratha and he
z Magadha emerged victorious and became the center belonged to the Brihadratha dynasty.
of political activity in north India. z During the reign of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the
prosperity of Magadha reached its zenith.
6.4.1 Major Dynasties

Haryanka Dynasty (544 BC-492 BC)
Bimbisara Ajatashatru Udayin (Udayabhadra)
(542-493 BC) (492-460 BC) (460-444 BC)
z The first important ruler of z Ajatashatru killed his father - z As per the Mahavamsa, the Sri
Magadha, Bimbisara, was a patron Bimbisara - and ascended the Lankan Buddhist chronicle,
of Buddhism. throne. Ajatashatru’s son Udayin
z He was a contemporary of both z Adopted expansionist policy & succeeded Ajatashatru and ruled
Buddha and Mahavira, and paid defeated Koshala and Vaishali. for the next sixteen years.
equal respect to them. z Ajatashatru was the z Founded the new capital at
z Bimbisar’s capital: Rajgriha contemporary of Buddha. Pataliputra (modern Patna),
or Girivraja. He is described as Buddha died during his reign. situated at the confluence of
Seniya, i.e., the one ‘with an army’. z Most powerful and aggressive Ganga and Son rivers.
z Started the practice of using ruler. z The last ruler of the Haryanka
matrimonial alliances to z He convened the First Buddhist dynasty.
strengthen his political position. Council at Rajgriha just after z Succeeded by three kings:
the death of Buddha in 483 BC. Aniruddha, Manda, Nagadasaka.

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z Dynastic marriages promoted z Used two innovative military z They were later succeeded by the
goodwill between Bimbisara and weapons: War engine Sisunaga dynasty.
contemporary rulers of Koshala (Mahashilakantaka); Chariot
and Viji. with mace (Rathamusala).
z Policy of conquest and expansion. z The fortification of Rajgriha.
z First king to have a standing army.
z Bimbisara sent his personal
physician Jivaka to Ujjain to win
the friendship of Pradyota, the
king of Avanti.
z Bimbisara’s aggression was
towards Anga Mahajanapada, it
was annexed to Magadha.
z Effective and excellent
administrative system.
Shishunaga Dynasty (412 BC-344 BC)
Shishunaga Kalasoka
z Shishunaga was earlier a Viceroy/Amatya (high z Also known as Kakarvarna (according to the Puranas).
ranking official) at Varanasi (Banaras). z Son and successor of Shishunaga.
z Temporarily shifted capital to Vaishali. z Kalashoka shifted the capital back to Patliputra.
z During the reign of Shishunaga, Magadha annexed z Convened the Second Buddhist Council held at Vaishali.
Avanti (Ujjain) and many other Janapadas into the
fold of the Magadha empire.
Nanda Dynasty (First non-Kshatriya dynasty)(344 BC-323 BC)
Mahapadma Nanda Dhana Nanda
z Mahapadma Nanda, who was from a shudra (non- z Last important king of the Nanda dynasty.
Kshatriya) lineage, laid the foundation of the z He is referred to as Agrammes or Xandrames in Greek
Nanda dynasty in Magadha. Also called Ugrasena texts.
in Pali texts, because of his large army. z Credited with the invention of Nandopakramani (a
z He is called the first historical emperor of India. particular measuring standard).
z Puranas refer to him as destroyer of all Kshatriyas z He was a contemporary of Alexander of Macedon.
i.e. Sarvaksatrantaka and Ekarat. Alexander invaded North-Western India during his reign.
z Presence of Jain ministers like Kalpaka, Sakatala, z Finally, he was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya
etc. in his court indicates his leaning towards along with Chanakya, which led to the foundations of the
Jainism. Mauryan Empire in Magadha.
6.4.2 Causes of Magadha’s Success z Magadha could easily control trade because of its
strategic location. It had a large population which
z Magadha enjoyed an advantageous geographical
followed different occupations such as agriculture,
position. Magadha was located on the main land
mining, building cities and served in the army.
route between west and east India. Both Rajagir and
Pataliputra were located on strategic positions (near z With the annexation of Anga by Bimbisara, river
to richest Iron ores). Champa was added to the Magadha Empire. Champa
was important in trade with South-East Asia, Sri
z The area had fertile soil drained by river Ganga,
Lanka and South India.
which received enough rainfall.
z Magadha society had an unorthodox character.
z Pataliputra has a famous water fort (Jaladurga),
Society was not much dominated by the Brahmanas.
encircled by rivers on three sides, the Ganga, Son and
Gandak making the region impregnable to enemies z It had a good mix of Aryan and non-Aryan people.
and fourth river Ghaghra joins the Ganga nearby. z Emergence of Jainism and Buddhism led to a
z Magadha had huge copper and iron deposits. revolution in terms of philosophy and thoughts. They
both enhanced liberal traditions.
P Pre-Mauryan Period: 600-300 BCE 35

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z Magadha had strong standing armies and availability z Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum):
of iron enabled them to develop advanced weaponry. Porus, who ruled the territory between the
Magadha was the first to deploy elephants on a large Jhelum and the Ravi, was defeated and captured
scale in wars. after initial resistance.
Alexander, impressed by Porus’ resistance,
6.5 FOREIGN INVASIONS reinstated him to power.
Alexander’s army refused to cross river Beas
6.5.1 Iranian (Persian) Invasion in India (Hyphasis) to fight further and thus a clash
z Founder of the Achaemenid empire of Persia (Iran), between the tired Macedonian mercenaries and
Cyrus II invaded the region west of river Indus, the huge army of the Nandas did not happen.
during Bimbisar’s reign in Magadha, and succeeded After establishing a few Greek settlements in
in establishing control over Gandhara, Kamboja, and north-west India, Alexander died in 323 BC in
Madra. His grandson Darius I conquered Punjab and Babylon.
Sindh. z Impacts:
z As a result, Indo-Iranian trade, influences of language, Direct contact between India and Greece (Europe).
art and architecture increased.
Encouraged political unification of north India
z Bell-shaped capital, Ashokan inscriptions and under the Mauryas.
introduction of Kharosthi script are the products of
Accounts by Alexander’s historians provide
this influence.
information about that period.
6.5.2 Greek/Alexander’s Invasion Seeds of Indo-Bactrian and Parthian States in
India.
(327 BC – 325 BC)
Greek influences on the Gandhara School of Art
z After defeating Darius III, the last Achaemenid emperor,
and Architecture.
Alexander crossed the Hindukush and entered north-
New land & sea routes were discovered by
western India which was an Achaemenid province in
327 BC. Alexander.
z Ambhi (Omphis), the king of Takshashila, submitted
to Alexander.
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7 Mauryan Age
z The Maurya period not only marks the establishment 7.1.2 Archaeological Sources
of the first sub-continental empire, but also the z Punch marked coins, Northern Black Polished
development of innovative and comparatively stable Ware (NBPW).
governance strategies.
z Wooden palace of Chandragupta Maurya in Pataliputra.
z Maurya ruled over the whole of the sub-continent,
z Ashokan inscriptions and Edicts.
except Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and some parts of north-
eastern India. z Junagarh Inscription of Rudradaman I.
7.1 SOURCES OF INFORMATION 7.2 THE MAURYAN DYNASTY

7.1.1 Literary Sources z The founder of the Mauryan dynasty, Chandragupta
z Megasthenes’ Indica: Maurya (324/321 – 297 BCE) inherited a large army
of the Nandas, which he used to conquer almost the
Contains information about the Mauryan
whole of north, the northwest, and a large part of the
administration, particularly the administration
peninsular India.
of the capital city of Pataliputra and also the
military organization z There is a lot of ambiguity about the origins and caste
of the Maurya family, and they vary from text to text.
Throws light on contemporary social life.
z Buddhist texts: Digha Nikaya, Mahavamsa, and
z Kautilya’s Arthashastra:
Divyavadana, speak of the Mauryas as belonging to
Written by Kautilya, a contemporary of a Kshatriya Moriya clan associated with the Shakyas.
Chandragupta Maurya, most important literary
z Brahmanical sources: consider them Shudras and
source for the history of the Maurya.
heretics.
Kautilya was also called Indian Machiavelli.
The manuscript of Arthashastra was first 7.2.1 Important Rulers

discovered by R. Shama Sastri in 1904.
Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BC):
z Visakha Datta’s Mudra Rakshasa:
z Chandraupta or Sandrokottos (referred to in
Drama in Sanskrit which describes how
Greek literature) launched a series of wars against
Chandragupta with the assistance of Kautilya
Dhana Nanda.
overthrew the Nandas (written during the Gupta
period). z Laid the foundation of Mauryan empire in 322 BC
with help of Chanakya (Kautilya).
It also gives a picture on the socio-economic
condition under the Mauryas. z Credit for the first unification of North India is
attributed to Chandragupta Maurya.
z Buddhist Text:
z He was the chief architect of the Mauryan empire
Jatak Stories, Dipavamsa, Ashokavadana,
and built a vast empire, which included Bihar,
Divyavadana.
Nepal, western and north-western India, and
Trinity of Buddhist texts: Mahavamsa, the Deccan.
Milindapanho, and Mahabhashya.
z In 305 BC, Chandragupta defeated Seleucas
z Brahmin Literature: Nikator, the Greek king after Alexander.
Puranas reveal the lists of Mauryan kings and the
z Megasthenes (wrote the Indica), a Greek
chronology. ambassador, was sent by Seleucus in the
Hemachandra’s Parishishta Parvan. Chandragupta Maurya court.
Dandin’s Dashakumaracharita.
Banabhatta’s Kadambari.
z According to Jaina sources, Chandragupta Uttarapatha (Taxila), Avantirashtra (Ujjain), Prachi
embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and (Pataliputra), Kalinga (Toshali) and Dakshinpatha
abdicated the throne in favor of his son. (Suvarnagiri) were important provinces.
z Accompanied by Bhadrabahu, a Jaina saint, he went z Ashoka was not an extreme pacifist. He retained
to Shravanabelagola (Karnataka) (famous for Kalinga and incorporated it into his kingdom; he
the statue of Gomateshwar), where he died by also did not disband the army.
slow starvation (Sallekhana). z Under Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire reached its
climax.
Bindusara (298–273 BC):
z Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, 7.2.2 Contributions of Ashoka
known to the Greeks as Amitrochates, while the z Ashoka and Buddhism:
Mahabhasya refer to him as Amitraghat (the He became a Buddhist under the guidance of
destroyer of foes). Madrasar, Simhasena are other Mogaliputta Tissa. Ashoka is known for his
names used for Bindusara. Dhamma policy.
z Bindusara followed the extreme fatalistic order Ashoka convened the Third Buddhist Council at
(religion) Ajivika founded by Makhali Gosala. This Pataliputra in 240 BCE, in order to strengthen
order had complete disregard for karma. the Sangha. It was presided over by Moggaliputta
z Greek sources also mention his diplomatic Tissa.
relations with western kings. According to tradition, and as mentioned in the
z Believed to have joined the Ajivika sect. Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa, he was converted to
z Tibetan Buddhist monk Taranatha describes Buddhism by his nephew Nigrodha.
Bindusara as conqueror of the land between two He visited Bodhgaya, and organized missions.
seas i.e., peninsular India. He appointed special officers called Dharma
z Divyavadan, Buddhist biographical narrative of Mahamatras to speed up the progress of Dhamma.
Mauryan Kings, mentions a revolt at Taxila being Buddhism for the first time went outside India
suppressed by Ashoka (son of Bindusara); who during his reign. He sent his son Mahendra and
was Kumara or viceroy of Ujjain at that time. daughter Sanghamitra to Ceylon (Sri Lanka).
Ashoka the Great (273–237 BC): z Ashoka’s Dhamma:
z Ashoka was crowned in 269 BC. Radhagupta, The concept of non-violence and other similar
helped Ashoka in usurping the throne. ideas of Ashoka’s Dhamma are identical with the
z Regarded as one of the greatest kings of all times, teachings of Buddha.
and probably was the first ruler to maintain direct His policy of dhamma was a broad concept with
contact with his people through his inscriptions. elaboration of a way of life, signifying a general
z He was appointed the viceroy of Taxila and Ujjain code of conduct and a set of principles to be
during the reign of Bindusara. adopted and practiced by the people at large.
z Other names of emperor: Buddhashakya and 4-cardinal points of Dhamma: Tolerance, Non-
Ashoka (in the Maski Edict), Dharmasoka (Sarnath violence, Good Conduct (Obeying parents and
inscription), Devanampiya (beloved of the gods), elders, respecting Brahmanas and Monks) &
and Piyadassi (pleasing appearance, given in the Welfare.
Sri Lankan Buddhist chronicles Dipavamsa and A new officer called, Dhamma mahamatra was
Mahavamsa). appointed for promotion of Dhamma.
z His capital was at Pataliputra (Patna) and had z Ashoka Rock Edicts:
provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain. James Princep, a British antiquary and colonial
z Childrens of Ashoka: Mahendra/Mahinda and administrator was the first person to decipher
Sanghamitra/Sanghamitta. Ashoka’s edicts.
z 8 years after coronation, Ashoka fought the horrible The national emblem of India is taken from the
Kalinga War in 261 BC. Ashoka’s Sarnath Pillar.
z Ashoka was moved by the untold miseries caused Name of Ashoka occurs only on minor rock
by the war, renouncing conquest by warfare, in favor edicts. He was the first king to speak to people
of cultural conquest. In other words, Bherighosha directly through inscriptions.
was replaced with Dhammaghosha. Rock and pillar edicts:
z Under Ashoka, almost entire subcontinent came Major and minor rock edicts (16 and 2
under single control except extreme south: respectively).

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Major and minor pillar edicts (17 and 3 Western parts of the empire: Prakrit in kharosthi
respectively). script is used.
Features of pillars: Kandhar Inscriptions is bilingual, it uses Greek
Mostly, the pillars are similar in form and and Aramaic languages and scripts.
dimensions Major Rock Edict XIII contains an extract in Greek
Two types of stones are used:
 and Aramaic as well.
Spotted white sandstone (from Mathura).
 Principles of Dhamma were clearly stated in
Buff coloured sandstone and quartzite

 Edicts. Summed up as follows:
(from Amaravati) Service to father and mother, practice of
Mostly monoliths (i.e., carved out of a single ahimsa, love for truth, reverence to teachers
piece of stone) and have a lustrous, polished and good treatment to relatives.
surface. Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive
Do not have a base, and the plain, smooth gatherings and avoiding expensive and
cylindrical shaft tapers slightly upwards. meaningless ceremonies and rituals.
Have a bell capital (a stone carved in the shape Efficient organization of administration in the
of an inverted lotus). direction of social welfare and maintenance

On top of the bell capital is a platform (abacus)
of constant contact with people through the
which is intended to support the crowned system of Dhamma Yatra.
animal. Humane treatment to servants by masters and
Places of pillars: Kandahar (Afghanistan),

prisoners by government officials.
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan), Delhi, Vaishali Consideration and non-violence towards
and Champaran (Bihar), Sarnath and Allahabad animals and courtesy to relations and liberality
(Uttar Pradesh), Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh), to Brahmins.
and Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). Tolerance among all the religious sects.
Eastern part of the empire: Magadhi language in Conquest through Dhamma instead of
Brahmi script is used. (Magadhi is the dialect of through war.
Prakrit found in Magadha).
7.2.3 Major/Minor Rock Edicts
Major Rock Edicts
Edict Message Edict Message
No. No.
I z Prohibits animal slaughter. Only two II z Planting medicinal herbs and humans and
peacocks and one deer were killed in Ashoka’s animals were given medical treatment. Also
kitchen. He wished to discontinue this practice mentions about the Cholas, the Pandyas, the
of animal slaughter. Satyaputra and the Kerala Putras.
III z Pradeshikas, Rajukas and Yuktas going on IV z Dhammaghosa replaced Bherighosha (war
tours of inspection, preaching dhamma. drum).
V z About Dhamma Mahamattas’ appointment. VI z Mantri Parishad and officers like Pulisani
and Pativedakas (reporters).
VII z Religious tolerance in his own kingdom and VIII z Dhamma Yatras (dharma tours) replaced
in the neighboring kingdoms. Vihara- Yatras (Royal pleasure tours).
IX z Emphasis on dhamma and moral conduct. X z No desire for fame and glory by the king.
XI z Policy of dhamma is the best policy to follow XII z Appeals tolerance amongst all sects and
and a best gift. people to honor the dhamma of others. Also
mentions about mahamattas in charge of
women’s welfare (Ithijika Mahamatta).
XIII z Ashoka’s victory over Kalinga. Victory of XIV z Describes engraving of inscriptions in different
Ashoka’s Dhamma over Greek Kings, Antiochus, parts of the country.
Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas, Alexander and
Cholas, Pandyas etc. This is the Largest
Edict. It mentions Kamboj,Nabhaks, Bhoja,
Andhra etc.
P Mauryan Age 39
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Minor Rock Edicts
z Minor Rock Edicts are concentrated in the South and Central parts of the empire.
z They highlight the personal history of Ashoka and the summary of Dhamma.
z The edict found at Kandahar is bilingual, being inscribed in Greek and Aramaic and Minor Rock Edict III
(Bairat) is addressed to the Buddhist clergy.
z The title most commonly adopted by Ashoka in his edicts is Devanampiya Piyadassi (beloved of the Gods).
7.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY OF z Mauryan Administration:

MAURYAN PERIOD The Mauryan Empire was divided into 5
provinces: Uttarapatha (Capital: Taxila),
z Mauryan Economy: Avantipatha (Ujjain), Dakshinpatha
Sources of revenue: the revenues came from land, (Suvarnagiri), Prachyapatha and Magadha.
ferry tax, forests, mines and pastures, license fee Huge army and Navy were maintained in which
from craftsmen and fines collected in the law all the 4 varnas were allowed to serve.
courts. The ascendancy of the Mauryas had resulted in the
The land revenue was normally fixed as one-sixth triumph of monarchy in India.
of the produce.
Occurrences of famines are also reported in
z Central Administration:
Kautilya’s Arthashastra and Jaina texts. Council of ministers (Mantriparishad): consisted
Tolls were also levied on commodities brought to of Purohita, Mahamantri, Senapati and Yuvaraja to
town for sale. assist the king in administrative matters.
Crown land was called Sita. Highest officers were called ‘Tirthas’ and
The Mauryan State had a strict legal and penal ‘Adhyakshas’ (superintendents), they managed
system (civil and criminal); tax evaders attracted 26 departments.
the death penalty. Census: Census was conducted regularly during
Punch-marked coins (mostly silver) were used the Mauryan period
for transactions. Judicial and Police departments: Kautilya
Hired laborers were called karmakaras. mentions presence of both civil and criminal
State monopoly of mining, forest, salt, sale of courts.
liquor, manufacture of arms and metallurgy. Important Officials:
z Mauryan Society: Mantri – Chief Minister.
Society was clearly divided into a four-fold Varna Mantriparishad/Adhyaksha – Head of Council
system, slavery (Dasa) existed in the society. of Ministers.
There was improvement in the social status of
Purohita – Chief priest.
Vaishyas and Shudras.
Senapati - Commander-In-Chief.
There is no mention of either Varna or Sati in
Yuvaraj - Crown Prince.
the Ashokan edicts.
Samaharta - Revenue Collector.
Varna-Shankar Vivah or inter-varna or inter-
caste marriages too are reported; these were Shulkadhyaksha - Officer-In-Charge of Royal
of two kinds, namely, Anuloma (groom of higher Income.

varna/caste) and Pratiloma (bride of higher Spies (gudda purushas) and informers
varna/caste). (prativedakas) played an important role.
While Kautilya mentions 9 categories of slaves,
Megasthenes reports its absence. z Local Administration:
As per the Jataka tales untouchables like The Mauryan state also had local and municipal
Chanadala, Nishad, Shabar etc. existed and were administration; Vish or Ahara (districts) were the
treated inhumanely. units of a province.
Women’s position in society deteriorated Megasthenese’s account mentions 6 committees
severely: widow remarriage stopped, the of five members each for administering the
institution of Ganikas (prostitution) expanded. municipalities.

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z Important Officers:
z Sitadhyaksha: Supervised agriculture. z Rajuka: Revenue settlement officer.
z Panyadhyaksha: Superintendent of Commerce. z Sams Adhyaksha: Superintendent of market.
z Yukta: Subordinate Revenue Officer. z Pauthavadhyaksha: Superintendent of weight &
z Pradeshika: Chief revenue officer. measure.
z Sthanika: Head of local administration. worked z Nava Adhyaksha: Superintendent of ships.
under Preadesika z Sulkaadhyaksha: Collector of tolls.
z Village Level Officers:
Gramika: Head of the village.
Gramvriddhas: Panchayat consists of Village elders

to settle disputes
z Sudarshan lake (Girnar Hill, Gujrat) was constructed during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya.
z Tamralipti (Tamlook in Midnapur, WB) in the east and Bharuch/Broach (Gujrat) in the west were two important
ports.
z Raja (the king), Mitra (Friend), Durg (fort), Amatya (the secretaries), Janapada (territory), Kosha (the treasure),
Sena (Army) were the 7 elements of states of Kautilya’s Saptanga theory.
7.4 OFFICERS IN MAURYAN STATE

Officer Position Officer Position
Head of Food Grains
Prashasti Prison Head Annapala
Department
Sannidata Treasury Head Rajjukas Land Measurer
Koshadhyaksha Treasury Officer Akaradhyaksha Mining Officer
Koshagar Adhyaksha Royal Treasury Manager Lauhadhyaksha Metallurgy Officer
Nayaka City Security Chief Lakshan Adhyaksha Coin Minting
Vyabharika Chief Judge Lava Adhyaksha Officer of Salt Department
Weapon Manufacturing &
Karmantika Head of Industries & Factories Ayudha Adhyaksha
Defence.
Swarn Adhyaksha Officer of Gold Department Kunyadhyaksha Officer of Forest
Office of Time & Place
Dandapala Head of Police Man Adhyaksha
Determination
Durgapal Head of Royal Fort Sun Adhyaksha Slaughter- House Officer
Mudr Adhyaksha Royal Symbol, Coin Dyut Adhyaksha Gambling Department
Naukadhyaksha Shipping Officer Pattan Adhyaksha Officer of Port
Pauta Adhyaksha In Charge of Weights and Measures
7.5 DECLINE OF THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

z Over-centralisation, cumbersome bureaucracy, super heavy taxation (on almost every activity) and foreign
invasions were main factors of decline.
z Neglect of North: West frontier and construction of great wall of China.
z Financial Crisis: Ashoka incurred huge expenditure for promotion of his ‘Dhamma Mission’.
z Over-tolerant, non-violent attitude killed the fighting spirit of the army.
z After Ashoka’s death in 232 BC Mauryan emperors were incompetent and oppressive.
z Pushyamitra Shunga, a Mauryan army commander, killed the last Mauryan emperor Brihadrath and founded the
Shunga Dynasty in 187 BC.
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8 Post-Mauryan Age
Post Mauryan Period
Shunga Dynasty Satvahana Dynasty Indo-Greeks
Parthians Sakas Kushana
Fig. 8.1: Post Mauryan Period
z The Maurya rule thus came to an end and the Sunga z Epigraphic records in Kharosthi found in large
Dynasty was established as the ruler of Magadha. numbers in Gandhara and Central Asia refer to
z The native dynasties like Shungas, Satvahana, and the different facets of India’s regular contacts with these
Kanvas ruled in eastern India, central India and the regions.
Deccan region.
z Foreigners like Indo-Greeks or Bactrians, Sakas, 8.2 SHUNGA DYNASTY (187 BC-78 BC)
Parthians and the Kushanas ruled in north-western
India. z Founder: Pushyamitra Sunga, who was the
commander- in-chief under the Mauryas.
z This was a period defined by the intermingling
and influence of new cultures, vibrant doctrinal z Capital at Pataliputra and a second capital at Vidisha
debates, the rise in devotional worship of images (under son Agnimitra’s viceroy).
and the institutionalization of religious activity. z Pushyamitra Shunga:
z The period also saw the emergence of sophisticated He defended the country (the Gangetic valley) and
sculptural and architectural styles. its culture against foreign invasions (Greeks).
Pushyamitra shunga erected Bharhut stupa.
8.1 SOURCE OF INFORMATION He followed Brahmanism and performed two

Ashvamedha sacrifices.
z Puranas; Dharmashastra; Manusmriti also known as Also promoted the growth of Vaishnavism and the
Manav Dharma Shastra is composed by Sage Manu Sanskrit language.

and is the first detailed lawbook available. z Agnimitra:
z Gargi Samhita and the Mahabhashya of Patanjali After Pushyamitra, his son Agnimitra ruled.
(commentary on Panini’s Ashtadhyayi). Kalidasa’s play Malvikagnimitra is a love story of
z Buddhist Jatakas, Divyavadana, Mahavastu and the the King Agnimitra and a handmaiden Malvika.
Milindpanho (Sanskrit, Milindaprashna). A significant attempt at penetrating into India by
z Malavikagnimitram of Kalidasa and the Demetrius I of Bactria was countered successfully
Harshacharita of Banabhatta. by Vasumitra, son of Agnimitra.
z Periplus of the Erythraean Sea written by an Performed Ashwamedh sacrifice for revival of
anonymous Greek seafarer (pattern of trade between Brahmanical order and patronized scholars like
India and the Western world). Patanjali and Manu
z Vasumitra: z Simuka was the founder of the Satavahana dynasty.
After Agnimitra, Vasumitra became the King z The Satavahana kingdom is chiefly composed of
and was succeeded by 7 more kings of the same modern-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and
dynasty. Maharashtra.
Shunga’s empire covered regions of Bihar, Bengal z At times, their rule also included parts of Karnataka,
and Uttar Pradesh and northern Madhya Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.
Pradesh. z Primary capital: Pratishthana (modern Paithan in
The last ruler of the Shunga dynasty was Devabhuti. Maharashtra) on Godavari river & second Capital
was Amravati.
8.2.1 Importance of Shungas z Sources of Information: Aitareya Brahmana,
z Shungas issued gold and silver coins and they Puranas, epics, Brihat Katha of Gunadya,
inherited and continued with the Mauryan structure Kamasutra of Vatsyayana.
of administration. z The Satavahana graves are reported to be encircled
z They patronized the Brahmanical order, yet there was by big pieces of stone and therefore they are known
no antagonism towards Buddhism. also as megalithic people.
z Mathura school of art achieved new heights, z Next important king was Gautamiputra Satkarni
especially in realistic human depiction. (known as Ekabrahmana) whose achievements
z Manu’s Manav Dharma Shastra or Manusmriti and are recorded in the Nasik inscription of Gautami
Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram are said to have been Balashri (his mother). He defeated Sakas, Greeks,
composed during this period. Parthians and Nahapana (king of western Satrapa)
z Yavanarajya inscription, Dhangadeva-Ayodhya z Around 150 CE, Rudradaman took advantage of weak
inscription mentions Shungas.
successors of Gautamiputra Satkarni and defeated
z Nanaghat inscription, Nasik Inscription, Hatigumpa them.
inscription of Kharavela, Erragudi inscription of
z At the end of 2nd CE, another important ruler Yajnasut
Ashoka provide important information about Shungas.
Alakrni came to the throne who conquered back the
areas of Gujrat, Malwa and Andhra.
8.3 SATAVAHANA DYNASTY z After Alakarni, Satavahana power declined and they
z Satavahana are referred as Andhras in the Puranas. were replaced by Vakataka Dynasty in the same
regions, who too were Brahmins.
8.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF SATAVAHANA RULE
Political z Important officials: Amatyas, Mahamatya, Mahasenapati.

Setup and z King: upholder of Dharma.
Administration z Feudal traits can be seen in their administration.
z Practice of tax-free land grants to Brahmins.
z Amatyas and Mahamatras were district officers during Satavahana rule which was called
as Ahara.
z Gaulmika administered the rural areas.
z Katakas and Skandhvaras were the military camps.
z Dharmshastras not only set ideals for the people but also for the King.
Art and z Satvahanas promoted development of architecture in hills of the Western Ghats where caves
Architecture were cut in Ajanta, Nasik, Kaule, Bhaja, Kondain, Kanheri.
z These caves were cut in to make Chaityas (Buddhist cave-temple) and Viharas (Buddhist rest
houses). Karle Chaitya is the largest cave temple.
z Nagarjunkonda and Amravati were important centers of trade and art. Stupas were
constructed here, use of white marble too is reported for the first time.
z Contributed to the development of Ajanta school of painting which is known for beautiful
color combinations, drawings, expression of emotions, and spirituality.
z Buddha’s entire life is pictured - Saptashati.
z Gatha sattasai: excellent work in Prakrit by Hala
P Post-Mauryan Age 43
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Economy z Did not issue gold coins but issued gold as bullion.
z They issue coins of lead, potins (silver-like alloy used in coins. It is typically a mixture of
copper, tin and lead), copper etc.
z Trade with the Roman empire.
z Pratishthana & Tagara were important trade centers.
z They were the first native rulers to issue their own coins with the portraits of the rulers.
z Paddy transplantation, cotton production and exploitation of iron ores (Karimnagar and
Warangal) was commonly practiced.
Society and z Being matrilineal, most of the kings are named after their mother- Gautamiputra Satakarni,
Religion Vasisthiputra Pulumayi, Yagnasri Satakarni.
z With the flourishing of Mahayana Buddhism, worship of Krishna and Vasudeva was also
common.
z They supported both Buddhism and Brahmanism although they were Hindus and claimed
Brahmanical status.
Literature z Most of the inscriptions of the Satavahana rulers are in Prakrit Language as it was their
official language.
z Satavahana ruler Hala, himself a great scholar, composed Gathasaptasati.
8.5 INDO-GREEKS (200 BCE-100 BCE) z Gandhara School of Art:

In this, Greek techniques are applied over Buddhist
z Indo-Greeks were the Greek people who got settled themes and it is also known as Greeko-Buddhist
in India and became localized over a period of time. Art.
z Indo-Greek rule in India had 3 branches, namely, Taxila, Peshawar, Bactria, Bamiyan, Hadda; in
Bactria i.e., North Afghanistan, Taxila (Takshashila) Afghanistan; Baigram (Kashmir) were important
and Sakal or Sialkot which is now in Pakistan. sites of development of this school of art.
z An ambassador from the Taxila branch, Heliodorus Muscular body, beard and mustache are seen in
was sent to the court of the King of Vidisha. Heliodorus the images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. Images
got a stone pillar constructed in Greek style of Greek gods and Kings too are reported.
(different from Ashokan style) which was dedicated
Use of gray sandstone, outer robe (Roman
to Lord Vasudeva.
influence), facial images and anthropomorphic
z Demetrious and Menander or Milind are two (human form) God (Greek influence) is evident in
significant rulers mentioned from the Sakal or Sialkot the Gandhara School of Art.
branch of Indo-Greek. Menander or Milind (165 BC -
145 BC) adopted Buddhism under Nagasen who z Significance of the Indo-Greeks:
wrote Milindpanho in Sanskrit. This book is a great 1st rulers to issue coins as well as gold coins.
source of history of this age.
They inscribed date & human figures on the
z Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins bearing coins.
inscriptions of images of Kings and Gods. India
Many coins have been found with images of
learned the use of the curtain (yavan) from Greeks.
Indian deities also.
The Greek term horoscope was derived from the
Also introduced drama/play with use of curtains.
term Horasastra. They introduced the practice of
governorship. Patronized Buddhism, most of the Indo-Greek
z Growth of metallurgy, medicine, astronomy, stone- kings were Buddhists.

cutting, perfume-making are evidence of technical Greek influence is mostly seen in art and sculpture,
advancements under Indo-Greeks. particularly the Gandhara School of Art.

z Patronizing both Buddhism and Hinduism, the
greatest contribution of Indo-Greeks is witnessed in
the development of Gandhara School of Art.

W
8.5.1 Important Dynasties
Parthians z At the end of 100 BC few kings with Iranian names like Pahlavas of Indo-Parthians, captured
north-western India.
z In the reign of Gondophares (the most significant of the Indo-Parthians) St. Thomas is said to
have come to India for the propagation of Christianity.
Sakas/ z Sakas who were also known as Scythians, were from Western China.
Scythians z The first Shaka king was Maues or Moga (approx 80 BC) who is known from inscriptions and
a series of coins.
z Mathura, Ujjain and Girnar were centers of Saka rule in north India.
z They ruled in the capacity of Satrapas (i.e., governors) and Mahasatrapas.
z With control over western Ganga valley, parts of central India and Gujarat, Sakas were almost
always at war with Satavahana and put pressure over the Deccan region.
z Rudradaman (130 CE - 150 CE) of Ujjain center of Sakas is of significance as he finds mention
in Junagarh inscription.
z This inscription is in Sanskrit unlike previous Prakrit inscriptions.
z Rudradaman got the lake Sudarshan repaired for better irrigation (constructed during the
time of Chandragupta Maurya).
z Huge numbers and a great variety of silver coins are reported from western India that are
attributed to the Sakas.
z Patronizing Indian art and culture many of the Saka rulers got themselves Indianized.
z Important centers of development of art were Sanchi, Mathura and Gandhara.
z The King of Ujjain defeated Sakas and assumed the title of Vikramaditya and established the
Vikram Samvat or era in 58 CE.
Kushans z Kushanas (or Yueh-Chis) too were from China, they ruled in North-West India with Purushpur
(Peshawar) as their capital.
z Kanishka, a Mahayan Buddhist, was the most important Kushana ruler.
z Wem Kadphises, Huviska and Vasiska were other important Kushana rulers in India.
z The 4th Buddhist council at Kundalvan Vihar (Kashmir) with Vasumitra as president was
held during Kanishka’s reign. Ashwaghosh was vice-president of the Mahayana Buddhist council.
z Adopted the title of ‘Devputra’, and has been shown wearing a ‘peaked helmet’ on some coins.
z Buddha Charita (biography of Buddha), was composed by Ashwaghosh of Patliputra.
z Nagarjuna was a great scholar of his court, who propounded the Madhyamika Philosophy of
Mahayana Buddhism.
z Nagarjuna also discussed the idea of relativity and hence was called as Einstein of India.
z In 78 CE, the Saka era was founded by Kanishka.
z They issued gold standard coins (22 or 23 carats).
z Ruling over the regions of the Silk route, Kushanas greatly benefitted from it.
z Greater use of saddles in horse riding, armor, turbans, trousers, helmets, long coats and better
cavalry are Kushina’s contributions.
z Scholars in his court: Parsva, Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra, Nagarjuna, Charaka and Mathara.
z Introduced Satrap system: The Empire was divided into Satrapies under the Satrap.
z It was during this time that Buddhism began to spread to Korea and Japan also.
z Three distinct schools of art flourished: Gandhara School in northwest India, Amaravati
School in Andhra and the Mathura School in the Ganges valley.
z It is said that the Kushana period in Indian history was the predecessor to the golden age of
the Gupta period.
z Sanskrit literature began to be developed during this time. The fourth Buddhist council was
held in Sanskrit.
v v v
P Post-Mauryan Age 45
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9 The Gupta Period
Gupta Empire (319 AD - 540 AD)
Chandragupta-I Chandragupta-II Skandagupta

(319-334 AD) (380-414 AD) (455-467 AD)
Samudragupta Kumaragupta-I
(335-380 AD) (415-455 AD)
Fig. 9.1: The Gupta Empire
z After the fall of the Maurya empire, the Kushans in the z Probable state seal: ‘Garuda’.
North and the Satvahanas in the Deccan emerged as z According to the epigraphic evidence, the founder of
the two major political powers. the dynasty was a person named “Gupta”.
z Guptas are believed to be feudatories of the Kushans. z It is regarded as the Classical Age or Golden Age
They are most likely Vaishyas in origin. of Ancient India: all round progress in spheres of
z They ruled over fertile parts of the Madhyadesha: art, architecture, Sanskrit literature, stone sculpture,
Anuganga (middle Gangetic basin), Saketa (modern science and technology, metallurgy, and philosophy.
Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh), and Magadha (Bihar). z Development of North India: Stable polity, profitable
z Probably an important center of power: Prayag trade, secured and peaceful social set up.
(modern Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh) was probably z Founder of Gupta Dynasty: Maharaja Gupta/Sri
their important center of power. Prayag Prashasti Gupta was the first ruler of the dynasty followed
inscription of Samudragupta also supports this by his son Ghatotkachchh. These two were called
opinion. Maharajas.
9.1 SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Literary Sources z Puranas: Vishnu, Vayu, Bhagvata, Matysa (oldest source) etc.
z Kamandaka Nitisara written by Shikhara, prime minister of Chandragupta II.
K av ya - N a t a k a z Vishakhadatta: Devi Chandraguptam and Mudrarakshasa.

Literature z Shudraka: Marikchhaktikam.
z Kalidas: Play Vikramourvashiya.
z Pravarsena: Setubandha kavya.
z Vishnu Sharma: Panchatantra.
z Travel account of Fa-Hein.
Inscriptions z Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription: refers to the achievements of Chandragupta I.
z Allahabad Pillar inscription: important source for the reign of Samudragupta.
z Udayagiri Cave Inscription.
z Mathura stone Inscriptions.
z Sanchi Stone Inscriptions.
z Bhitari pillar inscription dates to his reign gives the chronology of Guptas and his conflict
with Pushyamitra and Huns.
Seals z Seal of Dhruvaswamini, queen of Chandragupta II.
z Seal of other officials.
Monument z Vishnu temple at Tigawa.
z Shiva Temple at Bhumara.
z Parvati Temple at Nachana-Kuthara.
z Buddhist shrines at Sanchi and Bodhgaya.
z Dasavatara Temple at Deogarh, etc.
Coins z Every ruler minted their own coins based on their own preferences.
z For example, Tiger type, Lyrist type, Ashvamedha type, Archer type, Chhatra type, Lion-slayer
type.
9.2 IMPORTANT RULERS

Ruler Related Information
Chandragupta-I z First important ruler was considered the actual founder of the dynasty.
(319 –334 AD) z Chandragupta I was the first to be called Maharajadhiraja (the great king of kings)
z Married to a Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi - expanded it through matrimonial
alliance.
z His reign covered regions of South Bihar, Jharkhand and parts of Eastern Uttar Pradesh
(Saketa and Prayaga).
z His accession in about AD 319-20 marks the beginning of the Gupta Samvat (era).
z First in Guptas who issued gold coins (Dinaras)- bearing the figures of Kumardevi and
Chandragupta.
z Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription mentions his extensive conquests.
Samudragupta z The son of Chandragupta-I, Samudragupta, became the next ruler whose conquests are
(335–380 AD) recorded in Prayaga Prashasti (Eulogy).
z Ardent follower of Vaishnavism. Was the patron of the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu.
z Prayaga Prashasti/Allahabad pillar inscriptions
It was composed by Samudragupta’s court poet, a scholar and minister, Harisena in
classical Sanskrit and provides a detailed account of his reign
According to Prayaga Prashasti, Samuddragupta conquered Eight kings of Aryavarta.
The Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that Samudragupta defeated twelve rulers
in his South Indian Expedition (Dakshinapatha).
z Samudragupta’s policy in South India was different. He did not destroy and annex those
kingdoms.
z Samudragupta performed the Ashwamedh Yajna (sacrifice) after these achievements.
z He issued gold and silver coins - Ashwamedh coins - with the legend Restorer of the
Asvamedha.
z Kaviraja: Samudragupta was not only a conqueror but also a great poet, musician and
patron of learning.
z He is called Napoleon of India by historian Vincent Smith.
z Allahabad pillar inscriptions called him Dharma Prachar Bandhu.
z Gave permission to the king of Sri Lanka, Meghavarna to build a monastery in Bodh Gaya.
P The Gupta Period 47

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Chandragupta-II z Coming to the throne, Chandragupta-II defeated the Sakas in western region (Gujarat,
(380– 414 AD) Kathiawar and west Malwa), assumed the title of Sakari (destroyer of Sakas), Vikramaditya
and ruled from Ujjain.
z Watermark period of Gupta dynasty.
z Udayagiri Cave Inscription (Vidisha, MP) and Sanchi inscription give information
about this.
z He established matrimonial alliances with the Nagas and the Vakatakas.
z Assumed the title of Parama Bhagavata.
z Chandragupta-II was the first Gupta ruler to issue silver coins bearing lion figures
similar in pattern with Saka coins.
z Mehrauli iron pillar inscription (Delhi’s Qutub-minar complex): records that
Chandragupta-II defeated Valikas of Bactria crossing the Sapta Sindhu.
z His court had nine jewels or Navaratnas: Kalidasa, Amarsinha, Dhanvantari,
Varahmihira, Araruchi, Ghatakarna, Kshapranak, Velabhatt, Shanku.
z Chinese Buddhist monk Fa-Hien visited his court:
He visited Peshawar, Mathura, Kanauj, Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Kusinagara, Pataliputra,
Kasi and Bodh Gaya among other places.
He refers to the Gangetic valley as the land of Brahmanism.
Gives information on the religious, social and economic condition of the Gupta empire.
He did not mention the name of Chandragupta II.
Kumaragupta I z Karamdanda (Fyzabad) inscription refers to king Kumaragupta I as ruler of 4 oceans,

(415– 455 AD) Mandsor inscription as ruler of all earth and copper plate inscription of Damodarpur
as Maharajadhiraj.
z Bilsad (Etah) inscription also mentions Kumaragupta I.
z Kumaragupta I performed Ashwamedha yajna and assumed titles like Ashwamedha-
Mahendra and Mahendraditya. He was also called Shakraditya.
z Kumaragupta I was the founder of Nalanda University.
z Himself a devotee of Shiva, Kumaragupta I issued Kartikeya type coins bearing the figure
of peacock.
Skandagupta z Son of Kumaragupta I, Skandgupta, during his lifetime bravely fought and defeated Hunas
(455–467 AD) on the North-Western frontier.
z His conquest over Pushyamitra is marked in Bhitari Pillar inscription.
z Got the Sudarshan Lake repaired (Junagadh inscription).
z The Gupta Empire declined after the death of Skandagupta in 467 AD.
z Vishnugupta (540 CE- 550 CE) was the last recognized Gupta ruler.
9.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY OF GUPTA PERIOD

Administration z Gupta kings assumed titles: Paramabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, Parameswara,
Samrat and Chakravartin.
z The most important officers under the Guptas were called the Kumaramatyas, with an
office of their own called the Adhikarana.
z Bhukti (province) and Vishaya (province division) were administrative units headed
by Uparika and Vishayapati respectively.
z The king was assisted in his administration by a council consisting of a chief minister, a
Senapati or commander- in-chief of the army and other important officials.
z Bureaucracy was not elaborated as that of Maurya.
z Fa-Hien’s account on the Gupta administration:
There was no state interference in the individual’s life.

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The administration was so efficient that the roads were kept safe for travelers, and
there was no fear of thieves.
No restrictions on people’s movements
Crimes were negligible.
Important Offices
z Mahananda Nayaka- Justice z Asvapati -Headed Horses.
Delivery. z Nagara Sreshtis- officers looking
z Mahapratisara-Chief of the after the city administration.
Guards. z Narapati-Headed Foot Soldiers.
z Gramadhyaksha/ gramika - z Ranabhandagrika- In charge of
Village headman. stores.
z Dutakas- Associated with Gifts z Akshapataladhikrita-
and Grants. Superintendent of Records and
z Sandhi-Vigrahika- Minister of Accounts.
Peace and War.
z Pilupati-Headed Elephants.
Economy z Agriculture, trade, commerce and art and crafts all flourished under Guptas.
z The King’s administration facilitated irrigation, ensured measurement and
categorization of land into cultivated (Kshetra) and uncultivated (Khila/ Aprahata)
lands.
z The Landowner class (Mahattars, Gramika and Kutumbika) became influential as land
was a prestigious property to be sold or gifted.
z There was an Increase in land taxes but a decrease in trade and commerce taxes.
z Kulyavapa and Dronavapa: terms related to measurement of land.
z The king collected taxes varying from one-fourth to one-sixth of the produce.
z Two new agricultural taxes: Uparikara (probably a tax imposed on temporary tenants)
and Udranga (its exact nature is not clear, but might be water tax or a sort of police tax).
z It is confirmed by a general scarcity of gold coins after the Guptas. Issued less pure
gold coins than Kushana.
z The Gupta and post-Gupta period witnessed a comparative decline in the country’s
trade and commerce. The disruption of the north-western trade route by the Huns.
z Shreni continued to govern the trader’s affairs.
Society and Religion z Society became clearly feudalistic, Brahmins (Brahmadiyas & Agraharas) and feudal
chiefs received land grants.
z Bhanugupta’s Airana (Eran) inscription gives the first evidence of Sati, Child
marriage too existed.
z Chandalas were the outcaste i.e., out of the 4-fold varna system and made to reside
outside village settlements.
z Vaishnavite or Shaivite Kings got temples constructed for their respective deities.
z Bhagavatism was also identified with Vaishnavism.
z Sanskrit was firmly established as the language of royal inscriptions
z Idol worship became a common feature.
z Gupta kings proclaimed themselves as Bhagavatas (worshippers of Lord Krishna)
and Garuda was their emblem.
z Religious texts like Puranas, Mahabharata and Ramayana were expanded in this
period.
z Absorption of tribal communities into Brahminical society.
z Assimilation of a large number of foreigners.
z Practice of untouchability intensified.

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z Socio-economic status of shudras improved during this period.
z Status of women deteriorated further in the Gupta period. Women lacked property
rights. They had full right to their Stridhana. There was no purdah system in the
society.
z Dharamshastra (law books) texts belonging to the period reflect a tendency towards
lowering the age of marriage for girls and advocating a celibate and austere life
for widows.
z Narada Smriti mentions fifteen types of slaves.
z Vishti was forced labour to serve the royal army & officials.
Art and Architecture z Continued growth of the Ajanta School (Theme: Buddha’s life) was accompanied by the
emergence of Bagh School (Hoshangabad in Madhya Pradesh). In this cave-walls were
decorated (painted) in local themes.
z Ajanta frescoes depict religious scenes of Yakshas, Gandharvas, Apasaras.
z Sculpture making made considerable growth with evidence of various stone images.
z Metal and stone images of Buddha, Shiva and Vishnu are reported from a number
of places.
z Images of God appeared for the first time.
z Stupa and cave construction reduced and temple construction (Nagara styled)
picked up:
Dashavatar Temple, Jhansi, U.P.
Bhitargaon Temple (Brick) Kanpur, U.P.
Parvati Temple, Nachnakuthara, M.P.
Vishnu Temple, Jabalpur, M.P.
Bagh cave Paintings.
Literature z The Gupta period is considered as the Golden Age of art and literature in ancient India.
z Development of literature in Gupta period was diverse as it covered from poetry
and play, art (dance and music), philosophy, religion to science, mathematics, physiology,
astronomy etc.
z There were Navaratnas, or Nine Gems in the court of Chandragupta II who were
experts of particular fields.
z Dharmashastras, Narad Smriti, Vishnu Smriti, Brihaspati Smriti and portions of
Ramayana and Mahabharata, Bhasa’s 12 plays were also written in this period.
z Most of the literature is developed using ornate Sanskrit language.
Science z Aryabhata: a great mathematician and astronomer, wrote the book Aryabhatiya in
499 CE. It deals with mathematics and astronomy. He was the first to declare that the
earth was spherical in shape.
z Varahamihira: composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five astronomical systems.
z Brihadsamhita is a great work by him in Sanskrit literature which deals with a variety of
subjects like astronomy, astrology, geography, architecture, weather, animals, marriage
and omens. His Brihadjataka is a standard work on astrology.
z Vagbhata: A disciple of Charaka and distinguished physician of Ayurvedic system of
medicine from c. 600 CE. He wrote the Ashtanga Hridaya (‘Heart of Medicine’) and the
Ashtangasamgraha ( ‘Tome on Medicine’).
z Maharishi Palakapya: He wrote the Hastayurveda, a treatise dealing with the diagnosis
and treatment of the major diseases of elephants through medication and surgery.
z Bhaskara II: Author of the Lilavati written in the 12th century, which contains important
ideas of calculus.
z Mahavira: A famous 9th century mathematician of Karnataka who lived in the court of
the Rashtrakuta king Amoghvarsha, and wrote a book called the Ganitasara Sangraha,
which deals with various mathematical problems.

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z Dhanvantri: He was famous for his knowledge of Ayurveda.
z Kashyapa: A 7th century physician who compiled his Ayurvedic knowledge in a
compendium which dealt with the diseases of women and children.
z Sushruta: The famous author of the Sushruta Samhita, which deals with surgery.
z Metallurgy also saw technological advancement in Gupta times. The bronze images of
Buddha produced on a considerable scale
z The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi, standing in the open, which has surprisingly not
gathered rust even after fifteen centuries.
9.4 DECLINE OF THE GUPTAS

Hun Invasions z Weak successors of Skandagupta could not check growing Hun power and the Hun chief
Toramana was able to conquer large parts of western India, stretching up to Eran near Bhopal
in central India.
Rise of z The Guptas’ power was severely curbed by the rise of feudatories.
Feudatories z Yashodharman of Malwa, who belonged to the Aulikara feudatory family, successfully
challenged the authority of the Guptas.
Gradual z Indicated by the gold coins of later Gupta rulers, which have less gold content and more of alloy.
Decline in z A gradual disappearance of coins in the post-Gupta period is also observed. It led the kings to
Economic make payments in the form of land rather than cash.
Prosperity z Due to the loss of western India, the rich revenues from foreign trade and commerce also
dropped and this further crippled the Guptas
9.5 AUTHORS/SCHOLARS AND THEIR WORKS

Author Work Author Work
Kalidasa z Abhijnana Shakuntalam Gunadhya z Brihatkatha
z Vikramorvasiyam
z Malavikagnimitra Sudraka z Mrichhakatikam
z Kumarasambhava
Varahamihira z Panchasiddhantika (5 books,
z Raghuvansham
z Brihatsamhita most notable)
z Meghadootam
z Ritusamhara Susrut z Susrutsamhita on surgery
z Jyotirvid Abharana Vagbhata z Ashtanga Hridaya
Dhanvantari z Ayurveda Amarasimha z Amarkosh
Kamandaka z Nitisara Aryabhatt z Aryabhatiya, Surya Siddhanta
Vishakhadatta z Mudrarakshasa Brahmagupta z Brahmasphutasiddhanta
z Devichandraguptam
Bhasa z Svapnavasavadattam
9.6 OTHER IMPORTANT CONCEPTS IN GUPTA
9.6.1 Nine Famous Scholars/Navaratnas in the Court of Chandragupta II

Kalidasa z He wrote Abhijananashakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram and Vikramorvasiyam.
Amarasimha z He wrote Amarakosha and he was a poet and Sanskrit lexicographer.
Varahamihira z He wrote Panchasiddhantika (a treatise on mathematical astronomy), Brihat Samhita
(included clouds, astrology, planetary movements etc) and Brihat Jataka (Vedic astrology).

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Dhanvantri z He was a famous physician.
Ghatakarapara z He was an expert in sculpture and architecture.
Shanku z He wrote Shilpashastra based on architecture.
Kahapanaka z He wrote Jyotishastra based on astrology.
Vararuchi z He wrote Prakrit Prakasha (grammar of the Prakrit language).
Vetala Bhatta z He wrote Mantrashastra on music.
9.6.2 Coins Issued by the Gupta Kings z A style by name Vaidharbhariti was developed in
Sanskrit during their rule, which was praised by the
Kings Types of Coins poets of the likes of Kalidasa, Banabhatta, and Dandin.
Chandragupta I z Kumaradevi Type. z In the case of the Vakatakas, less information is
available about their administrative structure. It was
Samudragupta z Dhanurdhari-Archer, Garud; very similar to the Guptas.
Axe; Ashvamedha Vyaghra-
z Their empire was also divided into provinces called
anam (tiger killing);
Rashtras or Rajyas, which were administered by
Veenavadan (playing flute).
governors known as Rajyadhikritas.
Chandragupta II z Ashvarohi, Chhatrahari,
Chakra-Vikram type etc. 9.7.1 Important Rulers of the Vakataka
Kumaragupta z Gajarohi, Kadgadhari, Dynasty
Sinhnihanta, Khang-nihanta
Vindhya Shakti I z Founder of the Vakataka
(i.e. Rhinoceros Slayer),
dynasty, who probably ruled
Kartikeya and Apratigh-
from Purika.
mudra type.
z He is credited to have
Skandagupta z Archer, Lion slayer, performed a number of Vedic
swordsman, Horseman. sacrifices and thus revived
Brahminical rituals, which
9.7 THE VAKATAKAS OF THE DECCAN: were in abeyance during the
rule of the later Satavahanas.
GUPTA CONTEMPORARIES
Rudrasena I z Founder of the Vakataka
z In peninsular India, especially in northern Nandivardhana branch,
Maharashtra and Vidarbha, the Satavahanas which ruled from
were succeeded by a local power known as the Nandivardhana (near
Vakatakas. Nagpur).
z The Vakatakas were contemporaneous of the Guptas
in northern India. Pravarasena II z Largest number of Vakataka
inscriptions belongs to his
z The Vakatakas, who were Brahmin themselves, were
reign.
great champions of the Brahmanical religion and
performed numerous Vedic sacrifices. z He is credited with the
founding of a new capital
z They were liberal in outlook and patronized
at Pravarapura, which is
Buddhism as well.
identified as Paunar in the
z The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of the present- day Wardha district.
Ajanta caves (UNESCO World Heritage Site) were
built under the patronage of the Vakataka king, Harisena z Last known king of the Vatsa
Harisena. Gulma line, who not only
united the two Vakataka
z Ajanta cave numbers XVI, XVII and XIX are the
branches but also extended
best examples of Vakataka excellence in the
his territories by conquering
field of painting, in particular the painting titled
Kuntala, Avanti, Kalinga,
Mahabhinishkramana.
Kosala, Konkan, and Andhra.
v v v
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10 Harshvardhan Period
(606-647 AD)
z Decline of the Gupta Empire was followed by a period z While marching southwards, Harshavardhan
of political disorder and disunity in North India. conquered regions of Malwa and after crossing
z Harshavardhana’s reign was established in the Narmada, he was defeated by Pulkeshin II in the
beginning of the 7th century CE. Battle of Narmada.
z Harshavardhana was greatly influenced by the
10.1 SOURCES OF INFORMATION personality of Hieun Tsang and organized a Buddhist
assembly at Kannauj under his chairmanship.
z Harshacharita written by Bana (court poet of
Harsha). z Hieun Tsang, in his book, has appreciated
z Travel accounts of Hiuen Tsang: Chinese traveler Harshvardhan’s justice and munificence (generosity).
who visited India in the 7th century CE. z Harshavardhan, the able military commander and
z Dramas written by Harsha - Ratnavali, Nagananda good administrator, died in 647 CE without heir and
and Priyadarshika. is regarded as the last Hindu King to have ruled a
large part of North India.
z Inscriptions: Madhuben plate inscription and the
Sonpat inscription are helpful to know the ecology z Hence, his death marks the end of Pushyabhuti
of Harsha. Banskhera inscription contains the dynasty and beginning of Muslim rule over North
signature of Harsha. India.
10.2 HARSHAVARDHAN (606–647 CE) 10.2.2 Harsha’s Military Conquests

z First expedition: Harsha drove out Sasanka from
z Both Bana and Hiuen Tsang portray social life in the Kannauj. He made Kanauj his new capital. This made
times of Harsha. him the most powerful ruler of north India.
z Pushyabhutis were feudatories of Gupta. They called z Harsha fought against Dhuruvasena II of Valabhi
themselves Vardhanas. and defeated him.
z Important rulers of this dynasty: Prabhakar z Accounts of Hiuen Tsang and the inscriptions of
vardhana, Adityavardhan and Harshavardhana. Pulakesin II provide the details of the campaign
z Harshvardhan was son of Prabhakarvardhana. against Western Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II.
10.2.1 The Reign of Harsha z Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II mentions
the defeat of Harsha by Pulakesin, who after this
z Harsha’s reign marked the beginning of feudalism achievement assumed the title Paramesvara. Hiuen
in India. Tsang’s accounts also confirm the victory of Pulakesin.
z Harshavardhana belonged to the Pushyabhuti z Nepal had accepted Harsha’s overlordship.
Dynasty also called Vardhana Dynasty.
z Harsha established his control over Kashmir and its
z He was a Hindu who later embraced Mahayana
ruler sent tributes to him.
Buddhism.
z He also maintained cordial relations with
z Harshavardhana attacked Shashank of Gauda Kingdom
Bhaskaravarman, the ruler of Assam.
and established his control over regions of Bengal,
Bihar and Odisha and befriended Bhashkarvarman of z Last military campaign: against the kingdom of
Kamrup (Assam). Kalinga in Orissa and it was a success.
z Vallabhi King Dhruvbhata in Gujrat too was defeated z The regions of modern Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar
and a truce was negotiated with him by marriage of Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa were under his direct
Harsha’s daughter to Dhruvbhata. control.
z He moved his capital to Kannauj. z Kashmir, Sindh, Vallabhi and Kamarupa
z He assumed titles of Uttarapathanatha or acknowledged his sovereignty.
Uttarapathapati (Lord of the North).
10.2.3 Harsha and Buddhism z He invited representatives of all religious sects. It
z He became an ardent Hinayana Buddhist. was attended by scholars from the Nalanda University,
Hinayanists, Mahayanists, Brahmins and Jains.
z Hiuen Tsang converted him to Mahayana Buddhism.
z Hiuen Tsang explained the values of Mahayana
z Harsha prohibited the use of animal food in his
doctrine and established its superiority over others.
kingdom.
z However, violence broke out and there was also an
z He erected thousands of monasteries and stupas
attempt on the life of Harsha.
and established travelers resting places all over his
kingdom. 10.2.5 Allahabad Conference
z Once in five years he convened a gathering of z Hiuen Tsang mentions the conference held at
representatives of all religions. Allahabad, known as Prayag.
z He brought the Buddhist monks together frequently to z It was the one among the conferences routinely
discuss and examine the Buddhist doctrine. convened by Harsha once in five years.
10.2.4 Kannauj Assembly z Harsha gave away his enormous wealth as gifts to
the members of all religious sects.
z Harsha organized a religious assembly at Kannauj
to honor the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang towards
the close of his reign.
10.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY OF HARSHAVARDHAN PERIOD
Administration z Harsha governed his empire on the same lines of Gupta.
z The basic unit of administration was a village.
z Offices under the king became hereditary as Harisena who was a ‘Mahadandanayaka’,
or Chief Judicial Officer inherited the office from his father.
z One person could bear more than one office as Harisena also held offices of ‘Kumaramatya’
and ‘Sangrahvigrahika’.
z Important officers: The ‘Sreshti’ (Chief Banker or Merchant), the ‘Sarthavaha’ (Leader of
Merchant Caravans), ‘Prathama Kulika’ (Chief Craftsman), and the ‘Kayasthas’ (head of
the scribes).
z Maintenance of public records is an important feature of Harsha rule.
z Army: Harsha’s army consisted of the traditional four divisions- foot, horse, chariot and
elephant. Cavalry and the elephants were much more than that of the Mauryan army.
Economy z Taxes imposed on ports, income from mines and tributes from vassals were other important
revenue sources.
z One-sixth of the produce was collected as tax and was the main source of revenue.
z Overall, trade and commerce are said to have declined during this phase.
z Rise of self-sufficient economy.
Society z Hiuen-Tsang mentions:
There were castes, a mix of sub-castes, untouchables and outcastes.
Forced labor was absent.
Sudras practiced agriculture.
Three ways of disposal of the dead – cremation, water burial and exposure in the woods.
z Fourfold division of society: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras

z Brahmins were the privileged section of the society and were given land grants by the
kings.
z Institution of Swayamvara (the ceremony of choosing a husband) had become dysfunctional.
z Widow remarriage was not allowed and Sati & dowry systems were prevalent.
Religion z As Harshavardhan was a secular king, all sects of religion peacefully coexisted but
Brahmanism grew more than others.
z Harshvardhan was a Shiva devotee. Later he converted to Mahayana Buddhism.
z According to Hieun Tsang, Harsha held the Allahabad conference once every 5 years.

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Art and Culture z A patron of art and literature, Harshavardhan patronized the Banabhatta, Mayura, Matanga
Divakara etc.
z Banabhatta (biographer of Harsha) wrote Harshacharita, Kadambari & Parvatiparinay.
z Harsha was a poet and composed three Sanskrit plays: Nagananda, Ratnavali, and
Priyadarshika.
z Harshavardhan held 5 yearly donation (Daan) ceremonies at Prayag (Allahabad Conference)
and donated money in favor of: Administration, Royal Household, Scholars and Religion.
z Brick temple of Laxamana at Sirpur was built during Harsha rule.
z Hiuen Tsang describes the glory of the monastery with many storeys built by Harsha at
Nalanda.
Nalanda z The most famous educational institutions were the Hinayana University of Valabhi and the
University Mahayana University of Nalanda.
z The term Nalanda means “giver of knowledge”, founded by Kumaragupta I during the Gupta
period. Patronized by his successors and later by Harsha.
z Renowned professors: Dingnaga, Dharmapala, Sthiramati and Silabadhra.
z Dharmapala (native of Kanchipuram) became the head of Nalanda University.
z Though it was a Mahayana University, different religious subjects like the Vedas, Hinayana
doctrine, Sankhya and Yoga philosophies were also taught.
z Medium of instruction was Sanskrit.
v v v
P Harshvardhan Period (606-647 AD) 55

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Sangam Age:
11 The History of South India
z South of the Deccan plateau, the land between the z The Greek authors like Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny
Venkatam hills and Kanyakumari is known as the and Ptolemy mention about commercial trade
Tamilaham. contacts between the West and South India.
z The Sangam texts mention three chiefs: Chola, Chera z The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of
and Pandya. Kalinga mentions Tamil kingdoms.
z Sangam Period: Period between the 1st century B.C.
to the end of 2nd century A.D. in Southern India. 11.1 SANGAM LITERATURE
z There existed three Sangams (Academy of Tamil z Sangam literature is the main source of History of
poets) in ancient Tamil Nadu popularly called ancient South India i.e., Tamilkam.
Muchchangam. These Sangams flourished under the z It was compiled during the 3rd century BC to 3rd
royal patronage of the Pandyas. century CE & was composed in poetic format around
z 2nd and 13th rock edicts of Ashoka named 4 themes of love and war.
neighborly kingdoms of South India: Cholas, Cheras z Sangam was a college or assemblies of Tamil poets
(Kerala putras of Malabar) Pandyas and Satyaputra. held under royal patronage.
Sangam Venue Chairmanship Remark
1st Sangam Old Madurai Agastasya z Attended by gods and legendary sages.
z No literary work of this Sangam is available.
2nd Sangam Kapadapuram Agastasya z Only Tolkappiyam (grammar book) survives from this.
3rd Sangam New Madurai Nakkirar z A few of these Tamil literary works have survived and are a
useful source to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period.
11.1.1 Sangam Literature is Broadly Divided z Tolkappiyam: Written by Tolkappiyar was product
into 2 Groups of 2nd Sangam and it is basically a work on Tamil
grammar & poetics.
z Narrative texts: called Melkanakku/Eighteen
z Thirukkural: Deals with philosophy and was written
major works consisting of Ettuthogai (Collection of
by Tiruvallur.
8 long poems) & Pattupattu (Collection of 10 small
poems). Narrative texts are considered heroic poetry z Jeevak Chintamani: Authored by a Madurai-based
in which heroes and wars are glorified. They also give Jain ascetic Tiruttakkatevar (10th century). The epic
ideas of state formation in South India. is a supernatural fantasy story of a prince who is the
perfect master of all arts, perfect warrior, and perfect
z Didactic texts: called Kilkannaku/Eighteen minor
lover with numerous wives.
works consisting of Tirukural and Naladiyar. These
texts prescribe a code of conduct for kings & society. z Kundalakesi: It appears to be a tragic love story
about a Hindu or Jain girl of merchant caste named
11.1.2 Significant Sangam Literature Kundalakesi who falls in love with Kalan – a Buddhist
z Silappadikaram: Written by Ilango Adigal. It is about criminal on a death sentence.
the love affair of Kovalan, Kanaggi and Madhavi. Later, z Valayapathi: one of the five great Tamil epics, but one
a Kanaggi Cult developed in South India. that is almost entirely lost. It is a story of a father who
z Manimekhalai: Written by Sittalai Sattanar, has two wives.
continues the story of Silappadikaram in the next
generation in which Manimekhalai is the daughter
11.2 SOUTH INDIAN DYNASTIES
of Madhavi and Kovalan. z The Sangam literature discusses the 3 main Kingdoms:
Chola, Pandya & Chera and about their rivalry.
Cholas z Capitals: first, at Uraiyur and later shifted to Puhar (Tanjore).
z Territory: N-E to the territory of Pandya, between Pennar & Velar Rivers.
z Emblem: Tiger.
z Centers of trade and industry: Kaverippattanam, Uraiyur and Arikamedu (Puducherry).
z Many Sangam Poems mention the Battle of Venni where he defeated the confederacy of Cheras,
Pandyas and eleven minor chieftains.
z Elara was the earliest known king. He conquered Sri Lanka & ruled over it for 50 years.
z Karikala was the greatest king. He founded Puhar & also built irrigation tanks near river Kaveri to
provide water for reclaimed land from forest for cultivation.
Pandyas z Capital: Madurai (center of trade and industry).
z Territory: Southernmost & South eastern portion of peninsula.
z Emblem: Carp (fish).
z Pandyas had trade relations with Romans. They were first mentioned by Megasthenes. They also
find mention in the Ramayana & Mahabharata.
z Nedunjelian, known for his kingdom’s wealth and prosperity, was the most noteworthy Pandya ruler.
z Maduraikkanji was written by Mangudi Maruthainar which describes the socio-economic
condition of the flourishing seaport of Korkai.
Cheras z Capital: at Vanji (Malabar).
z Important seaports: Tondi and Musiri.
z Territory: West & North of Pandya.
z Emblem: Bow and Arrow.
z Senguttuvan (Red Chera) was the most important ruler. He established the Kannagi or Pattini Cult;
Kannagi became the object of worship.
z He was the first King from South India to send an ambassador to China.
z His military achievements have been chronicled in epic Silapathikaram.
z He enjoyed the reputation of being highly ethical or virtuous.
z Gajabahu was his contemporary Sri Lankan King.
z Karrur and Mujirispattanam were important centers of international trade.
z Romans settled at Muziris Pattanam.
z The Temple of Roman emperor Augustus was constructed here.
11.3 SANGAM PERIOD: POLITY, ECONOMY, SOCIETY, RELIGION AND CULTURE

Polity and z Form of government: hereditary monarchy.
Administration z Kingdom was divided into Mandalam, Nadu (province), Ur (Town), Sirur (Small
village), Perur (Big Village).
z Each of the dynasties had a royal emblem: tiger for Cholas, carp for Pandyas, and
bow for Cheras.
z King was called Ko Mannan, Vendan, Korravan or Iraivan. He was the center of the
administration. Avai was the court of the crowned monarch.
z Amaichar (ministers), Anthanar (priests), Dutar (envoys), Senapatiyar (military
commanders) and Orrar (spies) were the 5 important officers that assisted the King.
z Revenue Administration: Karai – land tax; Ulgu – custom duties; Iravu – Forced gift/
extra demand; Irai – tribute paid by feudatories; Variyar – Tax collector.
Economy z Agriculture was the chief occupation. Rice was the most common crop.
z People were pastoralists, hunters, fishermen although they also produced rice.
z Regular system of taxation was not seen.
z Items of Export: Maslin, glass beads, pearls, sandalwood, perfumes, black pepper
(Yavanapriya), tortoise shell, medicines, animals and birds.
P Sangam Age: The History of South India 57

W
z Items of Imports: Gold, Silver, Munga, wine, olive oil, dry fruits, raw glass, ivory, copper,
tin, medicine and slaves.
z Gold and Silver in huge quantities were brought into India and made the trade greatly
in favor of India.
z Pliny, the Roman author and member of senate, in his Naturalis Historia (77CE) regrets
the drain out of huge amounts of gold and silver to India.
z Ptolemy in his Geographia (Geography) and Strabo in his Geographica (Geography)
also describe this trade imbalance of the Roman empire with India.
z Discovery of Monsoon winds by Hippalus around 45-47 CE further promoted the
trade between India and the west.
z Tamilmandalam served as the zone of interaction for silk trade with China.
z Land revenue, customs duty on foreign trade and booty captured in wars were the
main sources of the income.
Society z Tamil people were primarily pastoral and traces of early megalithic life appear in
the Sangam texts.
z Social classes: Arasars (Ruling Class), Kadasiyar (lower classes people), Aanthanars
(priests), Vanigar (involved with trade and commerce), Vellalar (Agriculturists).
z In the Marutham region, the Vellalas or the rich peasants were dominant.
z Some social (Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar, Pulaiyar) and other
primitive (Thodas, Irulas, Nagas, Vedars) tribal groups also lived in the Sangam age.
Position of Women z There were women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar who
flourished and contributed to Tamil literature.
z Love marriage was accepted in Sangam society.
z Yet, the widows were treated badly as Sati was prevalent.
Religion z Murugan was the most important deity of the Sangam age and Nadu Kal (Hero Stone)
was also commonly worshiped remembering the bravery of soldiers.
z Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and
Palai (desert) are the five types of the lands mentioned in the Tolkappiyam. Each
type of land was associated with a distinct activity and a related deity:
z Kurinji- Hunting; Murugan
z Mullai- cattle-rearing; Vishnu (Mayon)
z Marudam- agriculture; Indra
z Neydal- Fishing, Salt-manufacturing; Varunan
z Palai- Robbery; korravai
Fine Arts z Poetry, music and dancing were popular.
z Liberal donations were given to poets by the kings, chieftains and nobles.
z The royal courts were crowded with singing bards called Panar and Viraliyar.
z They were experts in folk songs and folk dances.
z A variety of Yazhs and drums are referred to in the Sangam literature.
z Dancing was performed by Kanigaiyar. Koothu was the most popular entertainment
of the people.
11.4 END OF THE SANGAM AGE

z Towards the end of the third century CE, the Sangam Age slowly witnessed its decline.
z The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country for about two and a half centuries.
z Jainism and Buddhism flourished and expanded during this period.
z The Pallavas in northern Tamil Nadu and Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu drove the Kalabhras out and established
their own empire and established their rule.

W
11.5 GLOSSARY
Shreni/Guilds z Shreni is a group in which communities of merchants were organized
Sartha z It was a mercantile group (caravan trading corporation).
Pattini cult z This cult was based on the worship of Kannigi, which was started by Senguttuvan.
Akam z It is a category of Sangam literature that idolizes love and its various aspects, while
Puramo deals with war and kings.
Ula z Minor form of literature dealing with the Kings.
Katikai z It is an assembly of learned people.
Ur z It is an assembly of village elders.
Manrams z Village was the fundamental unit of administration, which was administered by local
assemblies called Manrams.
Virakkal (Nadukul) z Practice of erecting monuments for the dead soldiers and worshiping them.
Kanatikan z Chief of scribes.
Kavalmaram z During the Sangam Age, a tutelary tree called Kadimaram or Kavalmaram was planted
/Kodimaram by the rulers at a central place in the town and they took great care to protect the tree.
Kolu z Hard iron tip fixed to a wooden plough share.
Emporium z Coastal towns associated with foreign trade.
Setthikula z Family of merchants and bankers.
Sattasai or z An anthology of 700 verses in Marathi Prakrit (Hala’s reign).
Gathasaptasati
Aadi Perukku z 18th day of the Tamil month of Adi (July-August) celebrated in Kaveri basin since the
festival Chola Ages. A water ritual celebrated by women to honor nature.
Kammarakula z Family of metalsmiths.
Dhannavanjakula z Family of grain merchants.
Satthavahaputta z Son of a Caravan trader.
Pannikakula z Family of greengrocers.
Atavirakkhikakula z Family of forest guards.
v v v
P Sangam Age: The History of South India 59

W
South Indian Kingdoms: Pallavas,
12 Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas
12.1 PALLAVAS z They gained prominence after the eclipse of the

Satavahana dynasty in the third century CE, under
z Pallavas are identical with the Pulindas mentioned whom the Pallavas served as feudatories.
in Ashoka’s Inscriptions.
z Pallavas were instrumental in spreading Indian
z Pallavas ruled from Kanchi and Mahabalipuram/ culture in South-East Asia.
Mamallapuram as their capital.
12.1.1 Important Rulers
Mahendravarman I z He was defeated by Chalukya King Pulkeshin II.
(600-630 CE) z Titles assumed: Gunabhara, Satyasandha, Chattakari (temple-maker) Chitrakarapuli
(painter), Vichitrachitta and Mattavilasa.
z Mandagapattu inscriptions mention the beginning of rock-cut temple constructions.
z He was a versatile genius having expertise over painting, music and literature; composed
a satirical drama Mattavilasa Prahasanam in Sanskrit.
z Music inscriptions at Kudumiyanmalai were ascribed to him.
Narshimhavarman I z Narshimhavarman I defeated the Chalukya King Pulkeshin II at the battle of
(630-668 CE) Manimangalam as per the Kuram copper plate inscriptions.
z Assumed title of Mamalla (great wrestler).
z Founder of Mamallapuram or Mahabalipuram and the monolithic rathas were erected
during his reign.
z On conquering Chalukyan capital Vatapi, he assumed the title of Vatapikonda.
z He sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka and restored the throne of Sri Lankan prince-
Manavarma.
z Chinese traveler and Buddhist monk Hieun Tsang visited Kanchi during his reign.
Narsimhavarman II z Also known as Rajsimha. he assumed titles of Shankar Bhakta, Agmapriya etc.
z He sent embassies to China.
z Was interested in developing the art and architecture: Shore temple & Kailasanatha
temple were built during his reign.
z Dandin- Sanskrit scholar lived in his court.
z Patronized Perundevannar who translated Mahabharata in Tamil and named
Bharathavenba.
z End of Pallava dynasty: Chola king Aditya I defeated the last Pallava ruler Aparajita and
seized the Kanchi region.
z Other notable rulers were Nandivarman, Parmeshwarvarman I and Parmeshwarvarmn II.
12.1.2 Socio-Economic Conditions

Administration z Pallavas promoted agriculture and sea-trade and collected huge wealth which is reflected
in the grand temple-architecture of this time.
z Pallava kingdom was divided into Kottams.
z In Pallava administration land grants were given to Brahmans (Brahmadeya) and to
temples Devadhana and were exempted from taxation.
z Group of villages were called as ‘Nadu’
z Group of Nadus were called as ‘Nagaram’ (Organisation of merchants)
z Group of Nagarams were called as ‘Manadalam’
z Sabhas (assemblies) consisting of brahmin land owners functioned through smaller
assemblies/ committees that looked after irrigation, agriculture, roads, and temples.
z Non- brahmin land owners’ assemblies were called ‘Ur’.
z Well organized administrative system with a well-trained army.
Society & z Four-fold caste system became rigid & Brahmana occupied the dominant position as
Religion Pallava were orthodox Brahmanical Hindus.
z Bhakti Movement received promotion under Pallavas.
z Shaiva and Vaishnav sages promoted Shiva and Vishnu bhakti (devotion).
z Shaiva sage-poets were called as “Nayanars” (Important Nayanars: Thirunavukkarasar
or Appar, Sundarar or Sundaramurti, Sambandar, Manikkavsagar)
z Vaishnav sage-poets were called “Alvars” (Important Alvars: Perialvar, Andal-poetess,
Nammalvar, Kulashekhar).
z The Pallava period witnessed the decline of Jainism & Buddhism.
Literature, Art z Kanchi developed as a great center of education, culture and trade. The Ghatika (centers
and Architecture of learning) at Kanchi was very popular.
z Tamil language and literature along with Sanskrit flourished under Pallavas.
z Periyapuranam: Collection of songs in love and devotion of Shiva.
z Nalayir-Divya-Prabandham: Collection of songs in love and devotion of Vishnu.
z Under Pallavas, the basic features of the Dravidian architecture i.e. Vimana, Mandapam
and Gopuram became vividly developed.
z The five rathas, popularly called as the Panchapandavar rathas, signifies five different styles
of temple architecture.
z ‘Open Art Gallery’ at Mamallapuram remains an important monument bearing the
sculptural beauty of this period.
z During Pallavas rule temple architecture developed in 4 styles under various kings:
Mahendravarman I: small rock-cut temples were made and called as ‘Manadapas’;
examples are Bhairavakonda temple and Anantheshwara temple at Undavalli.
Narsimhavarman I: ‘mandapas’ became bigger, Mahabalipuram/ Mamallapuram city was
founded and a number of monolithic Ratha (Chariot) temples were constructed like the
Panchapandavar rathas. Important Mandapams are of Varaha, Mahishasuramardhini
and Tirumurthi.
Rajasimha: free-standing or structural temples started to be built. Shore,
Olakkaneshwara and Mukunda Nayanar Temples in Mahabalipuram and Kailash
Nath Temple and Vaikuntha Perumal temple at Kanchipuram were constructed with
this feature.
Nandivarman and later Pallavas: temples continue to be constructed in Rajasimha style.
Matagenswara and Muktheeswarar temples are examples of this.
z Sittannavasal paintings belonged to this period.
z Dakshinachitra (Commentary) was compiled during the reign of Mahendravarman I.
z The Mamandur inscription contains a note on the notation of vocal music.
12.2 CHALUKYAS OF VATAPI z Pulakesin II (608 CE-642 CE):

The Aihole inscription issued by Pulakesin II
z Founded by Pulakesin I, Chalukyas ruled the extensive
Deccan region between 6th and 12th century CE with substantiates that he was the most important
the capital at Badami (Vatapi). ruler of the dynasty.
Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin II and
z Chalukyas were involved in continued struggle against
Pallavas. composer of Aihole inscription was a Jain.
P South Indian Kingdoms: Pallavas, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas 61

W
Pulakesin II defeated Harshavardhan and limited Pulakesin II sent an ambassador to the court of
his southward expansion till Narmada. Persian King Khusrau.
He also defeated Kadambas of Banavasi and the Huien Tsang, the Buddhist pilgrim from China,
Gangas of Mysore and established his suzerainty. visited Chalukyas’ Kingdom during his reign.
Pulakesin II emerged victorious in the first Last of the rulers: Kirtivarman II. He was defeated
struggle with Pallavas but he was defeated by by Dantidurga, the founder of the Rashtrakuta
Narasimhavarman I (Vatapikonda) of Pallavas dynasty.
(Kanchi) who captured the capital Vatapi z Socio-Economic conditions:
(Badami).
Administration z Chalukyas were highly centralized unlike Chola and Pallavas. Units (villages) were in direct
control of central authorities.
z Chalukyas maintained a great naval force and small but well organized standing army.
z Army officers were put to civil duties whenever an emergency arose.
Economy z Rocky and infertile land limited the income from land for Chalukyas.
z Overall decline of trade and commerce in India during this period, therefore the Chalukyas
conducted invasions and plunder of the neighboring regions.
z Arab traders were given patronage at the west coast under Chalukyas
Social life and z Chalukyas of Badami practiced Brahmanism but respected other sects of religion too.
Religion z Expansion of Brahmanism is reflected by the building of temples in honor of Vishnu,
Shiva and other gods.
z Religious sphere of life became more ritualistic.
z Hiuen Tsang mentioned about the decline of Buddhism and progress of Jainism in
western Deccan.
z Importance was given to Vedic rites and rituals. Pulakesin I performed the Ashvamedha
sacrifice.
Literature, Art and z Chalukyas contributed to the growth of Prakrit language and literature.
Architecture z Ajanta art continued to grow under the patronage of Chalukyas.
z The fusion of Nagara and Dravidian style i.e. Vesara Style of temples started to appear
during Chalukyas’ time but they distinctively developed under Rashtrakutas and Hoysalas.
z Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal are important centers of structural temples.
z Ajanta (Cave paintings), Ellora and Nasik have some of the Cave temples.
z Number of rock-cut halls (Chaityas) were constructed and granted to Jain monks.
z Division of Chalukya temples- two stages:
z First stage:
It was represented by the temples at Aihole and Badami. Important temples found at
Aihole (among the seventy)-
Ladh Khan temple is a low, flat-roofed structure consisting of a pillared hall.
Durga temple resembles a Buddha Chaitya.
Huchimalligudi temple.
Jain temple at Meguti.
Temples at Badami: Muktheeswara temple and the Melagutti Sivalaya.
z Second stage: represented by the temples at Pattadakal (UNESCO World Heritage site).
There are ten temples here- four in the northern style and six in the Dravidian style.
They began providing land grants in the Krishna-
12.3 IKSHVAKUS z
Guntur region, where their copper-plate
z After the fall of the Satavahanas, there arose the inscriptions have been found.
Ikshvakus in the Eastern part of the peninsula. z Their rule ended with their conquest by the Pallavas
They built monuments at Nagarjunakonda and of Kanchi.
Dharanikonda.

W
12.4 THE KADAMBA KINGDOM z They imprisoned the rulers of the Cholas, Cheras and
the Pandyas. They established their hold in Tamil
z This kingdom was founded by Mayurasharman, a Nadu.
learned Brahmana (345-365 AD) who established z They put an end to the Brahmadeya rights granted
his rule in northern Karnataka and Konkan in the to the Brahmanas in numerous villages.
4th century AD.
z They patronized Buddhism and Jainism.
z Their capital was at Vaijayanti or Banavasi in North
z Sanskrit and Prakrit languages penetrated the
Kanara district in Karnataka.
Tamil region resulting in the development of a new
z Mayurasharman came to receive education at script- Vattezhuthu.
Kanchi, but he was driven out unceremoniously.
z Then, he set up his camp in a forest and defeated the Additional Information:
Pallavas with the help of forest tribes. z Epics like Seevaka Chinthamani and Kundalakesi
z He performed 18 ashwamedha sacrifices and were written during this period. Nigandus (Tamil
granted a number of villages to Brahmanas. thesaurus) were also composed during this period.
z Kakusthavaran maintained matrimonial relations z Jain Pali remained an important educational center.
with the Ganges and the Guptas. After his death, Sarva Nandhi and Vajra Nandhi were the popular
Kadambas split up into Banavasi and Triparvata. Jain scholars.
The rulers of this dynasty were Brahmanas and still z Tamil Siddhars like Thirumular preached
gave land grants to Jainas too. philosophical ideas.
z Buddhist educational institutions were called
12.5 THE KALABHRAS Ghatikas. Scholars like Buddhadatta, Buddhaghosa
z They led a revolt in the 6th century AD against the and Bodhidharma lived during this period.
existing social and political order in south India. z During the end of the Kalabhra rule, Shaivism
It affected the Pallavas and other neighboring emerged as the main strand followed by people. Even
contemporaries and their revolt was so strong that the latter rulers also embraced it.
it could be put down only through the joint efforts
of the Pandyas, the Pallavas and the Chalukyas of
Badami.
v v v
P South Indian Kingdoms: Pallavas, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas 63

W
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UPSC Foundation Course 2024-25

OFFLINE - NEW DELHI

z Discussion of Highly Probable Topics for Prelims

z Concise and Curated Content for Solving Objective Questions

z Inclusion of Tables, Flowcharts and Mindmaps for Easy Memorisation

1. Prehistoric Times............................................. 1-5 4.8 Royal Patrons of Jainism.................... 21

Pre-Harappan Age Harappan Age Post Harappan Age

1.2 PALEOLITHIC OR OLD STONE z Chopper-chopping pebble culture: The implements

2 Udaan 3.0 Ancient India P

1.2.1 Lower Paleolithic Age: 1.2.2 Middle Paleolithic Age:

Andhra Pradesh. of use of pottery.

4 Udaan 3.0 Ancient India P

2.1 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION: LOCATION, RIVER, EXCAVATOR, FINDINGS

Excavator z N.G. Mazumdar (1931) and E. Makay.

River z Bhogava and Sabarmati river confluence.

Excavator z J.P. Joshi (1964).

Excavator z R.S. Bist (1973 – 74).

Findings z Oval shaped settlement, Lack of systematic drainage system, Barley

Excavator z Y.D. Sharma (1955–56).

P Harappan Civilization: 2500-1750 BC 7

Rangpur State z Gujarat (Near Lothal).

River z Madar River.

Excavator z M.S. Vatsa (1931) S.R. Rao (1953-54).

Alamgirpur State z Uttar Pradesh.

Excavator z Y.D. Sharma (1958).

Daimabad State z Maharashtra.

Excavator z Y.D. Sharma (1958).

Koti-Diji State z Sindh (Pakistan).

Excavator z Ghurey (1835) Fazal Ahmed (1955).

Amri State z Sindh (Pakistan).

Excavator z Ghurey (1835) Fazal Ahmed (1955).

Findings z Pre-Harappan settlement; Transitional culture between pre and post-

Suktagendor State z Sindh (Pakistan).

River z Dasht/Dashak River.

Excavator z A Stein, George Dales.

8 Udaan 3.0 Ancient India P

P Harappan Civilization: 2500-1750 BC 9

 The people of the Indus region also worshiped Harappan standard.

10 Udaan 3.0 Ancient India P

3.1 ARRIVAL OF ARYANS z The 3rd Mandala, composed by Vishwamitra,

12 Udaan 3.0 Ancient India P

 Western Ganga-Valley was called ‘Aryavarta’ (consecration ceremony), Ashwamedh (horse

king: Pravahana Jaivali) kingdoms. Kosala, Videha Vidhata completely disappeared.

P Vedic Culture: 1500-600 BC 13

3.4 VEDIC DEITIES

14 Udaan 3.0 Ancient India P

3.6 VEDIC LITERATURES

3.6.1 The four Vedas

Veda Upaveda Brahmana Upanishad Aranyakas Mantra Priest

3.6.2 Other Texts

P Vedic Culture: 1500-600 BC 15

 Nirukta: Origin of the words.

 Chhanda: Metrics used in Sanskrit verses.

 Jyotish: Understanding of astronomy.

 Vyakaran: Sanskrit grammar.

 Kalpa: Knowledge of rituals (Dharma sutras).

 Vanaprastha (hermit in retreat) for spiritual wisdom.

 Sanyasa (Renunciation) for liberation i.e. Mukti/Moksha.

16 Udaan 3.0 Ancient India P

Officers Profiles Officers Profiles

The people of the Indus region also worshiped Harappan standard.

Western Ganga-Valley was called ‘Aryavarta’ (consecration ceremony), Ashwamedh (horse

Nirukta: Origin of the words.

Chhanda: Metrics used in Sanskrit verses.

Jyotish: Understanding of astronomy.

Vyakaran: Sanskrit grammar.

Kalpa: Knowledge of rituals (Dharma sutras).

Vanaprastha (hermit in retreat) for spiritual wisdom.

Sanyasa (Renunciation) for liberation i.e. Mukti/Moksha.

Satya: Do not speak a lie.

Asteya: Do not steal.

Aparigraha: Do not acquire property.

Vinaypitaka: monastic rules.

Abhidhampitaka: Doctrine and philosophy of Buddhism.

Compilation of Sutta pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka by Upali

Decision to send missionaries to various parts of the world.

All deliberations were conducted in Sanskrit.

6.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY OF Two major trans-regional routes of the time:

Money economy: Trade was facilitated through of villages (grama).

The manuscript of Arthashastra was first 7.2.1 Important Rulers

Places of pillars: Kandahar (Afghanistan),

Gramvriddhas: Panchayat consists of Village elders

8.1 SOURCE OF INFORMATION He followed Brahmanism and performed two