GED FOUNDATION

PART -I
Run-On Sentences
A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses (also known as complete
sentences) are connected improperly.
Example: I love to write papers I would write one every day if I had the time.
There are two complete sentences in the above example:
Sentence 1: I love to write papers.

Sentence 2: I would write one every day if I had the time.

One common type of run-on sentence is a comma splice. A comma splice occurs when
two independent clauses are joined with just a comma.
Example of a comma splice: Participants could leave the study at any time, they needed to
indicate their preference.
Sentence 1: Participants could leave the study at any time.

Sentence 2: They needed to indicate their preference.

Some comma splices occur when a writer attempts to use a transitional expression in the middle
of a sentence.
Example of a comma splice: The results of the study were inconclusive, therefore more research
needs to be done on the topic.
Sentence 1: The results of the study were inconclusive

Transitional expression (conjunctive adverb): therefore

Sentence 2: More research needs to be done on the topic

To fix this type of comma splice, use a semicolon before the transitional expression and add a
comma after it. See more examples of this on the semicolon page.
Revision: The results of the study were inconclusive; therefore, more research needs to be done
on the topic.

You can correct a run-on sentence by connecting or separating its parts correctly. There are
several easy ways to connect independent clauses.

Correcting Run-On Sentences

A run-on sentence can be fixed by connecting its parts correctly. There are several ways to
connect independent clauses.

1. Use a period. The easiest way to fix a run-on is to split the sentence into smaller
sentences using a period. This revision works especially well with longer sentences.
Check, however, to make sure that this solution does not result in short, choppy
sentences.

Revision example: I love to write papers. I would write one every day if I had the
time.

2. Use a semicolon. Inserting a semicolon between independent clauses creates a

grammatically correct sentence. Using a semicolon is a stylistic choice that establishes a
close relationship between the two sentences.

Revision example: I love to write papers; I would write one every day if I had the
time.

3. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction. A comma, paired with a coordinating

conjunction (e.g., "and," "but," or "or"), corrects a run-on sentence. This method
emphasizes the relationship between the two clauses.

Revision example: I love to write papers, and I would write one every day if I had
the time.

4. Use a subordinating conjunction. Turn one of the independent clauses into

a dependent clause. A subordinating conjunction (e.g., "because," "unless," and
"although") connects two clauses to create a complex sentence. This option works to
cement the relationship between the two parts of the sentence and may improve the flow
of the clauses.

Example: Because I love to write papers, I would write one every day if I had the
time.

However you decide to revise for run-on sentences, remember that maintaining sentence
variety helps to keep the writing clear and interesting for your readers.
Each sentence below is a run-on. Choose the answer that corrects the run-on so that the run-on
becomes a complete sentence.
1. My academic advisor told me not to take 18 credit hours for the fall semester I regret I
didn’t listen to her.
a) My academic advisor told me not to take 18 credit hours this semester, and now I
regret not having listened to her.
b) When my academic advisor told me not to take 18 credit hours this semester, and I
now regret not having listened to her.
c) My academic advisor told me not to take 18 credit hours this semester, now I regret
that I did not listen to her.
2. My cat was upset all day he didn’t get canned food for breakfast.
a) My cat was upset all day. Because he did not get canned food for breakfast.
b) My cat was upset all day because he did not get canned food for breakfast.
c) Because my cat was upset today and did not get canned food for breakfast.
3. The student fell asleep in class everyone thought this was rude behaviour.
 a) The student fell asleep in class, and everyone thought this was rude behaviour.
b) The student was falling asleep in class, and although everyone thought this was rude
behaviour.
c) Even though the student fell asleep in class, and everyone thought this was rude
behaviour.
4. Ron was chopping the vegetables Ginny was boiling the rice.
a) Ron was chopping the vegetables, and Ginny was boiling the rice.
b) When Ron was chopping the vegetables and Ginny was boiling the rice.
c) Ron was chopping vegetables and while Ginny was boiling the rice.
5. When we wanted to drive to the park we followed the direction from our neighbours we
ended up in Canada instead.
a) When we wanted to drive to the park, we followed the directions we received from
our neighbours and ended up in Canada instead.
b) We wanted to drive to the park as we followed the directions we received from our
neighbours we ended up in Canada.
c) Because we wanted to drive to the park and got wrong directions and ended up in
Canada.
6. Peggy is a writing instructor she knows how to write a brilliant essay.
a) Because Peggy is a writing instructor and knows how to write brilliant essay.
b) Peggy who is a writing instructor and knows how to write an essay.
c) Peggy is a writing instructor. She knows how to write a brilliant essay.
7. I prefer walking riding the bike hurts my knees.
a) I prefer walking. So riding the bike hurts my knees.
b) I prefer walking for riding the bike hurts my knees.
c) Since riding the bike hurts my knees and I prefer walking.
8. The anatomy test was very hard Joann got an A.
a) Just as Joann got an A in the very hard anatomy test.
b) Because the anatomy test was hard, and Joann got an A.
c) Although the anatomy test was very hard, Joann got an A.
9. The ability to write a good essay is essential you need to take writing intensive English
classes.
a) Due to the fact that the ability to write good essays is essential and you need to take
writing intensive English classes.
b) You need to take writing intensive English classes due to the fact that the ability to
write a good essay is essential.
c) Since you need to take writing intensive classes, and the ability to write a good essay
is essential.
10. My friend is in jail, but he is not a dangerous criminal he is an undercover agent.
a) Because my friend is an undercover agent who is in jail now and not a dangerous
criminal.
b) My friend who is in jail right now is not a dangerous criminal, but an undercover
agent.
c) My friend is in jail because he is an undercover agent he is not a dangerous criminal.
 Comma Splice/Fused/Fragments

A fused sentence incorrectly joins two independent clauses with no punctuation;

consequently, the reader doesn’t know where one thought ends and another begins.
Joe brought a bologna sandwich for lunch he forgot to bring me one.
This new dress makes me look sallow I will have to return it.
Kimberly got new glasses everyone complimented her on them.

A comma splice incorrectly joins two independent clauses with a comma.

Joe brought a bologna sandwich for lunch, he forgot to bring me one.

This new dress makes me look sallow, I will have to return it.
Kimberly got new glasses, everyone complimented her on them.

A fragment occurs when one or more of the key elements of a sentence (independent
clause) is missing: subject, verb, or complete idea.
Because Joe forgot to bring a bologna sandwich for me.
This new dress making me look sallow.
Since Kimberly got new glasses.

®Fused sentences and comma splices can be corrected in several ways:

1. Make two separate sentences by using a period:
Joe brought a bologna sandwich for lunch. He forgot to bring me one.

2. Use a comma and coordinating conjunction--FANBOYS = for, and, nor, but, or, yet,
so:
Joe brought a bologna sandwich for lunch, but he forgot to bring me one.

3. Use a subordinating conjunction—because, although, unless, when, if, since…:

Although Joe brought a bologna sandwich for lunch, he forgot to bring me one.

4. Use a semicolon and conjunctive adverb—THINTIC = therefore, however, indeed,

nevertheless, in fact, consequently:
Joe brought a bologna sandwich for lunch; however, he forgot to bring me one.
Rewrite these sentences fixing the comma splices.
1. We won the game, we lost the tournament.
2. I was a runner, I was one of the fastest.
3. She wants to succeed, she will work hard to be the best.
4. He wants to talk, he says he will call us later today.
5. The mayor will not vote for the issue, he doesn’t believe in it.
6. Someone needs to help my teacher, she is carrying a lot of bags.
7. Everyone pays taxes, everyone doesn’t like to pay taxes.
8. This company will earn a lot, they have great ideas to make money.
Determine whether the items below are comma splices or fused sentences.
1. Julie is a real hypochondriac when her stomach hurts, she is certain that she has a
bleeding ulcer, and if she has a bacteria, she believes that she has cancer of the
spine.
A. Comma splice
B. Fused sentence
2. My cat Buster loves to nap on warm appliance when he sleeps on top of the
television, his tail swipes the screen like a windshield wiper.
A. Comma splice
B. Fused sentence
3. During English class, Anthony kept flirting with RaShaunda because his
behaviour was keeping Shenicka from understanding the lecture, Shenicka
whacked him over the head with her heavy dictionary.
A. Comma splice
B. Fused sentence
4. In preparation for the quiz, La’Mia studied comma splices and fused sentences
until she thought her brain would burst, finally, she put away her notes, convinced
that she would remember the rules even on her death bed.
A. Comma splice
B. Fused sentence
5. At the back of the classroom, Nina sat with her arms crossed, glaring at her
teacher, Mr. Beane, her body language indicated that English was her east favorite
subject.
A. Comma splice
B. Fused sentence
6. When Matt shaved his head, his mother worried that he had joined a cult the real
reason for the bald head, however, was the Matt could get more attention and
sympathy from girls who thought he was sick with a dread disease.
A. Comma splice
B. Fused sentence
7. Mike love to play computer games, especially Tomb Raider, he imagines that all
of the villains are his problem, and he gets great satisfaction blasting them to bits.
A. Comma splice
B. Fused sentence
Correcting run-on sentences and comma splices.
 Decide the type of error in each sentence. Write RO for run-on sentence or CS for
comma splice. Then write a correct sentence. More than one correction may be
possible. No. 1 is done as an example for you.
1. CS A whale is one of the largest animals on Earth, few people have seen one.
A whale is one of the largest animals on Earth. Few people have seen one.
Or Although the whale is one of the largest animals on Earth, few people have
seen one.
2. _____ Language-learning software helps students learn languages, many students
buy this software in addition to their class books.
3. _____ It is a difficult time for many people, however, people are strong and they
will survive.
4. _____ Dancing with the Stars is a well-known television show the dancing is very
exciting.
5. _____ This magazine has great articles on international events it won award last
year.

®Fragments can be corrected in several ways:

1. If the fragment gives information that applies to another sentence in the paragraph,
join
the fragment with it.
Because Joe forgot to bring a bologna sandwich for me. I didn’t have lunch. ® Because
Joe forgot to
bring a bologna sandwich for me, I didn’t have lunch.
2. Add missing elements or change the form of existing words to make a complete
sentence.
This new dress making me look sallow. → This new dress makes me look sallow.
3. Delete words that make the fragment a dependent clause.
Since Kimberly got new glasses. ® Kimberly got new glasses.
Fragment Exercises
I. Circle the letter of the sentence you think is correct:
1. a) After I had studied for two hours without stopping.
b) Studying hard for two hours without stopping.
c) I studied hard for two hours without stopping.
2. a) Always something of interest going on at their house.
b) There was always something of interest going on at their house.
c) Interesting things always going on at their house.
3. a) Taking her out once but forgetting her last name.
 b) Even though he had taken her out once.
c) Even though he had taken her out once, he had forgotten her last name.
4. a) Making out a schedule is a good idea.
b) Although making out a schedule is a good idea.
c) A good idea to make out a schedule.
5. a) Paying off that bill, which I should have done long ago.
b) Not having paid of that bill long ago.
c) Paying off that bill should have been done long ago.
6. a) It is an idea that goes back to ancient Greece.
b) An idea that goes back to ancient Greece.
c) An idea going back to ancient Greece.
7. a) Which we all agreed to.
b) An idea we all agreed to.
c) It was an idea we all agreed to.
8. a) Just watching the exciting game on T.V.
b) Just watching the game on T.V was exciting.
c) Just to watch the exciting game on T.V.
9. a) As if he knew what she was talking about.
b) Pretending he knew what she was talking about.
c) He pretended as if he knew what she was talking about.
10. a) My hobby being one not many people are interested in.
b) My hobby is not one many people are interested in.
c) A hobby that is not many people are interested in.
II. Circle the letter of the sentence you think is incorrect:
1. a) After I had studied hard for two hours without stopping.
b) I studied hard for two hours without stopping.
c) Studying hard for two hours without stopping is exhausting.
2. a) Interesting things are always going on at their house.
b) Always something of interesting going on at their house.
c) There are always interesting things going on at their house.
3. a) Even though he had taken her out once, he had forgotten her name.
 b) He had taken her out once, but had forgotten her name.
c) Even though he had taken her out once, but had forgotten her name.
4. a) Since making out a schedule is a good idea.
b) A good idea is to make out a schedule.
c) Making out a schedule is a good idea.
5. a) I paid off that bill, which I should have done long ago.
b) I should have paid off that bill long ago.
c) That bill payment, which I should have done long ago.
6. a) It is an idea that goes back to ancient Greece.
b) This idea goes back to ancient Greece.
c) An idea that goes back to ancient Greece.
7. a) It had been an idea we all agreed to.
b) An idea that we had all been agreed upon.
c) We had all been agree upon that idea.
8. a) Pretending he knew what she was talking about, he listened quietly.
b) As he listened quietly, he pretended he knew what she was talking about.
c) Pretending he knew what she was talking about and listening quietly.
9. a) Just watching the exciting game that was on T.V.
b) Just watching the game on T.V. was exciting.
c) Just watching the game on T.V. we were excited.
10. a) It is a hobby that not many people are interested in.
b) My hobby is not one many people are interested in.
c) A hobby of mine that not many people are interested in.
III. Write an ‘F’ for fragment or an ‘S’ for sentence in the blanks before each group of words.
_____ 1. Whenever you are ready to leave.
_____ 2. On the horizon the moon was just coming up.
_____3. That she was a conscientious person.
_____ 4. I enjoy writing letters.
_____ 5. Which is what I should have done long ago.
_____ 6. While he just stood there and waited.
 _____ 7. It was on the shelf in the closet.
_____ 8. Since it had been snowing for days.
_____ 9. Beginning on Monday.
_____10. Going to games which we always lost.
_____11. Because I was also trying to use the phone.
_____12. Giving her the incentive that was needed.
_____13. When we realized what had happened.
_____14. Sitting there breathlessly watching all afternoon.
_____15. Speeding down the highway at 90 MPH.
_____16. After I heard the car door slam.
_____17. A political program that makes sense.
_____18. A book that explains how to make money fast.
_____19. If you want, it will cost you.
_____20. If you like this rug, which we bought in Persia.
_____21. Horses which are fast.
_____22. A handle broken off a cup.
_____23. Whenever I see him.
_____24. Although class was over.
_____25. The bell rang as I left.
IV. Write an ‘F’ for fragment or an ‘S’ for sentence in the blanks before each group of words.
If either one is a fragment, combine it with the other, changing punctuation as necessary to
create a complete sentence.
___ ___ 1. Built over 1500 years ago. Some Roman roads are still in use.
___ ___ 2. The children seldom buy anything. They just like to wander about the store.
___ ___ 3. I read the directions many times. Until I practically memorized them.
___ ___ 4. Boone was friendly with the Indians. And I learned many of their ways.
___ ___ 5. Almost as soon as the bomber was produced. It became obsolete.
___ ___ 6. Cutting out the article. I mailed it to my friend.
___ ___ 7. Jane counted the people. To see if she had enough sandwiches.
___ ___8. Our problems are nothing. The Robinsons really have problems.
___ ___9. The ladder is made of aluminum. Which makes it easy to handle.
___ ___10. Besides being a great artist. Michelangelo was an engineer as well.
___ ___11. Of the many companies that go into business. Only a few survive.
___ ___12. Actors like to visit remote islands. Where they will not be recognized.
___ ___13. After the Congress had passed the bill. The President vetoed it.
___ ___14. To get the best possible deal. Tracy compared prices at six stores.
___ ___15. Kelly didn’t believe the argument. That we couldn’t afford the repair.
___ ___16. We arrived on time. Unfortunately the show was cancelled.
___ ___17. Just because I totaled the car. I lost my insurance.
___ ___18. He left the game early. Knowing his team wouldn’t win.
___ ___ 19. In a sugary tone of voice. Hannah asked for a new car.
___ ___20. Exhausted by the long hot drive. We reached Omaha at midnight.
V. In the margin, write ‘F’ for fragment or ‘S’ for sentence. For the fragments, add words to
create a complete sentence.
_____ 1. Green is my favorite color.
_____ 2. While going there.
_____ 3. If I want to.
_____ 4. Which is not going to happen.
_____ 5. It is now almost over.
_____ 6. Ending yesterday.
_____ 7. When I knew she had gone.
_____ 8. The Mercedes with the blue top.
_____ 9. Peeling carrots forever.
_____ 10. I cut my finger instead of the carrot.
_____11. Because it might get infected.
_____12. Band-Aids that keep the moisture in.
_____13. Never to have carrots again.
_____14. Since my check was late.
_____15. That I gave it to him.
_____16. That is something I didn’t know.
_____17. After bombing the test.
_____18. If I don’t study more.
_____19. Causing the economy to flounder.
_____20. In the bathtub was my watch.
_____21. Which is why I never go there.
_____22. Because he was going over the speed limit.
_____23. One writing text that doesn’t look threatening.
_____24. You may take it, if you want.
_____25. That his score was the highest in the class.
VI. Write an “F” for fragment or an “S” for sentence in the blanks before each group of
words. If either one is a fragment, combine it with the other, changing punctuation as
necessary to create a complete sentence.
___ ___ 1. I rode so much the first day. That my callouses made me sit two inches taller.
___ ___ 2. Muscles tend to deteriorate. Unless they are used.
___ ___ 3. Doing homework. Which seemed unnecessary.
___ ___ 4. Besides wanting a degree. I want to be rich.
___ ___ 5. The little boy followed his sister. Knowing she’d protect him.
___ ___ 6. Until you get this right. You must be patient.
___ ___ 7. Of all the people I know. You’re the quietest.
___ ___ 8. Samuel F.B. Morse was an inventor. And a painter who studied in Europe.
___ ___ 9. After painting the house. I rested and drank root beer.
___ ___10. Standing on his head. Made his face red.
___ ___11. My dog waits. To see if she can go too.
___ ___12. Corvettes are made of fiberglass. Which crushes easily.
___ ___13. I like to study. Where I won’t be disturbed.
___ ___14. I lost my pencil. The only one I had.
___ ___15. My pay is too low. Because inflation is too high.
___ ___16. The tire was flat. A nail was in it.
___ ___17. Stunned by the blow. The bird dropped to the ground.
___ ___18. I like to eat. Where the food is cheap and good.
___ ___19. The teacher was terrible. But I liked the class anyway.
___ ___20. After it rained for three hours. Our tent flooded.
VII. Underline the fragment sentences and correct by omitting or adding words, changing
punctuation, and/or changing verb forms as required.
1. In the small French town. The town clerk spends two hours every day talking in the
café to friends. And reading different newspapers. The village doctor often drops in
for an aperitif when he is between calls. People from outlying sections of the valley
who come to the village only on official business often drop in for a drink. And leave
news of events in their neighborhoods. Through the café owner the postman relays
messages. Which he has received while on his route. With these and many other
sources of information at his disposal. The café owner usually knows better than
anyone else in the village the news of community.
2. Mount St. Helens erupted Tuesday for the fourth time in nine months. Sending a
billowing, buff-colored cloud 40,000 feet into the sky. The eruption followed a day of
increasing earthquake activity under the mountain’s north flank. This activity was
similar to the tremors before the volcano’s cataclysmic May 18 explosion. Which
ripped 1300 feet off the mountain’s summit. One geologist said the eruption that
occurred yesterday was not as big as the May 18 eruption. Which left 64 persons dead
or missing. The geologist also said that he was not sure whether the volcano spewed
rock or gas. Or whether the eruption was accompanied by the flow of lava.
3. American politics, at both the state and the Federal levels, is too much concerned with
the protection of large fortunes. America being the only example in history of a
genuine timocracy, that is, a state based on wealth and property ownership. The
wealth qualification for the aspiring politician is taken for granted. A governmental
system dedicated to the promotion of personal wealth in a few selected areas which,
however, will never act in the public good. The time has come for citizens to demand
from their government a measure of socialization. The provision of amenities such as
adequate state pensions and sickness benefits being the priority.

Misplaced and dangling modifiers

Both terms refer to modifiers that are connected to the wrong thing in a sentence. A
misplaced modifiers is too far away from the thing it’s supposed to modify, while a
dangling modifier’s intend subject is missing from the sentence altogether.

A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that describes, defines, or qualifies something

else in a sentence.
Modifiers include descriptive words such as adjectives and adverbs:
She always listened attentively in class.
She decided to buy the blue vintage Cadillac.

Modifiers can also be phrases or clauses:

Anna smiled when she walked past the bar where she met her husband.
Having received a promotion at work, he went out to buy a bottle of champagne.

What is a misplaced modifier?

A misplaced modifier is a modifier that is positioned too far away from the word,
phrase or clause it is intended to modify and, as a result, appears to be modifying
something else.
A misplaced modifier can be fixed by moving it so that it is connected to the right
subject.
1. The waiter presented a steak the guest that was medium rare. (False)
The waiter presented a medium-rare steak to the guest. (True)
The waiter presented a steak that was medium rare to the guest. (True)

In this example, the misplaced modifier implies that the guest was medium rare.
Moving the modifier correctly indicates that it was the steak that was medium rare.

2. Neil Armstrong made history as the first man to step on the moon in 1969.

In this example, due to the placement of the modifier in 1969, the sentence seems
to say that Neil Armstrong was the first man in that particular year to step on the
moon.
Instead, the modifier should be placed directly next to the clause it relates to –
Neil Armstrong made history.
In 1969 Neil Armstrong made history as the first man to step on the moon.
Neil Armstrong made history in 1969 as the first man to step on the moon.
3. Most participants selected a lunch from the menu that was high in sugar.
Most participants selected a lunch that was high in sugar from the menu.
Most participants selected from the menu a lunch that was high in sugar.

4. She arrived home and fell onto the sofa covered in sweat.
Covered in sweat, she arrived home and fell onto the sofa.
She arrived home covered in sweat and fell onto the sofa.

5. Despite receiving widespread critical acclaim, box office sales of the film were
poor.
Despite receiving widespread critical acclaim, the film performed poorly at the
box office.

Adverb placement
Adverbs like only, just, almost, nearly, and especially can subtly change the meaning
of a sentence depending on where they are placed, often resulting in ambiguity or
confusion.
Pay attention to which word or phrase your adverbs are modifying in order to make
your sentences as clear as possible.

For the study, Jane only interviewed Japanese speakers.

Jane interviewed Japanese speakers and did not take any other action (such as holding
focus groups or disturbing questionnaires).
For the study, Jane interviewed only Japanese speakers.
Jane interviewed people who speak Japanese, and not people who speak other
languages.
Due to the severe concussion, she almost lost all memory of the accident.
 She was in danger of completely forgetting the accident.
Due to the severe concussion, she lost almost all memory of the accident.
She forgot most, but not all, of the accident.

What is a dangling modifier?

A dangling modifier occurs when the subject of a modifier is missing from the
sentence.
Dangling modifiers often take the form of an inductor phrase followed by a clause
that doesn’t state the intended subject.

Fumbling in her purse, the keys could not be found. (False)

Fumbling in her purse, she could not find the keys. (True)
As she fumbled in her purse, the keys could not be found. (True)

In this example, the subject who was fumbling in her purse is not stated, so it seems
like the keys were doing the fumbling. A dangling modifier like this can be fixed
either by rewriting the main clause in active voice, or by revising the inductor phrase.

A modifier describes or qualifies another part of a sentence. A dangling modifier

occurs when the intended subject of the modifier is missing from the sentence, and
instead another subject appears in its place.

Dangling modifiers often take the form of an introductory phrase that is connected to
the wrong thing.

Recognizing dangling modifiers

In a correct sentence, the subject (or doer) that is modified should immediately follow
the comma after the modifier. In the example below, the introductory phrase modifies
Jane, the subject of the main clause.

While driving to work, Jane witnessed a car accident on the highway.

When a sentence does not clearly state the subject being modified, the introductory
phrase becomes a dangling modifier. Often this error is a result of a main clause
written in the passive voice.
While driving to work, a car accident was witnessed on the highway.
In this sentence, the intended target of the modifier, Jane, is missing. Because a car
accident appears where the subject should be, the sentence now suggests that a car accident
was driving to work. This is an example of how dangling modifiers can result in nonsensical
sentences.
How to fix a dangling modifier
There are two simple ways to fix a dangling modifier.
Method 1: Revise the main clause
One method of fixing a dangling modifier is to leave the modifier as it is and rewrite the main
clause so that it begins with the subject being modified.
Having injured his dominant hand, it was difficult to write the exam.
Having injured his dominant hand, John had difficulty writing the exam.
In the example above, the first sentence fails to clarify whose hand was injured- it does not
state the subject of the introductory modifier phrase. In the corrected sentence, the subject,
John, appears immediately after the modifier phrase.
Hungry after two hours of hiking, my packed sandwich was quickly devoured upon reaching
the peak.
Hungry after two hours hiking, I quickly devoured my packed sandwich upon reaching the
peak.
Smiling from ear to ear, the candles are blown out, and the novel concludes happily.
Smiling from ear to ear, the heroine blows out the candles, and the novel concludes happily.
To become a practicing dentist, many teeth must be cleaned, filled, and filed.
To become a practicing dentist, you must clean, fill, and file many teeth.
Method 2: Revise the modifier phrase
Another method of fixing a dangling modifier is to include the subject in the introductory
phrase, leaving the main clause as it is.
Having injured his dominant hand, it was difficult to write the exam.
Because Jhon had injured his dominant hand, it was difficult to write the exam.
In the correct sentence, the dangling modifier is replaced with a complete clause that clearly
states the subject who is doing the action.
While driving to work, a car accident caused a traffic jam on the highway.
While Jane was driving to work, a car accident caused a traffic jam on the highway.
Requiring more data for the study, questionnaires were collected from an additional 200
people.
Because we required more data for the study, questionnaires were collected from an
additional 200 people.
Taken down to the cellar, the darkness obscured the details of the room.
As he was taken down to the cellar, the darkness obscured the details of the room.

Exercises
Fix the misplaced and dangling modifiers.
Read the sentences listed below. Write an “M” if the sentence has a misplaced modifier, a
“D” if it has a dangling modifier or “C” if it is correct.
1. _____ Always eager for cake, the birthday party was attended by everyone.
2. _____ Water from the sprinklers started to rust the brand- new child’s bike.
3. _____ Driving the party, the present rattled around in the trunk.
4. _____ Forgetting that the microphone was on, the audience heard the singers argue.
5. _____ Wagging her tail, the puppy climbed into my lap.
6. _____ I refused to buy a meal from a restaurant that has meat.
7. _____ After painting all day, the bright new watercolor was drying in the sunshine.
8. _____ Late as always, Mike made quite an entrance when he came to the party.
9. _____ The restaurant serves cookies to customers that are freshly baked.
10. _____ Having studied for a week, the test wasn’t that difficult.

In the blank beside each sentence, indicate whether that sentence contains a dangling
modifier (DM) or a misplaced modifier (MM). Then rewrite the sentence to correct it.
1. The car on the bridge which is green is mine. ___
2. Expecting confusion, our plans were made. ___
3. Feeling hot, sweaters were taken off. ___
4. I showed my dog to the veterinarian with the fleas. ___
5. Larry told me he was getting married that afternoon at night. ___
6. This typewriter is used by a secretary with a wide carriage. ___
7. Swimming out into the sea, the current grew stronger. ___
8. Walking along the bridge, a ship suddenly appeared. ___
9. The Honda was stalled on the road out of oil. ___
10. He kept a black book of all the girls he had dated in his desk. ___
11. On entering the room, the messages are easily seen. ___
12. While at the park, the sun shone brightly on the sunbathers. ___
13. Mary should jump at whatever is demanded quickly. ___
14. He kept all his medicine in the medicine cabinet that had been prescribed for him.
____
15. When only a baby, Mom took me scuba diving. ___
Write “C” if the modifier is correctly placed. Write “MM” if it is misplaced. Then, in the
“MM” sentences, circle the modifier and draw an arrow to show where it should go.
___ 1. The man was stopped for speeding in the blue sweater.
___ 2. I almost saw the whole movie, but I fell asleep around midnight.
___ 3. Joe promised to move the lawn running out the door.
___ 4. The initials were those of the lovers carved on the tree.
___ 5. There are only two parking spaces left in the lot.
___ 6. Every four hours the doctor told him to take a pill.
___ 7. Sitting on the porch, I smoked my last cigarette.
___ 8. The woman walked toward us wearing the feather hat.
___ 9. The jet crashed into the cliff carrying 155 passengers.
___ 10. I hardly ate any breakfast.
___ 11. I watched the mechanic fix the car with admiration.
___ 12. I earn fifty dollars a week scarcely.
___ 13. Reaching into the cupboard, I found the bag of cookies.
___ 14. We borrowed a mower from a neighbor that was broken.
___ 15. Climbing up the telephone pole, we saw a squirrel.
___ 16. Mel, running rapidly, disappeared around the bend.
___ 17. The cat was rescued after the building had been set on fire by a fireman.
___ 18. We’ve almost found all the pieces to the puzzle.
___ 19. She vowed on her birthday to go on a diet.
___ 20. We need gas badly.

Draw one line under the dangling modifier in each of the following sentences.
1. Driving in heavy traffic, my head started to ache.
2. Fishing for trout, our boat tipped over.
3. Crossing the border, my bags were searched.
4. Searching my wallet, my driver’s license was found.
5. A shovel was used, building the sand castle.

Write “DM” if the modifier is dangling or “C” if it has a subject to refer to and the sentence is
correct.
_____ 1. Chasing his sister, Billy fell and bruised his knee.
_____ 2. Feeling nervous, nails were bitten.
_____ 3. Running scared, the cat climbed up the tree.
_____ 4. Laughing hysterically, the joke was repeated.
_____ 5. Slipping on the ice, her leg was broken.
In all of the following sentences, there are modifiers that do not apply clearly to the
word they modify. Underline the subject and rewrite the sentence, making the
modifier apply clearly to the word it modifies. If there is no subject, supply an
appropriate one. Please have a writing counselor check the remaining exercises.
1. Reaching the finals, the game was won by the Tigers.
2. Playing skillfully, a touchdown was made by the home team.
3. Raising his hand, the question was answered by Joe.
4. Planting vegetables, her knees got dirty.
 5. Speaking for the community, the issue was raised by Mrs. Santos.

Correct the following sentences by changing the dangling modifier into a

dependent clause. Rewrite the entire sentence in the space provided.
1. Fooling around, the lamp got broken.
2. Dashing through the snow, a stone upset the sleigh.
3. Driving home, our car got a flat tire.
4. Waiting for my friend, the weather turned bad.
5. Taking out the garbage, snow started to fall.
Complete these sentences.
1. Since moving to Nebraska, _______________________________.
2. Before putting on a show, ________________________________.
3. While waiting for the Sears man, __________________________.
4. By having the oil filter changed, ___________________________.
5. On hearing about your divorce, ____________________________.

Complete these sentences.

1. To appreciate the music, ____________________________.
2. To get a raise, ____________________________________.
3. To have a successful barbecue, _______________________.
4. To get to know people, _____________________________.
5. To understand the stock market, ______________________.

Parallel structure
What is Parallel structure?
Parallel structure refers to a sentence’s use of the same word pattern by repeating
a grammatical form. It underlines the value of any ideas or information presented
in the same sentence at the same time.
If a sentence has two or more numbers of items, the grammatical form of the first
item must be used to represent the remaining thoughts. Multiple pieces of
information are frequently joined a parallel structure by coordinating
conjunctions. In distinct sentences, a parallel structure can be built at the word,
phrase, or clause level.
Coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
Here are some examples of parallel structures:
Not parallel: My older brother likes swimming, hiking, and to ride a motorcycle.
Parallel: My older brother likes swimming, hiking, and riding a motorcycle.

Not parallel: His students were asked to do their assignments quickly, accurately,
and in a detailed manner.
Parallel: His students were asked to do their assignments quickly, accurately,
and thoroughly.

1. Use parallel structure with elements in lists or in a series.

 Incorrect: Tonight, I will do my homework and watching TV.
Correct: Tonight, I will do my homework and watch TV.
2. Use parallel structure with elements joined by a correlative conjunction.
Incorrect: She not only is a novelist but also a poet.
Correct: She is not only a novelist but also a poet.
Correct: She not only is a novelist but also is a poet.
3. Use parallel structure with elements being compared. (A is more than/ better
than B)
Incorrect: I love singing more than to draw.
Correct: I love singing more than drawing.
4. Use parallel structure with elements joined by a linking verb or a verb of
being.
Incorrect: To love is losing control.
Correct: To love is to lose control.
5. Use parallel structure with elements joined by coordinating conjunctions.
Incorrect: Your company and what its partner is are excellent.
Correct: Your company and its partner are excellent.
Exercises
I. Decide whether the sentence has parallel structure or not.
1. She decided to leave her job and travelling the world.
a) Parallel
b) Not Parallel
2. He started the engine, released the hand break, and checked the mirror.
a) Parallel
b) Not Parallel
3. Some people think that being successful is the same thing as to have money.
a) Parallel
b) Not Parallel
4. Did you decide not to come because you are tired or are you feeling sick?
a) Parallel
b) Not Parallel
5. She was disappointed by not only his clothes but also his mannerisms.
a) Parallel
b) Not Parallel
6. She wants neither the red one nor the yellow one.
a) Parallel
b) Not Parallel
7. When I wake up I like either walking the dog or to go for a jog.
a) Parallel
b) Not Parallel
8. I would describe her as intelligent, caring, and thoughtful.
a) Parallel
b) Not Parallel
9. He suggested that we go for a meal then we should see a film.
a) Parallel
 b) Not Parallel
10. Spain is a place where you can eat cheap food and soak up the sun.
a) Parallel
b) Not Parallel

II. Most of the following sentences are out of balance because they lack parallel
structure. Please rewrite each sentence, give it parallel structure. If a sentence
already has parallel structure, write Correct.
1. Rafael delivered his speech with confidence and enthusiastically.
2. In 1923 Garret Morgan patented a traffic light with red, yellow, and green
lights that looked very different from today’s traffic lights.
3. Mrs. Shapiro had heard about the new hockey league but not that there would
be a team in Greensboro.
4. The selection at the downtown CD store is better than going to the mall.
5. I have travelled by bus, by train, and by subway, but never by boat.
6. Thelma likes playing the clarinet, to march in the band, and watching the
football games.
7. The advertisement claims that this toothpaste kills more germs and prevents
more cavities than any other toothpaste.

III. Determine which choice makes the sentence parallel.

1. When Delores realized that her father had made Lima beans and rice for
dinner, she _____, claimed to feel nauseous, and excused herself from the
table. The bag of stale popcorn in her room would tide her over until breakfast.
a) clutched her stomach
b) was clutching her stomach
c) did clutch her stomach
2. Not only did Hank despise the way June chewed with her mouth open,
____finding her wet towels all over the bathroom floor.
a) but also disliking
b) but also disliked
c) but he also disliked
3. To protect her delicate hands, Fran will not rake the yard, do the dishes, or
____.
a) refuses to scrub the bathtub
b) scrub the bathtub
c) won’t scrub the bathtub
4. When Diane takes her beagle for a walk, Santana enjoys sniffing for edible
garbage, _____, and lunging at squirrels.
a) she howls at bicyclists
b) howling at bicyclists
c) howls at bicyclists
5. After Amanda cashes her paycheck, the money goes to her savings account,
cappuccino fund, and ______.
 a) paying her credit card bill
b) credit card balance
c) toward her credit card balance
6. In preparation for her run, Alicia _______, applied sunscreen, and increased
the volume on her iPod.
a) tightened her shoelaces
b) was tightening her shoelaces
c) did tighten her shoelaces
7. We searched the car trunk, _____, and the top of the refrigerator, but we could
not find the box of cornflakes that we remember buying.
a) the pantry shelves
b) on the pantry shelves
c) looked on the pantry shelves
8. Bonkers, our ninety- pound golden retriever, chews on furniture, ______, and
snots up the car windows- inconveniences we didn’t anticipate when we
adopted him.
a) he drags us around the neighborhood during walks
b) would drag us around the neighborhood during walks
c) drags us around the neighborhood during walks
9. Belinda saw very little of the horror movie, for she shut her eyes ____, when
she heard the monster’s footsteps in the dead leaves, and when characters
started screaming.
a) when the violins began to play
b) during the violin music
c) while listening to the violins play
10. In Mrs. Curall’s office, Ruben feigned the flu. He hoped to be excused from
the class, get an extension on his paper, and ______.
a) then to spend the afternoon playing tennis with his friends
b) spend the afternoon playing tennis with his friends
c) to spend the afternoon playing tennis with his friends

IV. Choose the correct answers.

1. Mia likes playing Ludo, carroms, and play chess.
a) Mia likes playing Ludo, carroms, and chess.
b) Mis likes playing Ludo, play carroms, and to play chess.
c) Mia likes to play Ludo, carroms, and playing chess.
d) None of the above

2. Furniture items like desks or a chair can be made out of wood.

a) Furniture items like desks or chair can be made out of wood.
b) Furniture items like desks and chairs can be made out of wood.
c) Furniture items like a desk or chairs can be made out of wood.
d) None of the above
3. Peter likes painting, sketching, and to draw cartoons.
a) Peter likes to paint, sketching, and drawing cartoons.
b) Peter likes to paint, sketch, and drawing cartoons.
 c) Peter likes painting, sketching, and drawing cartoons.
d) None of the above
4. Kajal perfectly and with confidence presented the paper.
a) Kajal presented the paper with perfection and confidence.
b) Kajal presented the paper perfectly and confidently.
c) Both A and B
d) None of the above
5. Amal has ______.
a) a car, a bike, and a cycle.
b) a car, a bike, and she has a cycle.
c) a car and a bike, and she has a cycle.
d) None of the above
6. Public transport such as _________
a) buses and a train reduces air pollution
b) buses or a train reduces air pollution
c) buses and trains reduce air pollution
d) None of the above
7. Karishma likes ________.
a) cooking, cleaning and to knit.
b) cooking, cleaning and knitting
c) to cook, clean and knitting
d) None of the above
8. For lunch I would like__________.
a) fried eggs and to bake potatoes.
b) baked potatoes and to fry eggs.
c) to fry eggs and bake potatoes.
d) None of the above
9. I like to ________
a) eat healthy food, sleep early and exercise regularly.
b) eat healthy food, sleep early and to exercise regularly.
c) eat healthy food, sleep early and I like to exercise regularly.
d) None of the above
10. Riya has ________.
a) a pen, a pencil, and a ruler.
b) a pen, a pencil, and she has a ruler.
c) a pen and a pencil, and she has a ruler.
d) None of the above
Eliminating Informal or Nonstandard words
What are informal, nonstandard and slang words?
The status or stylistic labels informal and nonformal as well as
colloquial are terms applied to written usage at the lowest level on the scale of
formality. These are the most relaxed and the least constrained forms of
written language, the language which we use when writing to close friends and
relatives, and to colleagues and others whom we know well. These terms are
perfectly acceptable standard English as long as their use is limited to contexts
 appropriate for informality. In many dictionaries, the use of the label
nonstandard is the most restrictive, applied to forms and usages that educated
speakers and writers consider unacceptable. Slang is an extremely informal
style language that is vivid, often extravagant and facetious, in its striving for
rhetorical effect.
How do you identify non-standard English?
The easiest way to identify non-standard English is to look for its most
common features. These are usually the opposite to what you’d find in
standard English. Here’s how the features of the two compare:
Standard English Non-standard English
Formal and polite style of tone. Friendly and relaxed style and tone.
Standard grammar used accurately Mostly standard grammar, but there
and correctly. may be some variation or room for
error.
Correct spellings. Some incorrect spelling to shorten
words. For example, in text
messages, ‘you’ might simply be
spelt ‘u’.
Advanced vocabulary and phrases. Simpler vocabulary-direct and to the
point.
Fewer or no contracted words (I’d, Frequent use of contracted words.
I’ve, aren’t, wouldn’t).
No slang or colloquialisms. Use of slang and colloquialisms
throughout.
Fewer or no abbreviations. Use of abbreviations such as ‘I’m
gonna’ (I’m going to) or ‘TTYL’
(talk to you later).

Non-standard English examples

Here are some non-standard English examples:
1. ‘Yeah’ rather than ‘yes’ is perhaps the most obvious and most used standard English
example.
2. ‘We was’ in place of ‘we were’.
3. ‘If I was you’ instead of ‘If I were’.
4. ‘Ain’t’ is a word that’s frequently used in non-standard English to replace ‘am not’.
For example, ‘I am not going to do that’.vs ‘I ain’t doing that.’
5. ‘Innit’ is sometimes said rather than ‘isn’t it’. For example, ‘It’s hot out today, innit?’
6. ‘Gotta’ is used instead of ‘have (got) to’. ‘I gotta do my homework.’
7. ‘Wanna’ is used instead of ‘want to’. ‘Do you wanna get pizza for dinner?’
8. ‘Because’ is regularly shortened to ‘cos’.
9. ‘I don’t know’ is shortened to ‘I dunno’.
10. ‘Kind of’ and ‘sort of’ are shortened to ‘kinda’ and ‘sorta’.
 I. Re-write the following sentences using standard English.
1. He learned me some skateboard tricks.
2. I ain’t going out.
3. We was just playing football.
4. He should of took more care.
5. We was lucky not to get caught.
6. Give me one of them sweets.
7. The boy done good.
8. I haven’t got no money.

Subject-verb Agreement
A subject and a verb must agree, even when other words or phrases come between
them.
Example: The dog drinks his water every day.
“Dog” is a singular subject; ‘drinks’ is a singular present tense verb. A common
mistake in S-V agreement is to assume that present tense verbs ending in ‘s’ (ex:
drinks, runs, dances) are plural.
Prepositional phrases and why they matter
Look at the sentence below.
Example; The boxes of cake mix are on the shelf.
The verb is ‘are’, but what is the subject? Is it ‘boxes’ or ‘cake mix’?
In order to figure out the subject, we must eliminate the prepositional phrase
which is often times in between the subject and the verb.
A prepositional phrase is a two- to four- word phrase (sometimes more) that
begins with a preposition (above, among, at, below, beneath, between, in, of, over,
to, under). A verb must agree with its subject, not with the object of a
prepositional phrase, which often comes between the subject and the verb.
Example; The boxes of cake mix are on the shelf.
Since ‘of’ is a preposition, we ignore the prepositional phrase ‘of cake mix’.
Therefore, ‘boxes’ is the plural subject, which matches perfectly with the plural
verb ‘are’.

Below are some samples of prepositional phrases:

Preposition Object of prepositional phrase

above the trees
among the flowers
at the movies
below the lab
 beneath the school
under the bridge
in the store
of the table
on
over
to

Example: The teachers in the classroom is/ are very experienced.

Sine we know that ‘in’ is a preposition, then it makes sense that ‘in the classroom’
is a prepositional phrase. Cross out ‘in the classroom’. You are left with ‘The
teachers…(is/ are) very experienced.’

“Teachers” is a plural subject, so it must take the plural verb “are”.

However, what if we have an inverted sentence?
Example: Under the tree is/ are several flowers.
In this case, the verb must be plural (‘are’) because the subject (‘flowers’) is
plural.

Pronouns and Indefinite Pronouns

Simple pronouns and their numbers (singular/ plural) are as follows:
Singular Plural
1st person I dance. We dance.
nd
2 person You dance. You dance.
3rd person He/She/ It dances. They dance.
Robert dances. Robert and Linda dance.

Singular indefinite pronouns take the singular verb.

Example: Everyone in the class supports the teacher.
“Everyone” is a singular subject. “In the class” is the prepositional phrase.
“Supports” is the singular present tense verb (notice the “s” on the end).

Other singular indefinite pronouns are anybody, anyone, anything, each, either,
every, everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody, on one, somebody,
someone, something.
Example: Every man, woman, and child was/ were given a book. (“was”)
Each student is/ are required to pass the final exam. (“is”)
Since “Every” and “Each” are both indefinite pronouns, they take singular verbs.

Indefinite pronouns such as few, many, and several are plural and take plural
verbs.
Example: Both of my dogs has/ have collars. (“have”)
Several of my friends is/ are sick. (“are”)
Sine “Both” and “Several” are plural indefinite pronouns, they take the plural
verbs “have” and “are”.
 Special Cases

If a sentence has two subjects connected by or/nor, either/ or, or neither/ nor, the
verb must agree with the second subject (the subject closer to the verb).
Example: Neither the dogs nor the cat is going outside.
The singular subject ‘cat’ matches the singular verb ‘is.
If we flip the sentence, the verb will change.
Example: Neither the cat nor the dogs are going outside.
“Dogs” is a plural subject that takes the plural verb “are”.
However, if a sentence begins with “neither” or “either” without the “or/nor”
combination, the verb is singular.
Example: Neither of the two stores is open.
Either store is fine with me.

Subject-Verb Agreement Practice Exercises

1. Everyone (has/ have) done his or her homework.
2. Each of the students (is/are) responsible for doing his or her work.
3. Either my father or my brothers (is/ are) going to sell the car.
4. Neither my sisters nor my mother (is/ are) going to sell the house.
5. The samples on the tray in the lab (need/ needs) testing.
6. Mary and John usually (plays/ play) together.
7. Both of the dogs (has/ have) collars.
8. Neither the dogs nor the cat (is/are) very hungry.
9. Either the girls or the boy (walk/ walks) in the evening.
10. Either the boy or the girls (walk/ walks) in the evening.
11. At the end of the fall (comes/ come) the hard tests.
12. The slaughter of animals for their fur (has/ have) caused controversy.
13. The student, as well as his teacher, (was/were) going on the field trip.
14. The hard test (comes/ come) at the end of the fall.
15. Both of my roommates (has/ have) decided to live in the dorms.

Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject.
1. Annie and her brothers (is/ are) at school.
2. Either my mother or my father (is/ are) coming to the meeting.
3. The dog or the cats (is/ are) outside.
4. Either my shoes or your coat (is/ are) always on the floor.
5. George and Tamara (doesn’t/ don’t) want to see that movie.
6. Benito (doesn’t/ don’t) know the answer.
7. One of my sisters (is/ are) going on a trip to France.
8. The man with all the birds (live/ lives) on my street.
9. The movie, including all the previews, (take/ takes) about two hours to watch.
10. The players, as well as the captain, (want/ wants) to win.
11. Either answer (is/ are) acceptable.
12. Every one of those books (is/ are) fiction.
13. Nobody (know/ knows) the trouble I’ve seen.
14. (Is/Are) the news on at five or six?
15. Mathematics (is/ are) John’s favorite subject, while Civics (is/ are) Andrea’s
favorite subject.
16. Eight dollars (is/ are) the price of a movie these days.
17. (Is/ Are) the tweezers in this drawer?
18. Your pants (is/ are) at the cleaner’s.
19. There (was/ were) fifteen candies in that bag. Now there (is/ are) only one left.
20. The committee (debates/ debate) these questions carefully.
21. The committee members (leads/ lead) very different lives in private.
22. The Prime Minister, together with his wife, (greets/ greet) the press cordially.
23. All of the CDs, even the scratched one, (is/ are) in this case.
24. The Arabian nights (is/ are) an interesting book.
25. Riha as well as Ria (was/ were) guilty.
26. Neither John nor you (was / were) present.
27. Two and two (make/ makes) four.
28. The orators and statesman (is/ are) dead.
29. The king with all ministers (was/ were) present there.
30. Every man and woman and children in the village (was/ were) wounded.
31. Curry and rice (is/ are) his favorite food.
32. The number of students (was/ were) caught copying.
33. The boy and the girl (go/ goes) to the same college.
34. Many of the students (has/ have) failed in the examination.
35. A large number of workers (has/ have) stuck works.
36. Most of the students (waste/ wastes) their time.
37. He and his friends (has/ have) arrived.
38. Mathematics (is/ are) an important subject.
39. The committee (has/ have) chosen their chairman.
40. Each of her rooms (is/ are) to let.
41. The house with its content (was/were) insured against fire.
42. Rain (fall/ falls) from the sky.

Choose the correct answers.

1. He as well as I ____ interested in music.
a) am
b) are
c) has
d) is
2. England _____ won the ODI cricket.
a) has
b) have
c) is
d) will be
3. A lot of sugar _____ added to the milk.
a) has
b) were
 c) was
d) have been
4. The opinion of the principle _____ not acceptable to the staff.
a) are
b) has
c) is
d) were
5. All the glitters _____ not gold.
a) are
b) has
c) is
d) was
6. Nothing but empty promises _____ given to the public.
a) are
b) has
c) are being
d) is
7. More than one book _____ missing from the library.
a) were
b) is
c) are
d) have
8. More boys than one _____ absent in the class.
a) are
b) was
c) is
d) has been
9. The following _____ details of the meeting.
a) has
b) are
c) is
d) have been
10. The following _____ the details of the program.
a) is
b) have
c) are
d) has
11. The price of essential commodities _____ skyrocketing.
a) is
b) have been
c) are
d) has
12. He as well as his friends _____ interested in cricket.
a) has
b) are
c) am
 d) is
13. The decision of the board members _____ final on this manner.
a) were
b) is
c) are
d) has
14. The king followed by his retinues _____ go out for hunting.
a) have
b) were being
c) has
d) has been
15. He or his friends _____ broken the window pane.
a) has
b) was
c) have
d) ware
16. Either he or I _____ to attend the function.
a) has
b) is
c) are
d) have
17. Hope for the missing children_____ fading.
a) is
b) are
c) were
d) have been
18. The board member, not the chairman _____ the decision.
a) take
b) has taken
c) takes
d) is taking
19. He is one of those who_____ helped me.
a) has
b) have
c) is
d) was
20. There _____ a number of sheep in the field.
a) is
b) were
c) was
d) has

i. Choose the correct words.

1. Man and woman ______ complementary to each other.
a) is
b) are
2. Plenty of mangoes and bananas ______ available in this season.
a) is
b) are
3. A dictionary and an atlas ______ missing from the library.
a) is
b) are
4. The leader as well as his brothers ______ to the same tribe.
a) belong
b) belongs
5. Cats and dogs ______ not get along.
a) do
b) does
6. The brothers as well as their sister ______ good at their studies.
a) is
b) are
7. The students accompanied by their teacher ______ gone on a picnic.
a) has
b) have
8. A lot of houses ______ collapsed in the storm.
a) has
b) have
9. The children as well as their mother_______ missing.
a) is
b) are
10. A large sum of money ______ stolen.
a) was
b) were
Pronoun Usage
1. Personal pronouns
A pronoun used to place instead of any person is called a personal pronoun.
Personal pronoun usually indicates persons.
For example: I, We, You, She, He, It, They etc.
I have a sweet puppet.
We have been playing cards since morning.
You are very good at English.
He had an evergreen memory in his childhood.
She is going to arrange a meeting with her colleagues.
They will be played in the final match.

2. Possessive pronouns
A pronoun that is used to indicate possession is called a possessive pronoun-
for example, mine, ours, yours, his, hers, theirs, etc.
The pen is mine.
It is the responsibility of ours.
You have to fulfill of dreams of yours.
 He doesn’t follow his duty properly.
The dollar is hers.

3. Reflexive pronouns
A pronoun used to add self or selves and indicates the subject or clause is
called a reflexive pronoun, for example, yourself, herself, etc. A reflexive
pronoun is placed when the subject and object indicate the same person or the
same thing.
I regret the misdeed of myself.
It would help if you were careful of yourself.
We bought some food for ourselves.
He claims himself as a brilliant student.
She wants to take herself in a new position.
They think of themselves as a part of the company.

4. Demonstrative Pronouns
A pronoun that is usually used to indicate a noun is a demonstrative pronoun-
for example, these, those, it, etc.
This is the book I borrowed from you.
Do you see that place before?
These boys are playing cricket.
I’m missing those childhood days.
It is a beautiful place I have ever seen.

5. Indefinite Pronouns
A pronoun that indicates any unidentified person or thing is called an
indefinite pronoun.
For example; anyone, any one, some, someone, no one, anybody, somebody,
nobody, many, everyone, all, etc.
Any of the books don’t match my curriculum.
One should follow one’s duty.
Is there anyone to answer this question?
I want to buy some books.
Would you please call someone to take me into the house?
No one can disagree with this matter.
Somebody helps the poor.
Nobody defeats him in this game.
I have many clothes which I want to distribute to the orphan child.
Everyone should concentrate on the class.
All of the passengers missed the train.
6. Relative Pronouns
A pronoun used to introduce a relative clause and connect it to an independent
clause is called a relative pronoun.
For example; who, whose, whom, which, etc.
I have a sister who is very good at English.
I don’t know whose book is on the table.
 He has a good friend whom he loves so much.
My brother has a dog which is beautiful.
What is the reason behind that story?

7. Interrogative Pronouns
A pronoun that can be used as a relative pronoun that may be found in a
question or indirect question is called an interrogative pronoun.
For example; who, whom, which, what, etc.
Who is sitting in front of you?
Whom do you want to love?
Which smart phone do you prefer to buy?
What is your opinion regarding this issue?

8. Distribute Pronouns
A pronoun used to indicate persons or things one at a time is called a distribute
pronoun. Distributive pronouns are always in the singular form, and it follows
singular noun and verb.
Example; each, either, neither, etc.
Each of the boys is taking part in the competition.
Either they can do this task.
Neither Jack nor Jonny attends the class.

9. Pronoun – antecedent agreement

The noun or nouns substitute that a pronoun refers to is called its antecedent.
For example; in the sentence: Chelsey finished her presentation, “Chelsey”
is the antecedent and “her” is the pronoun.
Pronouns should agree in number, person, and gender with their antecedents.
If the antecedent is singular, the pronoun should be singular. It the
antecedent is plural, the pronoun should be plural.

Indefinite pronouns as Antecedents

Indefinite pronouns are pronouns that do not refer to specific persons or
things. When the following indefinite pronouns are used as antecedents, the
pronouns that follow them should be singular and gender neutral unless the
gender identify of the persons is known.
- Each, each one, either, either one, neither
- Anyone, anybody, anything, everyone, neither one
- Someone, somebody, something, everybody
- None, no one, nobody, everything
Anyone who has finished their test may leave.
Everybody on the team did her best.
Neither ate his dinner.

Two Singular Antecedents

Two or more antecedents joined by and usually require a plural pronoun.
His car and boat were left in their usual places.
Chelsey, Omar, and Manny finished their joint presentation ten minutes
early.
 However, when the antecedents are preceded by each or every, the pronoun
should be singular.
Every family and business must do its part to conserve energy.
(Every makes a singular pronoun necessary.)

Each college and university sent its budget request to the legislature.
(Each makes a singular pronoun necessary.)

Singular antecedents joined by or, either … or, or neither… nor require

singular pronouns.

Has either Ajdin or Chinh finished his report?

Pronoun Exercise

Complete the following sentences with the correct Pronoun.

1. ___ name is Raghav, and ___ am an Indian. (my/our; he/she/I)

2. Her grandparents shifted to Las Vegas. _____ often visit _____. (he/she/her;
they/them)
3. John should work hard for _____ upcoming exams. (his/her)
4. ___ know the girl _____ name is Jane. (I/me; which/whose/whom)
5. He wants to speak to ____ about _____. (she/her; ourself/himself)
6. My brother is a kind person. ____ did the work all by ______. (she/he;
herself/himself)
7. Let me help ____ carry _____ bags. (you/I; this/these)
8. Seeta and Soumya are best friends. _____ always stay together. (them/they)
9. _____ new class teacher is Mrs Joseph _____ is very strict by nature.
(our/there; he/she)
10. I know that man ______ you are interrogating. (who/whom)
11. _____ came to ____ house to meet me. (they/he; my/our)
12. Jimmy saw ____ stranger again in the basement. (this/that)
13. ___ think he should stay faithful to the person ____ believed the most. (I/us;
he/she)
14. _____ all are my good friends. (we/they)
15. Today is awesome, and ______ think ______ should go out for a long drive.
16. _______ is a social worker, and _______ responsibilities are also for this
society. (I/us; they/we/you)
17. If _____ win the tournament then definitely ____ will get a prize. (you/they;
I/we/you)
18. A conflict between _____ and me is for the position of the captain of ___
team. (them/him; our/their)
19. Can _____ tell me where I can find a KFC in ____ city? (she/he/you; our/this)
20. _____ soldier wants to work for their nation and die for their nation.
(every/some; his/this/that)
Fill in the Blanks with Appropriate Pronouns
Read the following sentences and use the appropriate pronouns.

1. Murat is a good boy. __ always listens to__ teacher.

2. Amit and Sumit are twin brothers. ___ take the same bag to the school.
3. Milly and I are very good friends. ___ know each other since childhood.
4. The mangoes are very sour. Where did you buy ___?
5. I love watching Tom and Jerry. __ reminds me of my childhood days.
6. I bought this book for my sister. __ often read it together.
7. This is Steve. Do you know __?
8. There are many windows here. But all of ___ are jammed.
9. The army has reached __ destination.
10. My aunt and uncle live in Delhi. ___ often visit ___.
11. While playing basketball, I hurt ____
12. The children hid ___ in the cupboard.
13. The flowers in the vase are beautiful. I bought __ flowers for my anniversary.
14. All the boys participated in the race and ___ one of them got a prize.
15. ___ of the witnesses were present in the court.
16. I met Peter ___ just returned from Belgium.
17. Raju set for ___, a target which was difficult to achieve.
18. The criminals ___ admitted their crime.
19. This is the girl __ caught the thief.
20. The book is about Anne. It is __ favourite book.

Use the Correct Form of Pronoun

Choose the correct pronoun and use it in the sentence.

1. (Me/I) feel like taking a short trip to the Maldives

2. (I/me) think you should participate in the debate.
3. Wuthering Heights is (her/hers) favorite book.
4. Those papers are (mine/my).
5. The box was lying around. Is (it/its) yours?
6. The dog almost choked (himself/itself).
7. Natasha was all by (yourselves/herself)
8. I got (me/myself) all wet.
9. The book lying here (that/this) is mine.
10. (each/neither) of the children will get sweets.
11. Do you want (that/it) pen?
12. I lost the toy you gave (me/myself)
13. This house is (ours/our).
14. It was (their/theirs) car parked here.
15. Do you know (his/him)?
 Tenses

Tense Formula Example

1. Present Simple Sub + Verb (v1) + s/es + Obj She goes to school by bus.

2. Past Simple Sub + Verb (v2) + Obj She went to school by bus.
 Tense Formula Example

Sub + will/shall + verb (v1) +

3. Future Simple She will go to school by bus.
Obj

Sub + is/am/are + Verb(+ing)

4. Present Continuous She is going to school by bus.
+ Obj

Sub + was/were + Verb(+ing)

5. Past Continuous She was going to school by bus.
+ Obj

Sub + will be/shall be +

6. Future Continuous She will be going to school by bu
verb(+ing) + Obj

Sub + Has/have + Verb (v3) +

7. Present Perfect She has gone to school by bus.
Obj

8. Past Perfect Sub + had + Verb (v3) + Obj She had gone to school by bus.

Sub + will have + verb(v3) +

9. Future Perfect She will have gone to school by b
Obj

10. Present Perfect Sub + Has/have + been + She has been going to school by
Continuous Verb(+ing) + Obj bus.

11. Past Perfect Sub + had + been + She had been going to school by
Continuous Verb(+ing) + Obj bus.

12. Future Perfect Sub + will have been + She will have been going to scho
Continuous verb(+ing) + Obj by bus for two years.
Tenses exercises
Fill in the correct form of the verb given.
1. Jeff ____________ our bank manager at the moment. He _________________ here for
three years. (BE, BE)
2. I ____________________ when the alarm ____________________ off at 5.30 this
morning. (STILL SLEEP, GO)
3. If everyone donates $5, we ____________________ enough to buy a new machine.
(HAVE)
4. There ______________ a great documentary on TV yesterday evening.
____________________ it? – No, I didn't. I ______________ to take my television set back
to the store to have it repaired. (BE, YOU SEE, HAVE)
5. When I ____________________ to the car park I didn't know where I
____________________ my car. (RETURN, PARK)
6. My uncle ____________________ the same pullover the whole winter. I guess he
____________ it. (WEAR, LOVE)
7. Mum ____________________ dinner when the doctor __________________.
(PREPARE, ARRIVE)
8. He ____________________ around with a limp since he ____________________ his
accident a few weeks ago. (WALK, HAVE)
9. You look pretty worried. – What ____________________? (HAPPEN)
10.When we ____________________ at the theatre the play ______________________.
(ARRIVE, ALREADY START)
11.When she ________________ home, she ________________ that her husband
____________________ for some time. (COME, SEE, DRINK)
12. ____________________ the good news? – Stan and Margie ____________________
married! – That's not new. – I ____________________ about it for a few weeks. (YOU
HEAR, GET, KNOW)
13.I ____________________ to call you the whole week! – Where
______________________? (TRY, YOU BE)
14.The manager ____________________ to an important customer at the moment, but he
____________________ you in a few minutes. (SPEAK, SEE)
15.Do you realize that you ____________________ on my toes? – It hurts! (STAND)
16.I think I ____________________ a break. I surely deserve one. (TAKE)
17.I wonder if he ____________________ my number. I ______________________ for him
to call for the last two hours. (FORGET, EXPECT)
18.The novel is about a man who ____________________ home from the war and
____________________ a new life. (COME, START)
19.When I ____________________ for my passport a few days ago, I
____________________ across this old photo of our family reunion. (LOOK, COME)
20.I am sorry that I ____________________ to leave your party so early last night. I
____________________ myself. (HAVE, REALLY ENJOY)

Complete the sentences with the suitable form of the verbs in brackets.
1.If I __________ (find) a good job, I’ll move to Madrid.
2.He met his wife when he __________ (work) in Brussels.
3.You can turn off the radio. I ____________ (not listen) to it.
4. Where _________ (you / have) dinner yesterday?
5. This exercise is difficult. I __________ (help) you to do it.
6.What ____________ (you / cook) tonight?
7.____________ (you / finish) your homework yet?
8. My father ___________ (go) to the bank. He’ll be back soon.
9.What __________ (they / do) at 9.00 last night?
10.It __________ (snow) when we _________ (leave) the library.
11.I usually __________ (listen) to the news in the car.
12.My cousin is a writer. He __________ (write) three novels.
13.Be careful! The baby _________ (put) those keys in his mouth!
14.When ______________ (Barack Obama / become) president of the USA?
15.My students _____________ (not listen) when I gave the instructions.
16.Gonzalo is thirsty! I ___________ (get) him a glass of water!
17.If it ___________ (not rain) we’d lie on the beach.
18. It’s my birthday next week- Don’t worry! I ____________ (not forget) it.
19.I think it ___________ (rain) this afternoon.
20.John _________ (speak) to Susan a minute ago.
21.If you ask him nicely, he _________ (help) you.
22.Would you like a coffee? No, thanks. I ________ (already / have) four cups today.
23.____________ (you /ever / have) an argument with your parents about clothes.
24.I’m sure they __________ (lose) the match.
25.My neighbour has broken his leg. He _________ (not play) tennis this weekend.
26.If I had the receipt, I __________ (return) these jeans.
27.What would you like? I __________ (have) some orange juice.
28.If my brother __________ (not arrive) soon, I’ll send him a text message.
29.I __________ (not see) my grandparents since last summer.
30.If you found a purse, __________ (you / give) it to the teacher?

PART – II

Main Idea

What is the main idea of a paragraph?

The main idea of a paragraph is the author’s message about the topic. It is often
expressed directly or it can be implied.

Reading the following passages and circle the main idea of the passage.
1 On his way home from the party, Jason realized he was lost. He had been circling the
same street for 40 minutes. He had left the directions at the party and did not have a
map. He was hoping to see a familiar landmark so he could figure out where he is.
 a) Jason went to a party
b) Jason was lost
c) Jason did not have a map
d) Jason was on his way home
2 Janie’s dog wasn’t feeling well today. He did not want to go out for his walk and did
not eat his food. She threw his toy across the yard hoping he would run to fetch it, but
he just sat there.
a) The dog doesn’t want to play
b) The dog isn’t hungry
c) The dog is sick
d) The dog lives in the yard
3 Blair and Natalie are not speaking to each other today. It was weird sitting at their
table during lunch while they were glaring at each other. I hope they make up soon;
we are three best friends and I don’t want to choose sides.
a) Blair and Natalie had a fight
b) I ate lunch alone
c) I didn’t do my homework
d) Blair is glaring at Natalie
4 Julio decided to stay up and watch television instead of studying for his History exam.
Today, when it was time to take the test, he looked at the paper and could not answer
any of the questions. He swore that from this day forward he would always study for
tests.
a) Julio did not study for his history exam
b) Julio had an exam
c) Julio likes to watch TV
d) Julio doesn’t like History
5 “If you want something done, give it to a busy person.” Initially that advice sounds
strange, but people with energy and ambition often get things done. Throughout time,
it has been proven that people with ambition accomplish things that others thoughts
were impossible. Whether a person wants to set a world record or rise to the top,
ambition is the one quality that is most needed.
a) The ways in which ambition affects social life
b) The negative effects of ambition
c) How to have ambition
d) The value of ambition
6 Cats are affectionate, cute, and independent. Unlike dogs, cats can stay alone if you
go away on a trip. They do not need to be walked and are easy to potty train. Also,
cats do not bark, so your neighbors will not have any noise to complain about. If
someone wants to have a pet, a cat is great choice.
a) Cats are independent
b) Dogs are a lot of work
c) Cats are great pets
d) Pets are hard work
7 Exercise is crucial to our lives. Doctors recommend we exercise at least two times a
week. Exercise does not necessarily need to be done in the gym; it can consist of an
outdoor walk or bike ride. It not only controls weight, but it combats many health
conditions and diseases. Another added benefit to exercise is its mood boosting
qualities.
a) Bike riding is good exercise
b) The importance of exercise
 c) Exercise can be done anywhere
d) Gyms are bad
8 Baseball has been a part of American’s lives for over 100 years. In 27 out of 50
American cities, there are 29 professional teams and thousands of minor league teams.
Most Americans attend more baseball games than any other professional sport games.
Baseball is not only part of American life but also part of slang, fashion, music, and
movies.
a) The importance of baseball stadiums
b) The reasons why baseball slang is used
c) Minor league baseball
d) Baseball in America
9 Tea is the world’s second most popular drink after water. Tea is a big part of the
Chinese culture. A Chinese saying identifies the seven basic daily necessities as fuel,
rice, oil, salt, soy sauce, vinegar, and tea. According to Chinese legend, tea was
invented accidentally by the Chinese Emperor Shen Nong in 2737B.C. China is one
of the main producers of tea, and tea remains China’s national drink.
a) Why tea is so popular
b) The importance of tea in the Chinese culture
c) The health benefits of tea
d) Drinking water is good for you
10 The art of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries demonstrates several aspects of
modern social advancement. A primary example is the advent of technology: new
technologies have developed new avenues for art making, and the globalization
brought about by the internet has both diversified the art world and brought it together
simultaneously. Even as artists are able to engage in a global conversation about the
categories and characteristics of art, creating a more uniform understanding, they can
now express themselves in a diversity of ways for a diversity of audiences. The result
has been a rapid change in how art is made and consumed.
a) Modern advances in technology have diversified art making and connected artists
to distant places and ideas.
b) Diversity in modern art is making it harder for art viewers to understand and talk
about that art.
c) The use of technology to discuss art allows us to create standards for what art
should be.
d) Art- making before the invention of technology such as the internet was
disorganized and poorly understood.

Supporting Details

Between a topic sentence and a summary sentence, the rest of a paragraph is built
with supporting details. Supporting details come in many forms; the purpose of the passage
dictates the type of details that will support the main idea. A persuasive passage may use
facts and data or detail specific reasons for the author’s opinion. An informative passage will
primarily use facts about the topic to support the main idea. Even a narrative passage will
have supporting details- specific things the author says to develop the story and characters.
The most important aspect of supporting details is exactly what it sounds like; they
support the main idea. Examining the various supporting details and how they work with one
another will reveal how the author views a topic and what the main idea of the passage is.
Supporting details are key to understanding a passage.
Supporting details can often be found in texts by looking for signal words- transitions
that explain to the reader how one sentence or idea is connected to another. Signal words can
add information, provide counterarguments, create organization in a passage, or draw
conclusions. Some common signal words and phrases include in particular, in addition,
besides, contrastingly, therefore, and because.
Read the following paragraphs and choose the correct supporting sentence/ sentences.
1 “Anna is afraid of spiders. She screams every time she sees one. If she sees one,
she runs away.”
a) Anna is afraid of spiders
b) She screams every time she sees one.
c) None of the above
2 Choose two supporting sentences for this topic sentence: “Young children should
not be allowed to cross Fourth Avenue by themselves.
a) There are many good restaurants on that street.
b) Last year, two children were injured while crossing that street.
c) Cars are always speeding down that avenue.
d) There is a school located on Fourth Avenue.
3 Choose two supporting sentences for this topic sentence: “I need to look for a new
job.”
a) Since we now have another child, my salary really isn’t enough for our family.
b) I like working with my brother.
c) The commute is very long, and I would like to spend more time with my
family.
d) This is a touch economy, and I am lucky that I still have a job.
4 Choose two supporting sentences for this topic sentence: “Students need to learn
good ways to study.
a) Sometimes doing homework in a group can be helpful.
b) Making friends is important to happiness and success.
c) Many highly-paid jobs require a college degree.
d) Studying instead of sleeping doesn’t help learning or test scores.
5 Select the supporting detail that doesn’t fit. Topic sentence: “Reading class is
really interesting.”
a) We learn interesting facts from the things we read.
b) Our teacher gives us new ways to look at things.
c) It’s my least favorite class.
d) Sometimes we do dramatic readings of the text that are super engaging.
6 Select the supporting detail that doesn’t fit. Topic sentence: “Candy is not a
healthy treat.
a) It tastes really good.
b) Candy contains high amount of sugar.
c) You can find many artificial additives in candy.
d) Eating too much candy can give you cavities.
7 Select the supporting detail that doesn’t fit. Topic sentence: “There are many
reasons people find clowns scary.”
a) Their face paint hides their true identity.
b) People often think of the creepy clowns they’ve seen on movies such as “It.”
c) There have been some bad clowns in the news lately.
d) Clowns make fun balloon animals.
 8 Select the supporting detail that doesn’t fit. Topic sentence: “Doing your
homework has many benefits.”
a) Doing your homework helps you remember the material better.
b) Those who complete their homework often do better on the test.
c) When you have done your homework, it makes it easier to participate in class.
d) Homework takes up your precious after school time.
9 Select the supporting detail that doesn’t fit. Topic sentence: “Elephants are very
intelligent animals.”
a) Elephants tear off branches of tress to us as fly swatters.
b) An elephant can live for as long as sixty-five years.
c) Elephants can recognize their reflections in mirrors.
d) Elephants have been seen keeping vigil over their dead companions.
10 Which supporting detail best supports this topic sentence? “It takes a lot of hard
work to become a professional athlete.”
a) The pros live the good life.
b) People like professional football players make a lot of money.
c) Professional athletes spend countless hours practicing their sports.
d) All of us can be professional athletes.
11 Which supporting detail best supports this topic sentence? “Elle Woods taught us
that you can do anything you put your mind to.”
a) She got into law school and became a lawyer even though no one believed in
her.
b) Her best friend works at a salon, so she always looks good.
c) Elle really likes to socialize and have fun.
d) Out of all of the things, Elle loves her dog, Bruiser, the most.
12 What is a supporting sentence?
a) Reasons, examples, and other details that support the main point of the
paragraph.
b) A way to conclude the paragraph so the reader knows what the paragraph was
about.
c) Signal words that help organize a paragraph, using time order or listing order
d) A series of paragraphs about one main idea, or point.
13 What is the purpose of a supporting sentence/ detail?
a) Summarize the ideas of the paragraph.
b) Introduce what the paragraph will be about.
c) Explain or support the idea expressed in the topic sentence.
d) Transition from one idea to the next.

Read the following paragraphs and choose the correct answer.

Robots are being used in sumo wrestling contests. Sumo wrestling is a sport that
started in Japan. It takes place in a ring. Two players try to score points by holding
each other down or pushing each other out of the ring. Robot sumo use robots
instead of humans. The robot that scores the most points win.

1. What is the main idea of this paragraph?

a. Sumo wrestling is a sport that started in Japan.
b. Sumo wrestling takes place in a ring.
c. The robot that scores the most points win.
 d. Robots are being used in Sumo wrestling contest.
1. Which of the following is a supporting detail of this paragraph?
a. Robots are being used in sumo wrestling contests.
b. Robot sumo contests are better than human sumo contests.
c. Robot sumo uses robots instead of humans.
d. Watching robot sumo is boring.

Students compete in robot sumo contests. They learn how to build their own robots.
They compete against their classmates and students from other schools. To win,
students must be creative. They must have a good plan for defeating other robots.

1. What is the main idea of this paragraph?

a. Students need a good plan for defeating other robots.
b. Students compete against their classmates and students from other
schools.
c. Students compete in robot sumo contests.
d. Students must be creative to win.
2. Which of the following is a supporting detail of this paragraph?
a. Students like building sumo robots.
b. Students compete in robot sumo contests.
c. They use excellent strategies to defeat other robots.
d. They must have a good plan for defeating other robots.

The Author’s Purpose

The author of a passage sets out with a specific goal in mind: to communicate a particular
idea to an audience. The author’s purpose is determined by asking why the author wants the
reader to understand the passage’s main idea. There are four basic purposes to which an
author can write: narrative, expository, technical, and persuasive. Within each of these
general purposes, the author may direct the audience to take a clear action or respond in a
certain way.
In a narrative, the author seeks to tell a story, often to illustrate a theme or idea the readers
need to consider. In a narrative, the author uses characteristics of storytelling, such as
chronological order, characters, and a defined setting, and these characteristics communicate
the author’s theme or main idea.
In an expository passage, the author simply seeks to explain an idea or topic to the reader.
The main idea will probably be a factual statement or a direct assertion of a broadly held
opinion. Expository writing can come in many forms, but one essential feature is a fair and
balanced representation of a topic. The author may explore one detailed aspect or a broad
range of characteristics, but he or she mainly seeks to prompt a decision from the reader.
In technical writing, the author’s purpose is to explain specific processes, techniques, or
equipment in order for the reader to use that process or equipment to obtain a desired result.
Writing like this employs chronological or spatial structures, specialized vocabulary, and
imperative or directive language.
In persuasive writing, the author actively seeks to convince the reader to accept an opinion or
belief. Much like expository writing, persuasive writing is presented in many organizational
forms.
Author’s purpose practice

1 Writing
Most of us think (erroneously) that writers just sit down and churn out a wonderful
essay, story or poem in one sitting in a flash of genius and inspiration. This is not true.
Experienced writers use the writing process from start to finish to help them write a
clear document. If you do not reflect on your composition in stages and make changes
as you develop it, you will not see all the problems or error in it. Don’t try to write an
essay or story just once and leave the room. That’s a mistake made by novice writers
and will be glaring obvious to an experienced reader. Stay and look through your
work. Reflect upon what you’ve composed. Even better, use a writing process where
you prewrite and plan, write a rough draft, organize ideas, edit and proofread. Your
writing will suffer the consequences of poor craftmanship otherwise.
The author most likely wrote the paragraph in order to:
a) Explain the writing process to someone who has rarely experienced it.
b) Suggest that new writers use the writing process to craft their work.
c) Identify the components of the writing process and the best way to incorporate
into a composition.
d) Compare the writing of a novice writer with that of an experienced writer.
2 Poor Child
On a highway, behind the gate of a vast garden, at the end of which could be
discerned the white hues of a pretty manor house bathed in sunlight, was a beautiful,
fresh child, clad in those country clothes that are coquettish. Luxury, freedom from
cares, the habitual sight of richest make such children so pretty that one is tempted to
consider them molded of a different substance from the children of mediocrity and
poverty.
Beside him, lying on the grass, was a splendid toy, as fresh as its owner, vanished,
gilded, clad in a crimson cloak and cloak and covered with plumes and glass beads.
But the child was taking no notice of his favorite toy, and this is what he was looking
at:
On the other side of the gate, out on the roadway, among the nettles and thistles, was
another child, dirty, sickly, soiled with soot, one of those pariah-kids in whom an
impartial eye would discover beauty, as the eye of a connoisseur can divine an ideal
painting underneath a layer of tarnish, if only the repugnant patina of poverty were
washed away.
The author most likely mentions the physical appearance of the impoverished child in
the last paragraph in order to:
a) Identify the cause of the child’s poverty.
b) Intensify the reader’s sympathetic reaction toward the child.
c) Criticize a social upbringing that would allow a child to suffer in such a way.
d) Contrast the poverty of the second child with the privilege of the first.
3 Technology
The high-tech world of clocks and schedules, computers and programs were supposed
to free us from a life of toil and deprivation, yet with each passing day the human race
becomes more enslaved, exploited, and victimized. Million starve while a few live in
splendor. The human race remains divided from itself and severed from the natural
world that is primordial community.
We now orchestrate an artificial time world, zipping along the electronic circuits of
silicon chips, a time world utterly aliens from the time a fruit takes to ripen, or a tide
 takes to receded. We have sped ourselves out of the time world of nature and into a
fabricated time world where experience can only be simulated but no longer savored.
Our weekly routines and work lives are punctuated with artificial rhythms, the unholy
union of perspective and power. And with each new electric dawn and dusk, we grow
further apart from each other, more isolated and alone, more in control and less self-
assured.
The author’s first paragraph primarily serves to:
a) identify the primary methods humans use to organize their lives
b) criticize technology because it causes humans to turn from the natural world
c) illustrate the ways in which humans are exploited by technology
d) describe how humans have split from the natural world and have embraced
technology
4 Shipwrecks
When most people think of a shipwreck, they imagine the remains of a huge wooden
or metal boat crashed along the bottom of the ocean. Fish swim in and out of the
mangled boat’s hull, and coral and seaweed cling to its sides. Meanwhile, divers with
scuba gear and cameras paddle their way into the depths to explore inside the long-
forgotten vessel. They might find anything from old pottery to rusty cannons to pirate
gold, but one thing is certain: the deep cold water has swallowed up the ship and kept
it secret for a very long time.
Surprisingly, though, water is not always a necessary element in shipwreck
explorations. Few people realize that many important shipwrecks can be found on
land. Trading skiffs, warships, and pirate galleons alike have been found buried deep
in riverbed, hilltops, and cornfields throughout the world.
The author most likely composed these two paragraphs in order to:
a) inform the reader about surprising places
shipwrecks have been found
b) describe what a person would find if he or she
visited a shipwreck.
c) Compare the similarities between a water-found
shipwreck and a land-found shipwreck.
d) Intensify the discovery of a shipwreck by surprising
the reader with a new location for finding them.
5 Nutrition
Each time a person opens his or her mouth to eat, he or she makes a nutritional
decision. These selections make a definitive difference in how an individual looks,
feels, and performs at work or play. When a good assortment of food like fresh fruits,
leafy vegetables, whole grains and lean proteins is selected and eaten, the
consequences are likely to be desirable levels for health and energy to allow one to be
as active as needed. Conversely, when choices consist of processed foods like
packaged cookies, crackers, and sodas, items filled with sugars, hydrogenated fats,
chemicals and preservatives- all of which can be harmful in large quantities- the
consequences can be poor health or limited energy or both.
Studies of American diets, particularly the diets of the very young, reveal
unsatisfactory dietary habits as evidenced by the numbers of overweight and out-of-
shape young children. Parents, who are supposed to be masters of their children’s
dietary habits, often leave nutritional choices to their children, who are not informed
enough to make healthy decisions. If anyone is to blame for the childhood obesity
crisis in the United States today, it is the parents who allow their children to eat
nutritionally bankrupt foods.
 The author most likely uses the phrase “filled with sugars, hydrogenated fats,
chemicals and preservatives- all of which can be harmful in large quantities” in order
to:
a) Criticize the growing obesity crisis in the United States.
b) Contrast poor choices in children in the United States with healthy choices.
c) Identify the leading chemicals in processed foods so people know what to avoid.
d) Intensify the negative reaction to processed foods.
6 University of California, Berkely, researchers decided to tackle an age-old problem:
why shoelaces come untied. They recorded the shoelaces of a volunteer walking on a
treadmill by attaching devices to record the acceleration, or g-force, experienced by
the knot. The results were surprising. A shoelace knot experiences more g-force from
a person walking than any rollercoaster can generate. However, if the person simply
stomped or swung their feet- the two movements that make up a walker’s stride- the
g-force was not enough to undo the knots.
What is the purpose of this passage?
a) To confirm if shoelaces always come undone
b) To compare the force of treadmills and rollercoasters
c) To persuade readers to tie their shoes tighter
d) To describe the results of an experiment on shoelaces

Organization and Text Structure

It is important to analyze the organization and structure of informational texts,
as these details can provide valuable insight into the author’s purpose and the
overall meaning of a text. Several common structures are used in informative
texts, and understanding these structures will help readers quickly make sense
of new texts. Texts may be organized in one of the following ways:
Chronological texts
Chronological texts describe events in the order they occurred.
Problem- Solution texts
Problem-solution texts begin by describing a problem and then offer a possible
solution to the issue.
Cause-effect
Cause-effect is a text structure that shows a causal chain of events or ideas.
The signal words that may indicate that information in a paragraph is
organized as a cause and effect:
Because, as a result, resulted, caused, affected, since, due to, effect, and so.

General-to- specific
General-to-specific is a text structure that describes a general topic then
provided details about a specific aspect of that topic.

Compare – contrast
Compare-contrast texts give the similarities and differences between two
things.
Authors choose the organizational structure of their text according to their
purpose. For example, an author who hopes to convince people to begin
recycling might begin by talking about the problems that are caused by
excessive waste and end by offering recycling as a reasonable solution. On the
other hand, the author might choose to use a chronological structure for an
article whose purpose is to give an impartial history of recycling.

Example of chronological paragraph

The rehearsal dinner will be on Friday night. Afterward, we are hoping that
many of the guests will help to clean the area for tomorrow’s wedding.
(in these sentences, the transition “afterward” highlights a chronology of
events (first the dinner, then the cleaning.)

Example of Problem-solution paragraph

Drug Addition _ A Curse

Drug addiction has, of late, become one of the major problems of our society,
particularly in urban areas. Many youngsters are falling victim to this deadly
curse. The rackets of unscrupulous traders operate through the underworld and
narcotics and drugs are smuggled into the country. These rackets thrive at the
cost of the precious lives of our young generation. Many are enticed to take
these drugs and they are led astray. The alarming nature of the problem must
be highlighted and the people must be made aware of this evil with the help of
the mass media. Seminars and discussion sessions should be organized in
schools and colleges. In West Bengal, an anti- narcotic cell has been
established in Lalbazar, Kolkata. But no Government action can be fruitful
unless it is backed by strong public participation.

Problem How? Response

Drug addiction has The rackets of The alarming nature of
Become a major unscrupulous traders the problem must be
problem in our society work underground and focused on the
today. Many smuggling of narcotic Government has set up
youngsters are falling continues unabated. anti-narcotic cells and
victim to addiction. Young men take to there must be a large-
these drugs just to find scale awareness among
a temporary release. the people.

Cause-effect

cause-effect paragraph
1. Many people think that they can get sick by going into cold weather
improperly dressed; however, illnesses are not caused by temperature- they
are caused by germs.
 Cause-1 Cause-2 effect
People are exposed to People don’t dress People get sick
germs properly for the weather

2. Students are not allowed to chew gum in my class. While some students
think that I am just being mean, there are many good reasons for this rule.
First, some irresponsible students make messes with their gum. They may
leave it on the bottoms of desks, drop it on the floor, or put it on other
people’s property. Another reason why I don’t allow students to chew gum
is because it is a distraction. When they are allowed to chew gum, students
are more worried about having it, popping it, chewing it, and snapping it
when they are in listening, writing, reading, and learning. This is why I
don’t allow students to chew gum in my class.

Cause 1 Cause 2 Effect

Gum makes messes in Gum is a distraction Students are not
the classroom allowed to chew gum.

Compare-contrast
Look at the following examples of paragraph that shows similarities or differences. Answer
the questions below.

The most widely spoken Indigenous language in Canada is Cree, with around 100,000
speakers; about half of them speak Cree at home. There are several important differences
between the grammar of Cree and the grammar of English. Firstly, Cree verbs are more
complex than English verbs. Often a whole sentence can be expressed in one or two words; a
lot of meaning is included in the form of verb. For example, the English sentence I ate a lot of
caribou is expressed in Cree as Nichil mishtamuuwaatihkwen. Because so much meaning is
included in the verb, Cree speakers often leave out pronounces such as he or we. Secondly,
Cree nouns are divided into two groups: those that are living (animate) and those that are not
living (inanimate). These groups from their plurals in different ways. Animate nouns add-ich
to make plural forms, so awaash (child) becomes awaashich (children). Inanimate nouns form
their plurals with -h, so tehtapuwin (chair) becomes tehtapuwinh (chairs). Finally, there are
no separate possession words in Cree, such as my, your, his, her, and so on. Instead,
ownership is included in the noun. My book in Cree is nimasinahiikan, your book is
chimasinahiikan, and their book is umasinahiikanawaau. Despite these differences, Cree is
not a difficult language to learn; in fact, it may even be easier than English.
1. What is the writer contrasting here?
2. What points of contrasts does the writer give?

For thirteen years, a spacecraft called Cassini was on an exploratory mission to

Saturn. The spacecraft was designed not to return but to end its journey by diving into
Saturn’s atmosphere. This dramatic ending provided scientists with unprecedented
information about Saturn’s atmosphere and its magnetic and gravitational fields. First,
however, Cassini passed Saturn’s largest moon, Titan, where it recorded data on
Titan’s curious methane lakes, gathering information about potential seasons on the
planet-sized moon. Then it passed through the unexplored region between Saturn
itself and its famous rings. Scientists hope to learn how old the rings are and to
directly examines the particles that make them up. Cassini’s mission ended in 2017,
but researchers have new questions for future exploration.

Which of the following best describes the organization of this passage.

a. general-to-specific
b. compare-contrast
c. chronological
d. problem-solution

The Audience
The structure, purpose, main idea, and language of a text all converge on one
target: the intended AUDIENCE.
An author makes decisions about every aspect of a piece of writing based on that
audience, and readers can evaluate the writing by considering who the author is
writing for. By considering the probable reactions of an intended audience,
readers can determine many things:
- whether they are part of that intended audience
- the author’s purpose for using specific techniques or devices
- the biases of the author and how they appear in the writing
- how the author uses rhetorical strategies.
The audience for a text can be identified by careful analysis of the text.
First, the reader considers who most likely cares about the topic and
main idea of the text: who would want or need to know about this topic?
The audience may be SPECIFIC (e.g., biologists who study sharks) or
more GENERAL (e.g., people with an interest in marine life).
Next, consider the language of the text. The author tailors language to
appeal to the intended audience, so the reader can determine from the
language who the author is speaking to. A FORMAL style is used in
business and academic settings and can make the author seem more
credible. Characteristics of a formal style include:
- third person perspective (i.e., no use of I or you)
- no use of slang or cliches
- follow a clear structure (e.g., an introduction, a body, and a conclusion)
 - technically correct grammar and sentence structure
- objective language
An INFORMAL style is used to appeal to readers in a more casual setting,
such as a magazine or blog. Using an informal style may make the author
seem less credible, but it can help create an emotional connection with the
audience. characteristics of informal writing include:
- use of first or second person (e.g., I or you)
- use of slang or casual language
- follow an unusual or flexible structure
- bends the rules of grammar
- appeals to audience’s emotions

Example:
What do you do with plastic bottles? Do you throw them away, or do you recycle or reuse
them? As landfills continue to fill up, there will eventually be no place to put out trash. If you
recycle or reuse bottles, you will help reduce waste and turn something old into a creative
masterpiece!
Which of the following BEST describes the intended audience for this passage?
a. a formal audience of engineering professionals
b. an audience of English language learners
c. a general audience that includes children
d. a group of scientists at an environmental conference

Evaluating Arguments

Writers will often use specific techniques, or Rhetorical Strategies to build an argument.
Readers can identify these strategies in order to clearly understand what an author wants them
to believe, how the author’s perspective and purpose may lead to bias, and whether the passage
includes any logical fallacies.
Common rhetorical strategies include the appeals to ethos, logos, and pathos. An author uses
these to build trust with the reader, explain the logical points of his or her argument, and
convince the reader that his or her opinion is the best option.

Ethos (ethical appeal)

Ethos or the ethical appeal means to convince an audience of the author’s credibility or
character. An author would use ethos to show to his audience that he is a credible source and
is worth listening to.
An ethos (ethical appeal) uses balanced, fair language and seeks to build trusting relationship
between the author and the reader. An author might explain her or his credentials, include the
reader in an argument, or offer concessions to an opposing argument.
e.g.,
1. As a doctor, I am qualified to tell you that this course of treatment will likely generate the
best result.
2. My three decades of experience in public service, my tireless commitment to the people of
this community, and my willingness to reach across the aisle and cooperate with the opposition
make me the ideal candidate for your mayor.
3. If my years as a Marine taught me anything, it’s that caution is the best policy in this sort of
situation.
4. You know me- I’ve taught Sunday School at your church for years, babysat your children,
and served as a playground director for many summers- so you know I can run your preschool.
5. If you’re still unsure, please consider that my advanced degree and fieldwork speak for
themselves.
Logos
Logos or the appeal to logic, means to appeal to the audiences’ sense of reason or logic. To use
logos, the author makes clear, logical connections between ideas, and includes the use of facts
and statistics. Using historical and literal analogies to make a logical argument is another
strategy.
A logos (logical appeal) builds on that trust by providing facts and support for the author’s
opinion, explaining the argument with clear connections and reasoning. At this point, the reader
should beware of logical fallacies that connect unconnected ideas and build arguments on
incorrect premises. With a logical appeal, an author strives to convince the reader to accept an
opinion or belief by demonstrating that not only is it the most logical option but that it also
satisfies her or his emotional reaction to a topic.
e.g.,
Logos in Don DeLillo’s White Noise
In this passage from part 2 of Don DeLillo’s novel White Noise, Jack Gladney and his son
Heinrich gaze through binoculars at an Airborne Toxic Event- or cloud of poison gas- that
has just hit their town. Jack in denial, tries to reassure his son that the cloud won’t blow in
their direction and that there’s no cause for alarm. Heinrich disagree:
“What do you think?” he said.
“It’s still hanging there. Looks rooted to the spot.”
“So, you’re saying you don’t think it’ll come this way.”
“I can tell by your voice that you know something I don’t know.”
“Do you think it’ll come this way or not?”
“You want me to say it won’t come this way in a million years. Then you’ll attack with your
little fistful of data. Come on, tell me what they said on the radio while I was out there.”
“It doesn’t cause nausea, vomiting, shortness of breath, like they said before.”
“What does it cause?”
“Heart palpitations and a sense of déjà vu.”
“Déjà vu?”
“It affects the false part of the human memory or whatever. That’s not all. They’re not calling
it the black billowing cloud anymore.”
“What are they calling it?”
He looked at me carefully.
“The airborne toxic event.”…
“These things are not important. The important thing is location. It’s there, we’re here.”
“A large air mass is moving down from Canada,” he said evenly.
“I already knew that.”
“That doesn’t mean it’s not important.”
“Maybe it is, maybe it isn’t. Depends.”

Jack tries to reassure himself and his family that the situation isn’t serious. Heinrich tries to
counter his father’s irrational, fear-driven response to the catastrophe with his “fistful of data”
information he’s learned in school from a science video on toxic waste, as well as reports
about the disaster that he heard on the radio. He presents the facts so that his father can’t
ignore them, thereby strengthening the logos of his argument that the situation is serious and
the cloud will come their way. In this particular example, the lack of logos in Jack’s argument
reveals a lot about his character- even though Jack is a tenured college professor, strong
emotions and fear for his own mortality often drive his behavior and speech.

Pathos
Pathos means the power of a person, situation, piece of writing, or work of art to cause
feelings of sadness, especially because people feel sympathy.
A pathos (emotional appeal) does not depend on reasonable connections between ideas;
rather, it seeks to remind the reader, through imagery, strong language, and personal
connections, that the author’s argument aligns with her or his best interests.
e.g.,
1. If we don’t move soon, we’re all going to die! Can’t you see how dangerous it would be to
stay?
2. I’m not just invested in this community- I love every building, every business, every hard-
working member of this town.
3. There’s no price that can be placed on peace of mind. Our advanced security systems will
protect the well-being of your family so that you can sleep soundly at night.
4. You’ll make the right decision because you have something that not many people do. You
have heart.

Exercise is critical for healthy development in children. Today, in the United States, there is
an epidemic of poor childhood health; many of these children will face further illness in
adulthood that are due to poor diet and lack of exercise now. This is a problem for all
Americans, especially with the rising cost of health care.
It is vital that school systems and parents encourage children to engage in a minimum of
thirty minutes of cardiovascular exercise each day, mildly increasing their heart rate for a
sustained period. This is proven to decrease the likelihood of development diabetes, obesity,
and a multitude of other health problems. Also, children need a proper diet, rich in fruits and
vegetables, so they can develop physically and learn healthy eating habits early on.
Which of the following statements from the passage is a fact, not an opinion?
a. Fruits and vegetables are the best way to help children be healthy.
b. Children today are lazier than they were in previous generations.
c. The risk of diabetes in children is reduced by physical activity.
d. Children should engage in thirty minutes of exercise a day.

Drawing Conclusions

Drawing conclusions is using information that is implied or inferred to make meaning

out of what is not clearly stated. Writers give readers hints or clues that help them
read between the lines.
Reading text begins with making sense of the explicit meanings of information or a
narrative. Understanding occurs as the reader draws conclusions and makes logical
inferences. First, the reader considers the details or facts. He or she then comes to a
CONCLUSION- the next logical point in the thought sequence. For example, in a
Hemingway story, an old man sits alone in a café. A young waiter says that the café is
closing, but the old man continues to drink. The waiter starts closing up, and the old
man signals for a refill. Based on these details, the reader might conclude that the old
man has not understood the young waiter’s desire for him to leave.
An inference is distinguished from a conclusion drawn. An INFERENCE is an
assumption the reader makes based on details in the text as well as his or her own
knowledge. It is more of an educated guess that extends the literal meaning of a text.
 Inferences begin with the given details; however, the reader uses the facts to
determine additional information. What the reader already knows informs what is
being suggested by the details of decisions or situations in the text. In the story
mentioned above, the reader might infer that the old man is lonely, enjoys being in the
café, and therefore is reluctant to leave.
When reading fictional text, inferring character motivations is essential. The actions
of the characters move the plot forward; a series of events is understood by making
sense of why the characters did what they did. Hemingway includes contrasting
details as the young waiter and an old waiter discuss the old man. The older waiter
sympathizes with the old man; both men have no one at home and experience a sense
of emptiness in life, which motivates them to seek the café.
Another aspect of understanding text is connecting it to other texts. Readers many
connect the Hemingway story about the old man in the café to other Hemingway
stories about individuals struggling to deal with loss and loneliness in a dignified way.
They can extend their initial connection to people they know or their personal
experiences. When readers read a persuasive text, they often connect the arguments
made to counterarguments and opposing evidence of which they are aware. They use
these connections to infer meaning.

Practice exercise
1. Baseball is a big sport in Japan. The rules are the same as those in America, but
the customs are different. Players in Japan don’t show their anger when they are
out. They don’t try to hurt the player from the other team as the player slides into
second base. Also, when the fans clap, the players bow to them.
Based on this paragraph, you can tell that-
a) Japanese players do not slide into second base.
b) American players show their anger.
c) Japanese players can play better.
d) Japanese players wave when the fans clap.

2. Baby Dee woke up and started crying loudly. Scott ran to her from the kitchen. He
held Dee and talked to her. Scott didn’t know why she was crying. He had fed Dee
earlier. He checked to see if the baby’s clothes were wet. They were dry. Then
Scott noticed a hard toy block lying where Dee had been sleeping.
Based on this paragraph, why do you think Dee was crying?
a. Dee was very hungry.
b. The block made Dee uncomfortable in bed.
c. Scott had to take care of only one baby.
d. Scott was not a good father.
3. Laughing makes people feel great. Some people think that laughing is the best
thing in life. Now scientists have shown that laughing is good for the body too.
Laughing makes the heart beat faster. It brings more air into the body. Many
people keep fit by running, but laughing is easier on the feet!
a. Laughing is good for your health.
b. Swimming is very good for your body.
c. Crying is like laughing.
d. Doctors think you don’t need to exercise.
4. Cows on the loose
 “Look! There’s another one!” Luis yelled to his dad. He pointed to a break in the
fence. The wire had snapped and the ends hung down.
Not too far away, three cows were resting under a tree. “Those cows have our brand
on them,” said Luis. “I’ll round them up.” Luis circled the cows and rode up behind them.
“Get going!” he shouted.
Trapper barked until they had trotted back through the break in the fence.
Dad jumped down from his horse. He had his tools out and he was uncoiling the fence
wire he had brought. “We have only a mile of fence to go,” he said. “We’ll be done in an
hour.”
Based on this story, Luis and his dad were out to-
a. Find cows without brands
b. Look for a lost cow
c. Check the fence for breaks
d. Collect a roll of fence wire

5. Based on this story, Trapper is a(n)

a. cow
b. horse
c. dog
d. man
6. Luis’s dad was carrying tools and wire because-
a. He always liked to have them handy
b. Luis had told him to bring them along
c. He’d been building a fence
d. He expected to find breaks in the fence to fix
7. A special kind of Chicken Pox
Tony’s mom stood in the doorway, pulling on her coat. She had a worried
look on her face.
“Don’t be late for your meeting, Amy,” said Grandma. “I’ll take good care of
Tony.
Tony was glad to hear the door bang shut behind his mother. Now all he had
to do was keep his grandmother from coming too close. He wasn’t sure how real
the pink marks on his face looked.
“Better stay away, Grandma,” he said. “You might catch it.”
“Don’t worry, Tony,” said Grandma.
“I’ve already had that kind of chicken pox before. I still get it now and then.”
She grinned and left the room.
Based on the story, Tony’s mother is-
a. Has just come indoors
b. Is worried about leaving Tony
c. Is going to find a doctor
d. Doesn’t think Tony is sick
8. Tony doesn’t want Grandma to-
a. Stay in the house
b. Leave the room
c. Catch the chicken pox from him
d. Find out that his chicken pox is not real
9. Based on the story, Grandma lets Tony know that-
a. She’s good at taking care of sick people
 b. She knows he isn’t really sick
c. She’s afraid of catching his chicken pox
d. She gets sick often
10. Grandma’s grin shows that-
a. She’s not mad at Tony for pretending to be sick
b. She’s going to tell his mother
c. Tony looks really funny
d. She isn’t feeling well either
11. After world war I, political and social forces for a return to normalcy in the United
States. The result was disengagement from the larger world and increased focus
on American economic growth and personal enjoyment. Caught in the middle
were American writers, raised on the values of the prewar world and frustrated
with what they viewed as the superficiality and materialism of postwar American
culture. Many of them fled to Paris, where they became known as the “lost
generation,” creating a trove of literary works criticizing their home culture and
delving into their own feelings of alienation.
Which conclusion about the effects of war is most likely true, according to the
passage?
a. War served as an inspiration for literary works.
b. It was difficult to stabilize countries after war occurred.
c. Writers were torn between supporting war and their own ideals.
d. Individual responsibility and global awareness declined after the war.

Figurative Language

What is figurative language?

Figurative language makes meaning by asking the reader or listener to understand
something by virtue of its relation to some other thing, action, or image.
Figurative language can be contrasted with literal language, which describes
something explicitly rather than by reference to something else.

Metaphor
Metaphor is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one
kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggests a likeness or analogy
between them.
A metaphor stands in as a synonym, interchangeable with its corresponding topic.
As the reader reflects on the similarities between the topic and the vehicle, he or
she forms a clearer understanding of the topic. For example, in Shakespeare’s
Romeo and Juliet, Romeo says that “Juliet is the sun.” By making this
comparison, Romeo is comparing Juliet’s energy to the brightness of the sun,
which is familiar to readers.
e.g; His words cut deeper than a knife. Words don’t materialize into sharp objects
I am drowning in the sea of grief.
I am feeling blue.
She is going through a rollercoaster of emotions.
Simile
A simile is an expression which describes a person or thing as being similar to
someone or something else. It compares two different things in an interesting way
using the word “like” or “as”. The purpose to a simile is to spark an interesting
connection in a reader’s or listener’s mind. A simile is one of the most common
forms of figurative language. Simile examples can be found just about anywhere,
from poems to song lyrics and even in everyday conversations.
e.g; as busy as a bee
as snug as a bug in a rug
as cute as a kitten
as happy as a clam
as bold as brass
as bright as a button
as shiny as a new pin

Imagery
Imagery is vivid description that appeals to the reader’s sense of sight, sound,
smell, taste, or touch. This type of figurative language allows readers to
experience through their senses what is being described; as readers use their
imaginations to visualize or recall sensory experience, they are drawn into the
scene of the story or poem.
e.g; The autumn leaves are a blanket on the ground.
Her lips tasted as sweet as sugar.
His words felt like a dagger in my heart.
He felt like the flowers were waving hello.
The F-16 swooped down like an eagle after its prey.
The lake was left shivering by the touch of morning wind.
The pot was as red as a tongue after a cherry-flavored ring pop.
Hyperbole
Hyperbole is a rhetorical and literary technique where an author or speaker
intentionally uses exaggeration and overstatement for emphasis and effect.
Hyperbole is an overstatement, an exaggeration intended to achieve a particular
effect. Hyperbole can create humor or add emphasis to a text by drawing the
reader’s attention to a particular idea.
e.g; I will die if she asks me to dance!
She is as big as an elephant!
I’m so hungry I could eat a horse!
I have told you a million times not to lie!
My feet are killing me.
That plane ride took forever.
That is the best book ever written.
I love you to the moon and back.
The pen is mightier than the sword.
I’ve told you this 20,000 times.
Cry me a river.
Personification
Personification is the act of giving a human quality or characteristic to something
which is not human. Personification is a type of figurative language in which
human characteristics are attributed to objects, abstract ideas, natural forces, or
animals.
e.g; The sun smiled down on us.
Lightning danced across the sky.
The wind howled in the night.
The car complained as the key was roughly turned in its ignition.
Rita heard the last piece of pie calling her name.
My alarm clock yells at me to get out of bed every morning.
Symbolism
Symbolism is a literary device in which the author uses a concrete object, action,
or character to represent an abstract idea. The significance of the symbol reaches
beyond the object’s ordinary meaning. As readers notice an author’s use of
symbolism, they begin to make connections and to formulate ideas about what the
author is suggesting.
e.g; Rainbow symbolizes hope and promise.
Red rose symbolizes love and romance.
Four leaf clover symbolizes good luck or fortune.
Wedding ring symbolizes commitment and matrimony.
Red, white, blue symbolizes American patriotism.
Green traffic light symbolizes “go” or proceed.
Tree blossoms symbolize spring season.
Pilgrim hat symbolizes Thanksgiving holiday.
Dollar sign- symbolizes money, earnings, wealth.
Image of shopping cart symbolizes online purchases.

Allusion
An allusion is a reference to a historical person or event, a fictional character or
event, a mythological or religious character or event, or an artist or artistic work.
When a reader recognizes an allusion, he or she may make associations that
contribute to his or her understanding of the text.
e.g; His smile is like kryptonite to me. (Superman’s weakness)
She felt like she had a golden ticket. (Charlie and the chocolate factory)
That guy is young, scrappy, and hungry. (Hamilton)
I wish I could just click my heels. (The Wizard of Oz)
If I’m not home by midnight, my car might turn into a pumpkin. (Cindrella)
She smiles like a Cheshire cat. (Alice in Wonderland)
His job is like pulling a sword out of a stone. (King Arthur Legend)
Is there an Einstein in your physics class? (Albert Einstein)
My Maths teacher is he who must not be named. (Voldemort from the Harry
Potter series)
I want to sound like Queen B. (Beyonce)
Today might be the Ides of March. (Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar)
Cliché
Cliches are common sayings that lack of originality but are familiar and relatable
to an audience. Though cliches are not necessarily beneficial to the author who is
trying to write a wholly original work, they can be helpful for a writer who is
attempting to show that he or she can relate to the audience.
Common cliché sayings:
All that glitters isn’t gold.
Don’t get your knickers in a twist.
All for one, and one for all.
 Kiss me and make up.
He has his tail between his legs.
And they all lived happily ever after.
Cat got your tongue.
Read between the lines.
Someone woke up on the wrong side of the bed.
We’re not laughing at you we’re laughing with you.
Dialect and Slang
Dialect and slang are linguistic qualities that an author might incorporate into his
or her writing in order to develop characteristics or setting. A character’s dialect
may reveal where he or she comes from, while the slang he or she uses may
indication of social, economic, and educational status.
Some examples of slangs are as follows.
Dope Cool or awesome
GOAT “Greatest of All Time”
Gucci Good, cool, or going well
Lit Amazing, cool or exciting
OMG An abbreviation for “Oh my gosh or
“Oh my God”
Salty Bitter, angry, agitated
BFF “Best friends forever”
Flex To show off
Squad Group of friends that hang out together
regularly, used ironically
tight In a close relationship or friendship

Here are some examples of dialects.

Country How they say
New Jersey We’re headed down the shore.
USA We’re going to the beach.

Irony
Irony is the use of words to express something other than and especially the opposite
of the literary meaning. Verbal irony is used when a character or narrator says something that
is opposite of what he or she means. Situational irony occurs when something happens that
contradicts what the audience expected to happen. Dramatic irony occurs when the audience
knows about something of which a character or characters are not aware.
Here are some examples of verbal irony.
1. Someone shopping for a mattress lays down on a really firm one and says, “It’s so
soft, I may float away.”
2. When the air conditioning goes out on a hot summer afternoon, a tenant says to their
landlord, “I am really enjoying the cool climate in my apartment!”
3. After a terrible blind date, a woman calls her friend and says, “My favorite part was
when he insulted the waiter and asked me to pay for both meals.”
4. A sister walks into her brother’s messy apartment and says, “I see you are
5. A mother tells her son she enjoyed watching that horror movie “about as much as a
root canal.”
Here are some examples of situational irony.
 1. “A fire station burns down.”
This is unexpected because one would assume the fire chief would keep his own
building safe.
2. “A marriage counselor files for divorce.”
This is ironic because the expectation is that a professional who coaches couples
through rough patches would herself have a strong marriage.”
3. “The police station gets robbed.”
Again, the expectation is that professional crime fighters would be able to help
themselves; in this case, by securing their own station.
4. “A post on Facebook complains about how useless Facebook is.”
This is ironic because one would expect someone who dislikes Facebook to stay
away from it instead of using it to make their point.
5. “The cobbler’s children have no shoes.”
A cobbler is a professional shoemaker, so the expectation is that her own children
would have many shoes, not zero.

Here are some examples of dramatic irony.

1. A woman thinks her boyfriend is acting strangely because he’s about to
propose, but the audience knows that he is planning to run away with another
woman, intensifying emotions.
2. In a scary movie, the character goes into a house they think is empty, but the
audience knows that the killer is in the house. This increase suspense.
3. Sometimes a person in disguise and the other character talks with him as if he
is someone else. Since this is known by the audience. It adds to the humor of
the dialogue.

Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is the naming of a thing or action by a vocal imitation of the sound
associated with it.
e.g:
Meow The sound of a cat makes
Purr The sound of a cat makes
Woof The sound of a dog makes
Moo The sound of a cow makes
Oink The sound a pig makes
Cock-a-doodle-doo The sound a rooster makes
roar The sound a bear/ lion makes
Oxymoron
Oxymoron means a combination of contradictory or incongruous words. Oxymorons have
been used for millennia.
e.g;
accurate estimate
alone together
awfully good
bitter sweet
climb down
Alliteration
Alliteration is the repetition of an initial sound in words that are in close proximity to each
other.
e.g;
1. Clary closed her cluttered clothes closet.
2. Harry hurried home to watch football on TV.
3. Rachel ran right until she realized she was running round and round.
4. Polly’s prancing pony performed perfectly.
5. The boy buzzed around as busy as a bee.

Figurative Language Exercises

1. Each phrase below is a type of figurative language. Match the phrase to the
correct type.
Type phrase
1. Alliteration a. His heart was a block of ice.

2. Simile b. Open secret

3. Metaphor c. Pink and purple popsicles

4. Onomatopoeia d. The cup danced joyfully across

the table

5. Oxymoron e. Heavy as a rock

6. Hyperbole f. She was humming a song.

7. personification g. Everyone knows that!

Answer each question.

1. “Cathy is as cute as a kitten” is an example of what two types of figurative language?
2. “Ribbit!” the frog said to the snake. ‘You must let me pass!’ is an example of what
two types of figurative language?

2 . Read the lines of poetry. Figure out which technique is being used: simile,
metaphor, hyperbole, or personification. It is possible more than one technique
being used.
1. What technique is being used in, “A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!
2. What technique is being used in;
“They have watered the street.
It shines in the glare of lamps, cold, white lamps,
And lies
Like a slow-moving river.”
3. What technique is being used in:
“Life is a stream
On which we strew
Petal by petal the flower of our heart;”
4. What technique is being used in:
“The daisy hugging the earth
In August, ha!”
5. What technique is being used in;
“Don’t worry about the Alex. She’s all bark and no bite.”
6. What technique is being used in;
“A treasure of immortal days,
I roam the glorious world giving endless praise”
7. What technique is being used in;
“The river, curling softly by,
Whisper and dimples round its quiet gray stones.”
8. What technique is being used in;
“From their sweet feeding in the fruit;
The droning of the bees and flies
Rises gradual as a lute;”
9. What technique is being used in;
“After getting my report card
I knew it was time to hit the books.”
10. What technique is being used in;
“The earth is the cup of the sun,
That filled at morning.”
11. What technique is being used in;
“An old willow with hollow branches
Slowly swayed his few high tendrils
And sang:”
12. What technique is being used in;
“I should have done homework or studied instead
But I got up on the wrong side of the bed.”
13. What technique is being used in;
“Over the yawing chimney hangs the fog.”
14. What technique is being used in;
“The smallest sprout shows that there is really no death.”
15. What technique is being used in;
“Love is a breach in the walls, a broken gate.”
16. What technique is being used in;
“The lights from the parlor and kitchen shone out
Through the blinds and the windows and bars;
And high over head and all moving about,
There were thousands of millions of billions of stars.”
17. What technique is being used in;
“A trumpet-vine covered an arbor
With the red and gold of its blossoms.
Red and gold like the brass notes of trumpets.”
18. What technique is being used in;
“Hopeless, there stand the purple jars
Of night to spill oblivion.”
19. What technique is being used in;
“Where far remote
The moonbeams gloat”
20. What technique is being used in;
“I guess that my friends were just pulling my leg.”
21. What technique is being used in;
“So slightly I played with those dark memories.
 Just as a child, beneath the summer skies,
Plays hour by hour with a strange shining stone,”
22. What technique is being used in;
“A blessing in disguise”
23. What technique is being used in;
“Love is a young green willow
Shimmering at the bare wood’s edge.”
24. What technique is being used in;
“And now May, too, is fled.
The flower-crowned mouth,
The merry laughing May,
With rosy feet and fingers dewy wet,”
25. What technique is being used in;
“Clear was the light of loveliness
That lit her face like rain;”
26. What technique is being used in;
“The atmosphere is not a perfume.
It has no taste of the distillation,
It is odorless,
It is for my mother forever,
I am in love with it.”
27. What technique is being used in;
“I wanted to show up
I crossed my fingers.”
28. What technique is being used in;
“Like burnt- out torches by a sick man’s bed”
29. What technique is being used in;
“Drip- hiss- drip- hiss fall the raindrops
On the oaken log which burns, and steams, and smokes the ceiling beams.
Drip- hiss- the rain never stops”
30. What technique is being used in;
“When the stars threw down their spears,
And water’s heaven with their tears,”
31. What technique is being used in;
“The moon was a ghostly galleon tossed upon cloudy seas,
The road was a ribbon of moonlight over the purple moor,”
32. What technique is being used in;
“I do not care to talk to you although
Your speech evokes a thousand sympathies,”
33. What technique is being used in;
“The sun was shining on the sea,
Shining with all his might.”
34. What technique is being used in;
“The leaves are little yellow fish
Swimming in the river.”
35. What technique is being used in;
“The old clock down in the parlor
Like a sleepless mourner grieves”
36. What technique is being used in;
“By the lake that thus outspread
 Their lone waters, lone and dead
Their sad waters, sad and chilly.”
37. What technique is being used in;
“Fame is a bee.
It has a song…
It has a sting..”
38. “Alfie closed his eyes and took several deep breaths. He was trying to ignore
the sounds of the crowd, but even he had to admit that it was hard not to notice
the tension in the stadium. He could feel 50,000 sets of eyes burning through
his skin- this crowd expected perfection from him. He took another breath and
opened his eyes, setting his sights on the soccer ball resting peacefully in the
grass. One shot, just one last shot, between his team and the championship.
He didn’t look up at the goalie, who was jumping nervously on the goal line
just a few yards away. Afterward, he would swear he didn’t remember
anything between the referee’s whistle and the thunderous roar of the crowd.
Which of the following best describes the meaning of the phrase, “he could
feel 50,000 sets of eyes burning through his skin”?
a) The 50,000 people in the stadium were trying to hurt Alfie.
b) Alfie felt uncomfortable and exposed in front of so many people.
c) Alfie felt immense pressure from the 50,000 people watching him.
d) The people in the stadium are warning Alfie that the field is on fire.

Tone and Mood

What is “Tone” in literary work?

“Tone” is the feeling or the atmosphere that the author has set in his story. The tone depends
on what the author himself feels towards the setting or the character, and what he wants us to
feel.

What is “Mood” in literary work?

“Mood” is the feeling or the atmosphere that the reader gets when he/ she is reading the story.
The mood depends on what the reader feels. The mood is usually created at the beginning of
the story, so the reader can expect what will happen later on.

Diction, or word choice, helps determine mood and tone in a passage. Many readers make the
mistake using the author’s ideas alone to determine tone; a much better practice is to look at
specific words and try to identify a pattern in the emotion they evoke. Does the writer choose
positive words like ambitious and confident? Or does he describe those concepts with
negative words like greedy or overbearing? The first writer’s tone might be described as
admiring, while the more negative tone would be disapproving.
When looking at tone, it is important to examine not just the literal definition of words. Every
word has not only a literal meaning but also a connotative meaning, which relies on the
common emotions and experiences an audience might associate with that word. The
following words are all synonyms: dog, puppy, cur, mutt, canine, pet. Two of these words –
dog and canine- are neutral words, without strong associations or emotions. Two others- pet
and puppy – have positive associations. The last two- cur and mutt – have negative
associations. A passage that uses one pair of these words versus another pair activates the
positive or negative reactions of the audience.
 Positive Neutral Negative
admiring casual angry
approving detached annoyed
celebratory formal belligerent
earnest impartial bitter
encouraging informal condescending
excited objective confused
funny questioning cynical
hopeful unconcerned depressed
humorous disrespectful
nostalgic embarrassed
optimistic fearful
playful gloomy
poignant melancholy
proud mournful
relaxed pessimistic
respectful skeptical
sentimental solemn
silly suspicious
sympathetic unsympathetic

Tone and Mood Practice Exercises

1. Identifying tone
Choose the word from the box that best describes the tone of each passage. Not all words will
be used.
a. Judgmental e. humble
b. Inspirational f. urgent
c. Indignant g. whimsical
d. Empathetic h. apathetic

_____ 1. It is a mistake to think that we can leave this problem to the next generation to
solve. The clock is ticking. We must act.
_____ 2. He didn’t speak, but he didn’t need to. Dozens of memories flashed through my
mind, and each was accompanied by a pang go sharp that for a moment I thought I might
double over myself as I slid my arm around his waist and helped him to hobbles to the chair.
_____ 3. It was the most unbelievable there he had ever seen. It surpassed imagining. All he
could do was shake his head. How could they have done it to him!
_____ 4. She flitted here and there lighting on a petal, and then bouncing up as though it was
a trampoline- and then falling, falling, until suddenly a bumblebee zipped beneath her and she
clasped onto its furry body with a grin.
_____ 5. Belief is the sky. It conquers all. Belief can be medicine to the body, tonic to the
mind, and salve to the soil. Simply believe, and anything is possible.
_____ 6. The meat was tough, the soup was cold, and the pie was clammy. When the waitress
came by to ask how everything was. I just looked up at her and rolled my eyes. Enough said.
 2. Identifying Tone

Each of the words below can be used to describe an author’s tone. Read each word. Does
the word have a positive, negative, or neutral connotation? Write +, - or N next to each
word.

Absurd _____ apologetic _____ pretentious_____

Righteous _____ skeptical _____ vindictive _____

Now read each sentence. Match each of the words with the sentence that has that tone.

_____ 1. I sleep well every night. I know that throughout the day I have been just in all of my
interactions, and that I have done my small part to see that others are as well.
_____ 2. I feel just awful about it. I would really love it if you would let me make this up to
you.
_____ 3. From that moment she knew that if it took her every day of the rest of her life, she
would make him pay for what he had done to her family.
_____ 4. George frowned. He examined the machine from every angle. He started to ask a
question, then changed his mind. Robert was waiting for his approval. He really didn’t feel
comfortable.
_____ 5. Ellie slipped on the designer dress and smoothed it over her hips. She studied
herself in the mirror, turning this way and that, and finally, facing her reflection, puckering
her lips and blowing her reflection a kiss.
_____ 6. As the car’s square tires clunked along, we rose up and down and up and down over
and over again, posting down the road like we were riding a trotting horse.

3. Recognizing Tone

Choose the word that best describes the tone of each passage.

1. Nothing came of it, but then, noting comes of anything anymore. I stopped myself
feel optimistic about things a long time ago. What’s the point?
a. accusatory b. jaded c. loving

2. I will thank you to know that I have never stolen anything in my life. The fact that
you could possibly even think about me is appalling.
a. incredulous b. indignant c. evasive

3. As Helen watched her grown daughter pull the turkey out of the oven, she saw a
small timid girl with enormous hat mitts on her hands, asking if she could be the
one to take the cookies out of the oven.
a. nostalgic b. forceful c. dispassionate

4. Their contributions can hardly be overstated. They have brought something into
existence here which will last for many generations beyond their own lives.
a. humorous b. laudatory c. patronizing

5. Karen nodded at his words, and moved out of his way.

 a. pensive b. submissive c. virtuous

4. Describing Tone

Match each word with its definition.

_____ 1. Absurd a. amusing; funny

_____ 2. Ambivalent b. extremely angry
_____ 3. Arrogant c. familiar; confessional
_____ 4. Conciliatory d. innocent; unsophisticated
_____ 5. Demeaning e. without bias; based on fact
_____ 6. Farcical f. illogical; implausible
_____ 7. Frank g. having mixed feelings
_____ 8. Humorous h. thoughtful; analytical; rational; logical
_____ 9. Incensed i. cheerful; elated
_____ 10. Incredulous j. fun; humorous; not serious
_____ 11. Intimate k. missing/glorifying the past
_____ 12. Joyful l. realistic; sensible
_____ 13. Mean-spirited m. disrespectful; undignified
_____ 14. Naive n. absurd; humorous and highly improbable
_____ 15. Nostalgic o. matter-of-fact
_____ 16. Objective p. pompous; vain
_____ 17. Philosophical q. intending to placate; appeasing
_____ 18. Playful r. disbelieving
_____ 19. pragmatic s. intending everything in a negative way

5. Mood and Tone

For each passage below, write the tone and the mood of the passage. Then write down
the context clues that convey them.

1. When the young man was summoned to the principal’s office he just shrugged:
but as he stood to leave the room, I thought I could detect the faintest quiver about
his lips.
Tone __________ Mood __________

Context clues: ___________________________________________________

2. With gentle hands, she lifted the tiny kitten to her cheek and closed her eyes as
she listened to its purring. In her palm she could feel its tiny heartbeat, steady and
strong. Then she set it gently back down into its bed and went to prepare its next
meal. With any luck, the poor little creature would make it to morning.
Tone: __________ Mood: __________

Context Clues: _____________________________________________________

3. Henrietta watched, frowning as Kevin started to change the fire. He struggled with
the lug wrench, and one time it flew out of his hands and he had to go hunting for
it in a nearby ditch. Henrietta signed, let her head drop backwards, and settled in
for a long wait.
Tone: __________ Mood: __________
Context Clues: ___________________________________________________

4. Jane sat up in bed. Had that been a rustle? She was sure she had heard a rustling
noise. She listened again. There was nothing- and then she heard a tapping at her
window. Her heart leapt up into her throat and she was unable to call for help.
Tone: __________ Mood: __________
Context Clues: ____________________________________________________

5. “Who’s ready to win?!” Kimberley called out as she bounced into the room, her
pigtails flying. She crossed the gymnasium in three handsprings, and when she
landed on her feet at the other end, the students in the bleachers leapt to their feet
with a roar.
Tone: __________ Mood: __________
Context Clues: _____________________________________________________

6. “I’m not doing this again,” Peter said grimly. Dan started to speak, but Peter cut
him off. “No,” he said. “I’m done. Never again.” And that was that.
Tone: __________ Mood: __________
Context Clues: _____________________________________________________

Answers may vary slightly.

1. Tone: serious
Mood: realistic
Context clues: summoned, detect, young man, faintest quiver
2. Tone: nurturing
Mood: optimistic
Context clues: gentle, tiny, with any luck, poor creature
3. Tone: disapproving, critical
Mood: pessimistic
Context clues: frowning struggled, had to go hunting, sighed, settled in
4. Tone: serious
Mood: suspenseful
Context clues: had that been a rustle? She was sure she had heard a rustling
noise, the dash, was unable to call for help
5. Tone: cheerful, playful
Mood: optimistic
Context clues: bounced, pigtails flying, leapt to their feet with a roar
6. Tone: clear, impartial, resigned
Mood: negative
Context clues: grimly, cut him off, that was that
 Identifying Mood and Tone
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom, it
was the age of foolishness; it was the epoch of belief; it was the epoch of
incredulity; it was the season of light, it was the season of Darkness; it was the
spring of hope, it was the winter of despair; we had everything before us, we
had nothing before us; we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going
direct the other way- in short, the period was so far like the present period, that
some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for
evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only.
There were a king with a large jaw and a queen with a plain face, on the throne
of England; there were a king with a large jaw and a queen with a fair face, on
the throne of France. In both countries it was clearer than crystal to the lords
of the state preserves of loaves and fishes, that things in general were settled
for ever.
From a Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens

1. The tone of the passage is:

a. Nostalgic c. objective
b. Philosophical d. ironic
2. The mood of the passage is:
a. Humorous c. informative
b. cautionary d. mean-spirited
3. How does Dickens hook the reader in the opening paragraph?
a. With poetic language
b. With a series of paradoxes
c. With philosophical questions
d. With humor
4. When the author compares the kings and queens of the two countries who will
soon be at war, what literary device is he using?
a. Simile
b. Irony
c. Satire
d. Symbolism

1. The passage below is from the novel Hard Times by Charles Dickens. Read the
passage. Then answer the questions.

So, Mr. M’Choakumchild began in his best manner. He and some one hundred
and forty other schoolmasters, had been lately turned at the same time, in the same
factory, on the same principles, like so many pianoforte legs. He had been put
through an immense variety of paces and had answered volumes of head-breaking
questions. Orthography, etymology, syntax, and prosody, biography, astronomy,
geography, and general cosmography, the sciences of compound proportion,
algebra, land-surveying and levelling, vocal music, and drawing from models,
were all at the ends of his ten chilled fingers. He had worked his stony way into
Her Majesty’s most Honorable Privy Council’s Schedule B, and had taken the
bloom off the higher branches of mathematics and physical science, French,
 German, Latin, and Greek. He knew all about all the Water Sheds of all the world
(whatever they are), and all the histories of all the peoples, and all the names of all
the rivers and mountains, and all the productions, manners, and customs of all the
countries, and all their boundaries and bearings on the two and thirty points of the
compass. Ah, rather overdone, M’Choakumchild. If he had only learnt a little less,
how infinitely better he might have taught much more!

1. The tone of the passage is:

a. Nostalgic b. pessimistic c. satirical d. ironic

2. The mood of the passage is:

a. Humorous b. cautionary c. informative d. mean-
spirited
3. What context clues did you use to determine your answers?

Day had broken cold and grey, exceedingly cold and grey, when the man turned aside from
the main Yukon trail and climbed the high earth-bank, where a dim, and little- travelled trail
led eastward through the fat spruce timberland. It was a steep bank, and he paused for breath
at the top, excusing the act to himself by looking at his watch. It was nine o’clock. There was
no sun or hint of sun, though there was not a cloud on the sky. It was a clear day, and yet
there seemed an intangible pall over the face of things, a subtle gloom that made the day
dark, and there was due to the absence of sun. This fact did not worry the man. He was used
to the lack of sun. it had been days since he had seen the sun, and he knew that a few more
days must pass before that cheerful orb, due south, would just peep above the sky-line and
dip immediately from view.
- From “To Build a Fire” by Jack London

Answer the following questions;

1. Which of the following best describes the mood of the passage?
a. exciting and adventurous
b. unhappy and anxious
c. bleak but accepting
d. grim yet hopeful
2. The connotation of the words intangible pall is
a. a death-like covering
b. a sense of familiarity
c. a feeling of communal strength
d. an understanding of the struggle ahead

Answer key: 1. C is correct. The day is described as ‘cold and grey’ with an “intangible pall”,
which creates a bleak mood. However, the man himself “did not worry” and knew that only
“a few more days must pass” before he would see the sun again, suggesting he has accepted
his circumstances.

Meaning of Words and Phrases

Here are some strategies to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words you may
encounter when analyzing reading passages and improving paragraphs.
 When confronted with unfamiliar words, the passage itself can help clarify their meaning.
Often, identifying the tone or main idea of the passage can help eliminate answer choices. For
example, if the tone of the passage is generally positive, try eliminating the answer choices with a
negative connotation. Or, if the passage is about a particular occupation, rule out words unrelated to
that topic.
Passages may also provide specific context clues that can help determine the meaning of a
word. One type of context clue is a DEFINITION, or DESCRIPTION, CLUE. Sometimes, authors
use a difficult word, then include that is or which is to signal that they are providing a definition. An
author also may provide a synonym or restate the idea in more familiar word:
Teachers often prefer teaching students with intrinsic motivation; these students have an internal
desire to learn.

The meaning of intrinsic is restated as an internal desire:

Similarly, authors may include an EXAMPLE CLUE, providing an example phrase that
clarifies the meaning of the word:
Teachers may view extrinsic rewards as efficacious; however, an individual student may not be
interested in what the teacher offers. For example, a student who does not like sweets may not feel
any incentive to work when offered a sugary reward.

Efficacious is explained with an example that demonstrates how an extrinsic reward may not
be effective.
Another commonly used context clue is the CONTRAST, or ANTONYM, CLUE. In this
case, authors indicate that the unfamiliar word is the opposite of a familiar word:
In contrast to intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation is contingent om teachers offering rewards
that are appealing.

The phrase in contrast tells the reader that extrinsic is the opposite of intrinsic.
Exercises
Task 1. Use context clues to choose the right answer which is closest in meaning to the highlighted
word.
1. There are four kinds of meat: red meat, organ meat, fish and poultry.
a. mushroom
b. heart
c. lobster
d. chicken
2. Once Mary arrives home, she always rushes into the loo, that is, the place where you go to
pee.
a. toilet
b. shower room
c. pool
d. garage
3. That toy is a lethal weapon; the kid almost killed me with it!
a. modern
 b. useful
c. deadly
d. special
4. The little girl is lachrymose, crying all the time.
a. smiley
b. cheerful
c. talkative
d. tearful
5. She is usually a laggard; however, today she is energetic and worked hard.
a. a lazy person
b. an active person
c. a silly person
d. a hard-working person
6. When we spray chemicals towards weeds and grasses, there are some adverse effects on the
environment.
a. interesting
b. unusual
c. indifferent
d. harmful
7. A famous artist unveiled his painting of grapes in public. It appeared so real that birds flew
down to peck at the fruits.
a. attracted
b. closed
c. enhanced
d. revealed
8. Dinosaurs were heading towards extinction long before a gigantic asteroid slammed into
Earth and wiped them out.
a. construction
b. expiration
c. disappearance
d. limitation
9. About 100 million baht has been raised to create a foundation to help the impoverished
people.
a. powerful
b. poor
c. wealthy
d. healthy
10. Needle and thread are indispensable tools for a tailor; without them he would not be able to
work.
a. unimportant
b. suitable
c. essential
d. interesting

2. Use context clues to choose the right answer which is closest in meaning to the highlighted word.
1. No matter where you go, the Internet is following you. Almost every portable device is being made
with an internet connection. Most new TVs and many other appliances come with Internet
Connections as well. The internet is truly ubiquitous.
If something is ubiquitous, ______.
a. It is fuzzy and will bite you
b. It is everywhere
c. It costs too much money
d. It causes rashes
2 Speaking rudely to the judges was rash behavior. You really hurt your chances of winning!
In the above context, what does rush mean?
a. An itchy skin condition
b. Funny
c. Trying to hide or disguise a piece of cheese
d. With little thought or consideration
3. Some people are always bashing the president just like others bashed the one before him.
Wouldn’t you think that everyone could find something to praise him for, at least once in a
while?
What does ‘bashing’ mean in the above selection?
a. Hitting hard with a heavy tool
b. Going to too many expensive parties
c. Speaking or writing harshly about
d. Voting for a different candidate
4. Wherever he goes, the esteemed Dr. Sanchez is applauded for his life saving research.
What does ‘esteemed’ mean?
a. Held over boiling water
b. Very old
c. Unable to chew gum
d. Greatly admired
5. I believe that if you lower taxes so that people can keep more of the money they earn, it will
be an incentive for them to work harder.
What is the meaning of ‘incentive’?
a. A reason to do something
b. A small amount of money
c. A tax
d. A good job
6. Most of America’s Founding Fathers did not believe in women’s suffrage. Only men could
vote in the United States until 1920.
What is ‘suffrage’?
a. Something that causes physical pain
b. An early flag
c. Skirts that did not cover ankles
d. The right to vote
7. Some people are sure that the new health care law will mean better care for everyone. Others
argue that the law will mean less care and longer waiting lines for those who need to see
doctors. It’s a controversy that will not go away soon.
A controversy is something that people ______.
a. Have strong disagreements over
b. Blow their noses into
c. Need to pay for a visit to a doctor
d. Eat with sweet candy
8. Removing seeds from cotton plants was a slow job until Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin.
What is a cotton gin?
a. A drink
 b. A book
c. A machine
d. A cloth
9. In the early 1600s, a dangerous trip across the Atlantic Ocean was a daunting idea. The
Europeans, who would someday be known as the Pilgrims, must have been a very determined
and brave group of settlers.
A daunting task is one that would________ someone.
a. Tickle
b. Amuse
c. Lose or misplace
d. Frighten or intimidate
10. The original Pilgrims called themselves the ‘Saints’ and referred to others who joined with
them for the voyage as the “Strangers.”
In this context, “original” means _______.
a. One of a kind
b. First
c. Humorous
d. musical

Graphic Sources of Information

Graphic sources of information include graphs, diagrams, or photographs.
Always start with the TITLE of a figure- it will provide information that is likely crucial to
understanding the figure. An anatomical diagram might have a title such as Lobes of the Brain
that tells the viewer that the diagram will likely show the names and locations of the brain’s
lobes. Similarly, a graph may have a title like Number of Customers pre Month, which
describes the information in the graph.
Also make sure to examine any LABEL, legends, or scales provided with the figure. Graphs,
for example, should always include labels on the axes that describe what’s shown on each
axis, and a flowchart will have arrows indicating an ordered sequence.
Many of the strategies needed to interpret traditional reading passages can also be used for
graphic representations of information, particularly those that may be text heavy: When
looking at a photograph or advertisement, it will help to identify:
- the purpose of the author
- the intended audience
- rhetorical strategies designed to influence the viewer
- the main idea of the image
A flyer for a local bake sale, for example, may be designed to appeal to the viewer’s emotions
by including pictures of local schoolchildren. Similarly, a computer advertisement meant to
appeal to corporate buyers would probably use more formal language than one aimed at
teenagers.
e.g., As you can see from the graph, my babysitting business has been really successful. The
year started with a busy couple of months- several snows combined with a large number of
requests for Valentine’s Day services boosted our sales quite a bit. The spring months have
admittedly been a bit slow, but we’re hoping for a big summer once school gets out. Several
clients have already put in requests for our services!
 Sam's Net income by Month
1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
Jan Feb March April May

Based on the information in the graph, how much more did Sam’s Babysitting Service bring
in during February than during April?
a. $200
b. $900
c. $1100
d. $1300
 PART – III

Essay writing

In writing section, you will be provided with a prompt and asked to take a position on
it. Support your perspective with strong arguments and specific examples. An effective essay
is clearly organized and structured, displays strong vocabulary, and features complex
sentences.
There are two common types of essays:
- An expository essay explains an issue without taking sides or promoting
a perspective
- A persuasive essay argues in favor of or against an issue or perspective
How to write persuasive essay

Choose a position you’re passionate about

The first step in writing a persuasive essay is choosing a topic and picking a side. If the topic
is something you believe in, it will make the entire experience of researching, writing, and
arguing your perspective more personal. Choosing a topic that appeals to you on an
emotional or sentimental level will make its defense easier. Plus, chances are you’ll already
know a good deal of information about the topic, so you won’t be left scrambling when it’s
time to start your research.

Thoroughly research both sides

Every argument has a counterargument—this is one of the staples of rhetoric. To convince

your reader to agree with you, you must be knowledgeable of the opposing side. As important
as it is to thoroughly research your topic, identifying and studying both sides of the argument
will help you develop the strongest supporting evidence possible. During the research
process, gather as much information as you can about the topic at hand. Use your school’s
resources like the library, academic journals, and reference materials. With a full
understanding of your topic, you’ll be able to readily counter the opposition and assuage any
follow-up questions that might cast doubt on your claims.

Writing a Thesis Statement

A thesis statement articulates the main argument of the essay. No essay is complete without
it: the structure and organization of the essay revolves around the thesis statement. The thesis
statement is simply the writer’s main idea or argument. It usually appears at the end of the
introduction.
e.g.,
Take a position on the following topic in your essay. You can choose to write about either of
the two viewpoints discussed in the prompt, or you may argue for a third point of view.
Many scientists argue that recent unusual weather patterns such as powerful hurricanes and
droughts, are due to climate change triggered by human activity. They argue that
automobiles, oil and gas production, and manufacturing generate carbon emissions that
artificially heat the atmosphere, resulting in extreme weather patterns. Others disagree. Some
researchers and media pundits argue that climate change is natural, and that extreme weather
has always been a feature of Earth’s atmosphere.
Around the world, more people than ever before are driving cars, and industrial production is
at an all-time high: it is obvious that human activity is affecting the atmosphere and causing
extreme weather events.
I believe that temperature and storms are more extreme than ever because of the environment
impact of human activity; not only do scientists have overwhelming evidence that climate
change is unnatural, but I can also personally remember when there were fewer storms and
variations in temperature.
Society needs cars and manufacturing, but governments should restrict harmful emissions
released into the atmosphere so we can slow down climate change and save lives.
Structuring the Essay
A strong essay will have an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. It is important that the
essay is clearly structured. There is no need to get too complicated.
INTRODICTIONS
The introduction is one paragraph that ends with the thesis statement. In the rest of the
paragraph, the writer provides some context for his or her argument. This context might
include counterarguments, a preview of specific examples to be discussed later on,
acknowledgement of the complexities of the issue, or even a reference to person experience.
The writer can reexamine some of these issues in the conclusion.
Example
In the example below, the writer has written an introduction that includes context for her
argument: background information, a counterargument, and personal experience. As a result,
the reader has a better idea of how complex the issue is and why the writer feels the way she
does. The thesis statement appears at the end of the paragraph; as a result of the introduction
as a whole, the thesis statement has more impact.
A century ago, there were barely any cars on the road. Oil had just been discovered in a few
parts of the world. Industrial production existed but had not yet exploded with the
introduction of the assembly line. Refineries and factories were not yet churning out the
chemical emissions they are today. Certainly, hurricanes and droughts occurred, but the
populations and infrastructure affected were far smaller. Now, scientists have evidence that
human activity- the pollution from industry and cars- is affecting the atmosphere and making
weather more extreme. In 2017, millions of people were affected by hurricanes and wildfires.
It is true that some researchers disagree that human activity has caused these and other
extreme weather events. But why take the risk? If we can limit destruction now, and in the
future, we should. Extreme weather events are a danger to people all around the world.
Society needs cars and manufacturing, but governments should restrict harmful emissions
released into the atmosphere so we can slow down climate change and save lives.
THE BODY PARAGRAPH
The body of the essay is simply several paragraphs, each beginning with a topic sentence.
Each paragraph usually addresses an example that supports the argument made in the thesis
statement or, in the case of an expository essay, explains the writer’s reasoning.
To strengthen the body of the essay, writers will maintain consistency in paragraphs, always
beginning with a topic sentence, which introduces the main idea of each paragraph. Each
paragraph deals with its own main topic, but writers should use transition words and phrases
to link paragraphs with each other. A good essay maintains readability and flow.
Example
This example body paragraph is related to the introduction provided above. It provides
reasoning and historical evidence for the author’s arguments that human activity is impacting
the earth and causing climate change.
Human industrial activity has been growing exponentially, putting more pollution into the
atmosphere than ever. Over the past forty years, large countries like China and India have
become industrialized and manufacture many of the world’s products. As their populations
become more prosperous, demand for automobiles also rises, putting more cars on the road-
and exhaust in the air. While industrial development has benefited Asia and other areas,
carbon emissions that cause climate change have multiplied. Meanwhile, previously
industrialized countries in Europe and North America continue to produce carbon emissions.
In the nineteenth century, only a few countries had industrial sectors; today, global industry
strains the environment like never before. The past 150 years have seen unprecedented
industrial growth. Even if the climate changes naturally over time, it cannot be denied that
recent human activity has suddenly generated enormous amounts of carbon emissions that
have impacted the atmosphere. Scientists say that the earth is warming as a result.
CONCLUSIONS
The conclusion does not need to be long. Its purpose is to wrap up the essay, reminding the
reader why the topic and the writer’s argument is important. It is an opportunity for the writer
to reexamine the thesis statement and ideas in the introduction. It is a time to reinforce the
argument, not just to repeat the introduction.
Example
This example is taken from the same essay as the introduction and body paragraph above. It
reinforces the writer’s argument without simply repeating what she said in the introduction.
The writer does address the topics she spoke about in the introduction (climate change and
protecting people from extreme weather) but she does not simply rewrite the thesis: she calls
for action.
No doubt, scientists, pundits, and politicians will continue to argue over the reasons for
extreme weather. Meanwhile, Mother Nature will continue to wreak havoc on vulnerable
areas regardless of what we think. Because we have proof that climate change is related to
extreme weather and we know that extreme weather threatens people’s lives, the time to act is
now. We can take steps to mitigate pollution without lowering quality of life. Doing anything
else is irresponsible- and for some, deadly.
PROVIDING SUPPORTING EVIDENCE
A specific example should be something related to the idea of the paragraph and the essay,
not a new idea. A specific example can be from your general knowledge; you do not need to
know about specific academic issues to do well on the essay.
The following are some examples of general statements and specific statements that provide
more detailed support:
General: Human industrial activity has been growing exponentially, putting more pollution
into the atmosphere than ever.
Specific: Over the past forty years, large countries like China and India have become
industrialized and manufacture many of the world’s products. As their populations become
more prosperous, demand for automobiles also rises, putting more cars on the road- and
exhaust in the air.
Specific: Meanwhile, previously industrialized countries in Europe and North America
continue to produce carbon emissions. In the nineteenth century, only a few countries had
industrial sectors; today, global industry strains the environment like never before.
General: More people than ever are affected by extreme weather.
Specific: In 2017, several hurricanes affected the United States and the Caribbean. In Texas,
Hurricane Harvey led to historic flooding in Houston and the Texas Coast. Millions of people
were affected; thousands lost their homes, jobs, and livelihoods.
Specific: Hurricane Irma damaged the US Virgin Islands and neighboring Caribbean nations.
Soon after, Hurricane Maria catastrophically devastated Puerto Rico. Months later, Puerto
Ricans were still without power and basic necessities. It is still not clear how many have died
due to the storm and related damage.
Example
In the example below, the paragraph is structured with a topic sentence and specific
supporting ideas. This paragraph supports the introduction in the example above.
More people than ever are affected by extreme weather. In 2017, several hurricanes affected
the United States and the Caribbean. In Texas, Hurricane Harvey led to historic flooding in
Houston and the Texas Coast. Millions of people were affected; thousands lost their homes,
jobs and livelihoods. Hurricane Irma damaged Florida, the US Virgin Islands, and
neighboring Caribbean nations. Soon after, Hurricane Maria catastrophically devastated
Puerto Rico. Months later, Puerto Ricans were still without power and basic necessities. It is
still not clear how many have died due to the storm and related damage. In California, severe
droughts led to exceptionally large wildfires that threatened Los Angeles and destroyed
neighboring communities. Meanwhile, those same areas- Southern California, the Texas
Coast, and Florida- continue to grow, putting more people at risk when the next hurricane of
fire strikes.
Writing Well
Using transitions, complex sentences, and certain words can turn a good essay into a great
one. Transitions, syntax, word choice, and tone all help clarify and amplify a writer’s
argument or point and improve the flow of an essay.

TRANSITIONS
An essay consists of several paragraphs. Transitions are words and phrases that help connect
the paragraphs and ideas of the text. Most commonly, transitions would appear at the
beginning of a paragraph, but writers should also use them throughout a text to connect ideas.
Common transitions are words like also, next, still, although, in addition to, and in other
words. A transition shows a relationship between ideas, so writers should pay close attention
to the transition words and phrases they choose. Transitions may show connections or
contrasts between words and ideas.
Common Transitions

Transition Type Examples

Addition additionally, also, as well, further,
furthermore, in addition, moreover
Cause and effect as a result, because, consequently, due to,
if/then, so, therefore, thus
concluding briefly, finally, in conclusion, in summary,
thus, to conclude
Contrast but, however, in contrast, on the other hand,
nevertheless, on the contrary, yet
Examples in other words, for example, for instance
Similarity also, likewise, similarly
Time after, before, currently, later, recently,
subsequently, since, then, while

SYNTAX
Syntax refers to how words and phrases are arranged in writing or speech. Writing varied
sentences is essential to capturing and keeping a reader’s interest. A good essay features
different types of sentences: simple, complex, compound, and compound-complex. Sentences
need not always begin with the subject; they might start with a transition word or phrase, for
instance. Variety is key.
Still, writers should keep in mind that the point of an essay is to get an idea across to the
reader, so it is most important that writing be clear. They should not sacrifice clarity for the
sake of flowery, overly wordy language or confusing syntax.
WORD CHOICE and TONE
Like syntax, word choice makes an impression on readers. The essay is a good opportunity to
use strong vocabulary pertaining to the prompt or issue under discussion. Writers should be
careful, though, that they understand the words they are using. Writers should also avoid
vague, imprecise, or generalizing language like good, bad, a lot, a little, very, normal, and so
on.

EDITING, REVISING, and PROOFREADING

The writer has a limited amount of time to complete the essay. If there is time for editing or
proofreading, writers should hunt for grammar, spelling or punctuation mistakes that could
change the meaning of the text or make it difficult to understand. These include sentence
fragments, run-on sentences, subject-verb disagreement, and pronoun-antecedent
disagreement.
Chose the correct answer:
It’s becoming a phenomenon that parents are now choosing to educate their children at home.
1.(thesis statement/ hook or topic sentence). This issue is based on many factors including
financial, personal, social, political, or health reasons. Reasons differ; some children find it
difficult to fit into the school system because they are especially gifted or have problems of
some kind. 2.(Background information/ Thesis) There are various arguments that have been
put forward and against home tutoring. 3.(Two- sided argument/ Hook)
This essay will discuss the two sides and reach a conclusion.4. (Topic sentence/ Thesis
statement)
For people who support the argument, teaching children at home has a number of advantages.
5.(Topic sentence that opposes home schooling/ Topic sentence) Firstly, parents feel that
their children will be able to realize their potential better if they can work at their own rate
and concentrate on specific subjects. For example, there have been cases of children who
have gone to university as young as twelve or thirteen because they are especially gifted and
have opted out of the school system. Parents feel that they will also be able to protect their
children from harmful influences they may encounter at school if they keep them at home.
Problems such as truancy and drugs are common and adolescents particularly can be led
astray by their peers. 6.(Evidence and supportive details/ Rebuttal) Thus, school can prevent
learning to take place effectively.7. (Thesis/ Concluding sentence)
However, there are also arguments in support of sending children to school rather than
educating them at home. 8.(A topic sentence that opposes school’s education/ Topic sentence
that supports school’s education) First of all, children are isolated at home; at school, on the
other hand, they are able to socialize and meet people of different ages and so become
increasingly independent. Children also need their peers to do subjects like sports and drama.
Another important point is that schools have more resources and equipment than can be
provided at home. Such as libraries, sports equipment and laboratories for science
experiments. A final argument is school can offer a much wider range of subjects and
expertise than parents can provide on their own.9. (Reasoning and supportive details/
Rebuttal) So, it is questionable whether parents could keep a disciplined study atmosphere at
home because of the friendly family atmosphere. 10.(Concluding sentence/Hook)
In sum, home tuition can affect social independence; fail to provide the correct resources and
professional teaching. 11.(Refutation of the argument/ Concluding paragraph) On balance it
seems that education at school is preferable to learning at home. It is fair to assume that home
education aids concentration and protection, it also limits socializing, availability of resources
and professional teaching. There may be particular cases in which home tutoring would be
advantageous, such as for severely disabled children; however, for the vast majority of
children there are greater benefits from going to school.12. (Supporting the two sides of the
argument/ Supporting and validating one side of the argument)
References;
1. https://www.acceptedinc.com
2. https:// www.collinsdictionary.com
3. https:// www.dictionary.com
4. https:// www.english-practice.com
5. https:// www.examples-yourdictionary.com
6. https:// www.merriam-webster.com
7. https://www.literarydevices.net
8. https://www.liveworksheets.com