CARLL N.E.

T QUIZ 1
REVIEWER
 Data communications (DC) is the process of using computing and communication technologies
to transfer data from one place to another, or between participating parties. DC enables the
movement of electronic or digital data between two or more network nodes, regardless of
geographical location, technological medium or data contents.
 Some common types of data communications technologies include telecommunications,
computer networking and radio/satellite communication.
 Data communication usually requires the existence of a transportation or communication medium
between the nodes wanting to communicate with each other, such as copper wire, fiber optic
cables, or wireless signals.
 DCE - Data Communication Equipment is used at the sending node

 DTE - Data Terminal Equipment is used at the receiving node

Different types of data communications

 Simplex Communications - which are only one-way data communications.

 Half-Duplex Communications - information can go both ways, but not at the same time.

 Full-Duplex - models accommodate simultaneous two-way communication of data.

 Serial Data Communications - is widely understood in networking. It means that the data is
packaged into units, and then sent serially to the receiver by the sender.
 Data communication also relies on various types of protocols, depending on the environment in
which the messages sent. Internet protocols like FTP (File Transfer Protocol), HTTP (Hypertext
Transfer Protocol )and HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) were developed in order to
optimize data communications over the Internet.
 For the Internet, the traditional model has been client/server architecture.A client/server
architecture consists of stations that are ‘clients’ or consumers, and stations that are
‘servers’ or producers. The client makes the request of the server, and the server returns
a result.

Communication Media (Data Communications

and Networking)
 The medium (or media, if there is more than one) is the physical matter or substance that carries
the voice or data transmission. Many different types of transmission media are currently in use,
such as copper (wire), glass or plastic (fiber-optic cable), or air (radio, infrared, microwave, or
satellite)
There are two basic types of media
Guided media - are those in which the message flows through a physical media such as a
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, or fiber-optic cable; the media "guides" the signal.
Wireless media - are those in which the message is broadcast through the air, such as infrared,
microwave, or satellite.
 Twisted-Pair Cable - One of the most commonly used types of guided media is twisted-pair
cable, insulated pairs of wires that can be packed quite close together
 Coaxial Cable - is a type of guided media that is quickly disappearing, Coaxial cable has a
copper core (the inner conductor) with an outer cylindrical shell for insulation. The outer shield,
just under the shell, is the second conductor.
 Fiber-Optic Cable Although twisted-pair is the most common type of guided media, fiber-optic
cable also is becoming widely used. Instead of carrying telecommunication signals in the
traditional electrical form, this technology uses high-speed streams of light pulses from lasers or
LEDs (light-emitting diodes) that carry information inside hair-thin strands of glass called optical
fibers.
 The earliest fiber-optic systems were multimode, meaning that the light could reflect inside the
cable at many different angles. Multimode cables are plagued by excessive signal weakening
(attenuation) and dispersion (spreading of the signal so that different parts of the signal arrive at
different times at the destination)
 Single-mode fiber-optic cables transmit a single direct beam of light through a cable that
ensures the light reflects in only one pattern, in part because the core diameter has been reduced
from 50 microns to about 5 to 10 microns
 Fiber-optic technology is a revolutionary departure from the traditional copper wires of
twisted-pair cable or coaxial cable. One of the main advantages of fiber optics is that it can carry
huge amounts of information at extremely fast data rates.
 Radio One of the most commonly used forms of wireless media is radio; when people used
the term wireless, they usually mean radio transmission. When you connect your laptop into the
network wirelessly, you are using radio transmission. Radio data transmission uses the same basic
principles as standard radio transmission.
 The Southern Cross Trans Pacific Optical Research Test bed (SX Transport), will
fundamentally change the way that Australian scientists and researchers participate in global
research initiatives. SX Transport is expected to facilitate research in astronomy, an area where
Australia is a global leader. Australia is one of the nations likely to host major internationally-
funded next-generation radiotelescopes,
 SKA (Square Kilometer Array) and LOFAR (Low Frequency Array).
 Microwave transmission is an extremely high-frequency radio communication beam that is
transmitted over a direct line-of-sight path between any two points. As its name implies, a
microwave signal is an extremely short wavelength, thus the word micro wave.
 Munich is Germany’s second-largest commercial airport, handling over 23 million passengers
per year. It began offering wireless Internet access in its terminal buildings and main concourse in
October 2001 and was the first wireless local area network provider to give users a choice of
Internet Service Providers (ISP)
 Satellite Satellite transmission is similar to microwave transmission except instead of
transmission involving another nearby microwave dish antenna, it involves a satellite many miles
up in space
 Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites are placed in lower orbits to minimize propogation delay.

What Is Network Topology?

Network topology is a physical arrangement through which various endpoints and links in an
enterprise network communicate with each other. Organizations use network topology to define
how their network nodes are linked to each other. The two major categories of topology are
physical and logical.
Physical network topology refers to the structure of the physical medium for data transmission.
On the other hand,
Logical network topology refers to how the network transmits data between devices, regardless
of how these devices are connected physically.

Types of Network Topology

 1.Point to Point Topology - Point to point is a simple topology that directly links two nodes and
reserves the entire bandwidth of the connection for them to communicate with one another.
Physically, point-to-point connections rely on a cable or wire that connects the two endpoints.
However, logical topological connections using satellite links and microwaves are more common
nowadays.
 2.Bus Topology - all the nodes are linked using a single cable with a terminator on both ends.
This configuration sees one main cable acting as the backbone for the whole network.
 3.Ring Topology - each node is linked with its neighbor to form a closed network. This
configuration sees the data move from one node to another, either unidirectionally or
bidirectionally. Such network topology is used in smaller networks, like those in schools.

 4.Star Topology - all nodes are connected to a central hub using a communication link.
Each node needs a separate wire to establish a point-to-point connection with the hub,
which functions as a server to control and manage the network.
 5.Tree Topology - nodes are arranged in a configuration that resembles a tree’s leaves, branches,
and trunk. Endpoints, or ‘leaves,’ are connected to mid-level nodes or ‘branches’ linked to the
tree’s ‘trunk.’ The trunk is the backbone connection that links multiple mid-level nodes.
 6.Mesh Topology - all the nodes are interconnected and can send and receive their data and relay
data from other nodes. 
 7.Hybrid Network Topology - as the name suggests, features characteristics of multiple other
topologies. The creation of such a configuration depends on the requirement of the network.
 Daisy Chain Topology - links nodes in a sequence. Data is transferred from one node to the next
until it reaches its destination. The two types of a daisy chain network topology are linear daisy
chain and ring daisy chain.
 Best Practices for Choosing a Network Topology
1.Understand your network requirements
2.Seth the budge wisely
3.Don’t compromise on reliability
4.Account for scability
5.Ensure effective implementation

Introduction to LAN Protocols

 LAN - is a high-speed data network that covers a relatively small geographic area. It typically
connects workstations, personal computers, printers, servers, and other devices. LANs offer
computer users many advantages, including shared access to devices and applications, file
exchange between connected users, and communication between users via electronic mail and
other applications.
 LAN Access-Media Methods
1. In networks using CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection)
technology such as Ethernet, network devices contend for the network media. When a device
has data to send, it first listens to see if any other device is currently using the network. If not,
it starts sending its data. After finishing its transmission, it listens again to see if a collision
occurred. A collision occurs when two devices send data simultaneously. When a collision
happens, each device waits a random length of time before resending its data. In most cases, a
collision will not occur again between the two devices. Because of this type of network
contention, the busier a network becomes, the more collisions occur. This is why performance
of Ethernet degrades rapidly as the number of devices on a single network increases.
2. In token-passing networks such as Token Ring and FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data
Interface), a special network frame called a token is passed around the network from device
to device. When a device has data to send, it must wait until it has the token and then sends
its data. When the data transmission is complete, the token is released so that other devices
may use the network media. The main advantage of token-passing networks is that they are
deterministic. In other words, it is easy to calculate the maximum time that will pass before a
device has the opportunity to send data. This explains the popularity of token-passing
networks in some real-time environments such as factories, where machinery must be capable
of communicating at a determinable interval.
 LAN Transmission Methods
LAN data transmissions fall into three classifications: unicast, multicast, and
broadcast. In each type of transmission, a single packet is sent to one or more nodes.
 In a unicast transmission, a single packet is sent from the source to a destination on a network.
First, the source node addresses the packet by using the address of the destination node. The
package is then sent onto the network, and finally, the network passes the packet to its
destination.
 A multicast transmission consists of a single data packet that is copied and sent to a specific
subset of nodes on the network. First, the source node addresses the packet by using a multicast
address. The packet is then sent into the network, which makes copies of the packet and sends a
copy to each node that is part of the multicast address.
 A broadcast transmission consists of a single data packet that is copied and sent to all nodes on
the network. In these types of transmissions, the source node addresses the packet by using the
broadcast address. The packet is then sent on to the network, which makes copies of the packet
and sends a copy to every node on the network.
 LAN topologies define the manner in which network devices are organized. Four common LAN
topologies exist: bus, ring, star, and tree. These topologies are logical architectures, but the
actual devices need not be physically organized in these configurations. Logical bus and ring
topologies, for example, are commonly organized physically as a star
A bus topology is a linear LAN architecture in which transmissions from network stations
propagate the length of the medium and are received by all other stations.
A ring topology is a LAN architecture that consists of a series of devices connected to one
another by unidirectional transmission links to form a single closed loop.
A star topology is a LAN architecture in which the endpoints on a network are connected to a
common central hub, or switch, by dedicated links. Logical bus and ring topologies are often
implemented physically in a star topology.
A tree topology is a LAN architecture that is identical to the bus topology, except that branches
with multiple nodes are possible in this case.
 LAN Devices - Devices commonly used in LANs include repeaters, hubs, LAN extenders,
bridges, LAN switches, and routers.
A repeater is a physical layer device used to interconnect the media segments of an extended
network. A repeater essentially enables a series of cable segments to be treated as a single cable.
Repeaters receive signals from one network segment and amplify, retime, and retransmit those
signals to another network segment.
A hub is a physical layer device that connects multiple user stations, each via a dedicated cable.
Electrical interconnections are established inside the hub. Hubs are used to create a physical star
network while maintaining the logical bus or ring configuration of the LAN. In some respects, a
hub functions as a multiport repeater.
A LAN extender is a remote-access multilayer switch that connects to a host router. LAN
extenders forward traffic from all the standard network layer protocols (such as IP, IPX, and
AppleTalk) and filter traffic based on the MAC address or network layer protocol type

Introduction to WAN Technologies

 A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area and that
often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies.
WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the
physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer
 Point-to-Point Link provides a single, pre-established WAN communications path from the
customer premises through a carrier network, such as a telephone company, to a remote network.
Point-to-point lines are usually leased from a carrier and thus are often called leased lines
 Circuit Switching - Switched circuits allow data connections that can be initiated when needed
and terminated when communication is complete. This works much like a normal telephone line
works for voice communication. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a good
example of circuit switching. When a router has data for a remote site, the switched circuit is
initiated with the circuit number of the remote network. In the case of ISDN circuits, the device
actually places a call to the telephone number of the remote ISDN circuit. When the two networks
are connected and authenticated, they can transfer data
 Packet switching is a WAN technology in which users share common carrier resources. Because
this allows the carrier to make more efficient use of its infrastructure, the cost to the customer is
generally much better than with point-to-point lines. In a packet switching setup, networks have
connections into WAN Virtual Circuits
 WAN Virtual Circuits - A virtual circuit is a logical circuit created within a shared network
between two network devices. Two types of virtual circuits exist: switched virtual circuits (SVCs)
and permanent virtual circuits (PVCs).
 SVCs are virtual circuits that are dynamically established on demand and terminated when
transmission is complete. Communication over an SVC consists of three phases: circuit
establishment, data transfer, and circuit termination.
PVC is a permanently established virtual circuit that consists of one mode: data transfer. PVCs
are used in situations in which data transfer between devices is constant. PVCs decrease the
bandwidth use associated with the establishment and termination of virtual circuits, but they
increase costs due to constant virtual circuit availability
 Dialup Services offer cost-effective methods for connectivity across WANs. Two popular dialup
implementations are dial-on-demand routing (DDR) and dial backup.
DDR is a technique whereby a router can dynamically initiate a call on a switched circuit when it
needs to send data
Dial backup is another way of configuring DDR. However, in dial backup, the switched circuit is
used to provide backup service for another type of circuit, such as point-to-point or packet
switching.
 WAN Devices - WANs use numerous types of devices that are specific to WAN environments.
WAN switches, access servers, modems, CSU/DSUs, and ISDN terminal adapters are
discussed in the following sections. Other devices found in WAN environments that are used in
WAN implementations include routers, ATM switches, and multiplexers.
 WAN switch is a multiport internetworking device used in carrier networks. These devices
typically switch such traffic as Frame Relay, X.25, and SMDS, and operate at the data link layer
of the OSI reference model.
 Access Server acts as a concentration point for dial-in and dial-out connections.
 modem is a device that interprets digital and analog signals, enabling data to be transmitted over
voice-grade telephone lines
 A channel service unit/digital service unit (CSU/DSU) is a digital-interface device used to
connect a router to a digital circuit like a T1. The CSU/DSU also provides signal timing for
communication between these devices.
 An ISDN terminal adapter is a device used to connect ISDN Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
connections to other interfaces, such as EIA/TIA-232 on a router. A terminal adapter is
essentially an ISDN modem, although it is called a terminal adapter because it does not actually
convert analog to digital signals.

Network Services
Computer systems and computerized systems help human beings to work efficiently and explore
the unthinkable. When these devices are connected together to form a network, the capabilities
are enhanced multiple-times. Some basic services computer network can offer are.

Directory Services
These services are mapping between name and its value, which can be variable value or fixed.
This software system helps to store the information, organize it, and provides various means of
accessing it.

 Accounting- In an organization, a number of users have their user names and passwords
mapped to them. Directory Services provide means of storing this information in cryptic
form and make available when requested.
 Authentication and Authorization- User credentials are checked to authenticate a user
at the time of login and/or periodically. User accounts can be set into hierarchical
structure and their access to resources can be controlled using authorization schemes.
 Domain Name Services- DNS is widely used and one of the essential services on which
internet works. This system maps IP addresses to domain names, which are easier to
remember and recall than IP addresses. Because network operates with the help of IP
addresses and humans tend to remember website names, the DNS provides website’s IP
address which is mapped to its name from the back-end on the request of a website name
from the user.
File Services
File services include sharing and transferring files over the network.

 File Sharing - One of the reason which gave birth to networking was file sharing. File
sharing enables its users to share their data with other users. User can upload the file to a
specific server, which is accessible by all intended users. As an alternative, user can make
its file shared on its own computer and provides access to intended users.
 File Transfer - This is an activity to copy or move file from one computer to another
computer or to multiple computers, with help of underlying network. Network enables its
user to locate other users in the network and transfers files.

Communication Services
 Email - Electronic mail is a communication method and something a computer user
cannot work without. This is the basis of today’s internet features. Email system has one
or more email servers. All its users are provided with unique IDs. When a user sends
email to other user, it is actually transferred between users with help of email server.
 Social Networking - Recent technologies have made technical life social. The computer
savvy peoples, can find other known peoples or friends, can connect with them, and can
share thoughts, pictures, and videos.
 Internet Chat - Internet chat provides instant text transfer services between two hosts.
Two or more people can communicate with each other using text based Internet Relay
Chat services. These days, voice chat and video chat are very common.
 Discussion Boards - Discussion boards provide a mechanism to connect multiple
peoples with same interests.It enables the users to put queries, questions, suggestions etc.
which can be seen by all other users. Other may respond as well.
 Remote Access - This service enables user to access the data residing on the remote
computer. This feature is known as Remote desktop. This can be done via some remote
device, e.g. mobile phone or home computer.

Application Services
These are nothing but providing network based services to the users such as web services,
database managing, and resource sharing.

 Resource Sharing - To use resources efficiently and economically, network provides a

mean to share them. This may include Servers, Printers, and Storage Media etc.
 Databases - This application service is one of the most important services. It stores data
and information, processes it, and enables the users to retrieve it efficiently by using
queries. Databases help organizations to make decisions based on statistics.
 Web Services - World Wide Web has become the synonym for internet.It is used to
connect to the internet, and access files and information services provided by the internet
servers.