F ield Preparation

3 and
Transplanting in
Solanaceous Crops

Introduction
Soil is the most important and easily available growing
medium for plants. Soils are of different types, depending
upon their chemical and physical properties. Soil
provides nutrients and moisture to plants, which are
necessary for their growth and development. Manures
and fertilisers are added to the soil to maintain
its nutrient value. This ensures the availability of
nutrients to plants and maintains productivity, as
well as, fertility of the soil. Judicious use of fertiliser is
always recommended to avoid crop and soil hazards.
This may be achieved through testing of the soil and
expert opinion. When a soil is pulverised, levelled and
brought to fine tilth for the cultivation of a crop, it is
called ‘tillage operation’ or ‘preparation of the land’.
Different advanced implements are used to prepare the
land for cultivation. The need for water may be fulfilled
by irrigation.
Most of the solanaceous vegetables are propagated
by seed and seedlings are transplanted at requisite
spacing in the main field. Seedlings are herbaceous and
require care during uprooting and planting.

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 Session 1: Soil and Field Preparation
Definition of soil
Soil is derived from the Latin word Solum. It may be
defined as a natural body developed as a result of
weathering of rocks, in which plants and other forms
of life grow and prosper. It is the upper loose layer of
the earth crust rich in nutrients and minerals on which
plants grow. Soil is composed of minerals (45–50%),
organic matters (0.5–5%), water (25%) and a large
number of plants, animals and microbes.

Importance of soil
Soil provides nutrients to plants, which help in their
growth. It provides support to growing plants by holding
their roots. It holds moisture and water for a long time
and serves as a habitat for many micro and macro-
organisms. Soil also provides heat, air and water to
growing organisms living in or over it. It is the most
important natural resource of a country.

Types of soil
There are different types of soil in India, which can be
classified on the basis of their colour and characteristics.

Black soil
These soils are poor in nitrogen, phosphate and organic
matter but rich in potash, calcium and magnesium
(Fig. 3.1). The pH of black soil is 6.8.
Fig. 3.1: Black soil
Red soil
These are porous, friable and neutral to acidic in nature.
These soils are poor in nitrogen, phosphate, lime and
humus (Fig. 3.2). Generally, the pH of red soil is more
than 5.

Lateritic (laterite)
Fig. 3.2: Red soil These show acidic character with pH of 5 to 6.
These soils are porous and have low water holding

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 capacity. Lateritic soils are deficient in nitrogen,
phosphorus, potash, magnesium and lime. Such soils
are, generally, found in the states of Karnataka, Kerala
and Tamil Nadu.

Alluvial soil
These are productive soils, which are formed due to the
deposition of silt by the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers
in course of their heavy flow during the rainy season.
Due to meandering of the river course, a rich deposit of
alluvial soil develops. The pH of alluvial soil ranges from
6.5 to 8.4.

Desert soil
Desert soils are sandy and found in low rainfall
areas. These are alkaline soils with high pH value
and are unproductive (Fig. 3.3). The pH of desert
soil ranges from 7.6 to 8.4.
Fig. 3.3: Desert soil
Forest and hilly soil
These are the soils of higher and lower elevation found
on hills. These are stony and infertile. The pH of such
soil is 4.

Peat and marshy land

These soils are highly acidic in nature and black in
colour. Excessive wetness of the soil, causing decay and
degradation of dead vegetation, forms a layer of partially
decomposed organic matter.

Soil particles
Soil particles namely sand, silt and clay are classified
according to their size. Clay particles are the finest
and are smaller than 0.002 mm in diameter. Loam
particles are 0.002–0.02 mm in diameter. Silt particles
have 0.02–2.0 mm diameter. Particles larger than 2 mm
are sand, gravel or stones. Most soils contain a mixture
of sand, silt and clay in different proportions (Table 3.1).

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 Notes Table 3.1: Proportion of sand, silt and clay
in various soils

Soil type Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%)

Sandy loam 50–80 0–50 0–20
Loam 30–50 30–50 0–20
Clay loam 20–50 20–50 20–30
Silty clay loam 0–30 50–80 20–30

Soil testing
It is one of the methods to determine the fertility status of
a soil, so that recommendations with respect to lacking
nutrient or appropriate soil reclamation can be done.
A complete soil test programme essentially consists of
three basic steps, which are as follows:
(a) soil sampling
(b) soil testing
(c) soil test interpretation and fertiliser
recommendations

Why is soil testing required?

Soil testing is done to fulfill the following purposes:
(a) help in the evaluation and improvement of
soil productivity
(b) determine the nature of soil, i.e., alkaline, saline,
acidic, etc., and suggest corrective measures
(Table 3.2 and 3.3)
(c) help in deciding the right kind and quantity of
fertilisers to be used
(d) reveal the condition of a soil so that it can be
improved with proper application of nutrients
and other management practices

Soil sampling
Samples are taken using soil auger, soil tube, spade,
etc. Different locations in a field are randomly identified.
Soil from pits at plough depth (15–20 cm) is collected
from identified locations, and then, composited.
Samples should not be taken from the boundary of
a field. Shady, marshy, near irrigation source and
fertiliser applied areas are also avoided. The soil is

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 mixed thoroughly and spread on a clean sheet of paper
Information sheet
or on a piece of cloth. It is divided into four equal parts required for soil testing
by drawing a cross sign with the help of a wooden stick. • Name of the farmer
Two opposite quarters are rejected and samples from • Identification or the
the other two are mixed. The procedure is repeated number of the field
till the desired size of the sample is obtained (1/2 kg), • Date of sampling
which is collected in a paper bag and later packed in a • Depth of sampling
plastic bag. • Address of the
farmer
This bag containing the sample is labeled and sent
• Type of land
to the nearest soil testing laboratory of the Department unirrigated, irrigated,
of Agriculture, ICAR institutes, KVKs and SAUs, along waterlogged
with an information sheet. • Source of irrigation
(canal, well, tank,
Soil test result etc.)
Based on the soil analysis, the soils are classified • Topography (level,
sloppy, undulated)
into categories according to the ratings as given in the
• Crop rotation
following tables. followed
Table 3.2: Soil types on the basis of soil pH • Previous crop
• Next crop to be
S. Type of soil Soil reaction (pH) cultivated
No. • Details of manures
1. Acidic below 7.0 or soil amendments
applied earlier
2. Neutral 7.0
• Any other remark
3 Neutral to saline 7.0–8.5 • Signature or thumb
4. Tending to become alkaline 8.6–9.0 impression of the
5. Alkaline above 9.0 farmer

Table 3.3: Soil types on the basis of soil

Electro-conductivity (EC)

S. Category EC (milli-mhos/cm)
No.
1. Normal below 1.0
2. Critical for germination 1.0–2.0
3. Critical for the growth of 2.0–3.0
salt sensitive crops
4. Injurious to most crops above 3.0

On the basis of soil test interpretations, the

recommendations for fertiliser and soil reclamation
material for each crop can be made (Table 3.4).

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 Table 3.4: Rating of soil on the basis of nutrient availability

S.No. Nutrient Low Medium High

1. Organic carbon below 0.5% 0.5–0.75% above 0.75%
2. Available nitrogen (N) below 280 kg/ha 280–560 kg/ha above 560 kg/ha
3. Available phosphorus (P) below 10 kg/ha 10–25 kg/ha above 25 kg/ha
4. Available potassium (K) below 110 kg/ha 110–280 kg/ha above 280 kg/ha

Soil Health Card Scheme

The scheme was launched by the Government of India
in February 2015. Under this scheme, a Soil Health
Card is issued to farmers. It contains information about
the different nutrients present in a crop and fertilisers
recommended for a farm. It helps farmers to improve
their crop’s productivity through judicious use of
fertilisers and other resources. The soil crop’s samples
are collected on grid basis and tested in soil testing labs.
The experts analyse the soil crop and suggest suitable
measures for optimum crop production. The results
and suggestions are displayed in the cards for farmers
to understand the nature of the soil and its suitability
to cultivate a particular crop.

Field preparation for solanaceous crops

Selection of field
Solanaceous crops are grown in different kinds of soil
— ranging from sandy loam to clayey loam. For the
successful cultivation of solanaceous crops, the soil
must be fertile with continuous supply of nutrients and
proper drainage facility. Light soils are preferred for
early crop and loam or clayey soils for a higher yield.
The optimum soil pH for tomato is 6–7. It can tolerate
a little soil acidity up to 5.5. Brinjal can tolerate
slightly acidic soil, pH ranging from 5.5 to 6.8. For
chilli cultivation, the soil pH must be 6.5–7.5. Chillies
are grown on heavy black cotton soil during the rainy
season, particularly dry chilli.

Land preparation
The soil is dug out to a certain depth, resulting in big
clods (ploughing), which are further broken down to

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 make the soil fine and smooth with the required tilth.
This facilitates weed management, ploughing back
of crop residues, water infiltration, soil aeration, and
root penetration and development. Land preparation
includes ploughing, crushing of clods, levelling,
harrowing, etc.

Procedure for land preparation

A field should be ploughed up to a depth of
30 cm or more (Fig. 3.4). After this, discing or
harrowing in two directions should be done
using disc harrows (Fig. 3.5). If a field has
to be furrow irrigated, make raised beds of
15–20 cm height using bed lifters. The bed
height is determined by the type of the soil, Fig. 3.4: Ploughing of a field
irrigation method and intended crop. Raised
beds must ensure the drainage of excessive
water, rapid drying of soil surface and early soil
warming, less chances of soil-borne diseases,
and improved soil aeration. Manure and other
compost in the soil must be applied at the time
of land preparation. Heavy soils often break
in clods and lumps. Heavy clods and lumps
can be crushed with the use of a heavy roller. Fig. 3.5: Land preparation using
Irrigation before planting is needed if the soil has disc harrows
insufficient moisture after bed preparation. Once the
soil dries, the rough beds should be reworked using a
rolling cultivator or a power rotavator.
Rotavator mellowing improves the soil structure by
breaking up the clods and ploughing out the weeds that
emerge after pre-plant irrigation. The final seed bed
preparation can be done with the help of a bed roller,
planker or laser leveler. It may be done manually by
using a spade, hand hoe, etc.
Land and field preparation can be done by:
• deep working implements, like ploughs;
• surface working implements, like rotavator,
harrows, hand hoes, khurpi, etc.; and
• compacting implements, like rollers, levelers,
beams, etc.

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 Notes What have you learned?
Now, I am able to:
• describe the soil and its types.
• understand soil testing and fertiliser or nutrient
recommendation.
• demonstrate field preparation.
• understand the importance of Soil Health Card Scheme.

Activity 1: Preparation of a soil sample and with an

information sheet

Material required: Soil auger, soil tube, spade, paper bag,

plastic bag, weighing scale and wooden stick
Procedure
• Identify a location in a field from where a sample has to
be collected.
• Dig pits of 15–20 cm and remove the dug out soil.
• Collect a sample for testing from below this depth.
• Similarly, identify other locations in the field and
collect samples.
• Mix the samples thoroughly and spread it on a clean sheet
of paper or a piece of cloth.
• Divide it into four equal parts by making a cross sign with
the help of a stick.
• Mix the two opposite parts and discard the remaining two.
• Repeat the procedure till you have 500 g sample.
• Put it in a paper bag with a label inside.
• Put the paper bag in a polythene bag.
• Label it and send to a soil testing laboratory.
Precautions
• The sample must not be collected from the boundary of a
field, shady and fertiliser applied areas.
• It must not be taken from a place near an irrigation source.
• The collected sample needs to be dried to get uniform mixing.

Check Your Progress

Fill in the Blanks
1. The word ‘soil’ is derived from a Latin word ____________.
2. Soil develops as a result of ____________ processes.
3. The pH of black soil is ____________.
4. Laterite soils are mostly found in ____________.
5. Soil sample is collected at a depth of ____________.

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 Multiple Choice Questions
Notes
1. Black soil is ____________.
(a) poor in nitrogen
(b) rich in organic matter
(c) rich in phosphate
(d) poor in potash
2. Red soil has which of the following character ?
(a) water stagnant (b) marshy
(c) porous (d) infertile
3. Lateritic (laterite) soil is ____________ in nature.
(a) alkaline (b) acidic
(c) neutral (d) saline
4. Which of the following is a characteristic of alluvial soil?
(a) poor quality soil (b) non-productive
(c) infertile (d) productive
5. Desert soil is found in ____________.
(a) low rainfall areas
(b) average rainfall areas
(c) high rainfall areas
(d) all of the above

Descriptive Questions
1. What is soil? Briefly describe the properties of soil.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

2. What is the importance of soil in relation to plant growth?

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

3. Classify the soils of India.

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

4. What do you understand by soil testing? Why is soil

testing required and how is it done?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

5. How is field preparation done for solanaceous crops?

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

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 6. Write short notes on:
(a) Soil Health Card Scheme
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
(b) Nutrients required by solanaceous crops
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

Match the Columns

Soil type Characteristics

1. Black soil (a) highly acidic and black
2. Red soil (b) rich in potash, calcium
3. Lateritic soil (c) sandy soil found in low
rainfall areas
4. Alluvial soil (d) stony and infertile
5. Desert soil (e) low water holding capacity
6. Forest and hilly soil (f) coastal regions
7. Peat and marshy land (g) poor in nitrogen, phosphate
and lime

Session 2: Transplanting of Seedlings

Transplanting
Transplanting is a process, wherein a seedling is
uprooted from a nursery bed and transplanted to a
permanent place, where it grows to produce yield.
Solanaceous vegetable crops can endure transplanting
shock and are able to form secondary roots. Hence,
these can successfully be transplanted. Tomato, brinjal
Fig. 3.6: Seedlings of chilli in and chilli are ready for transplantation in 4–5 weeks
pro-trays after sowing.
Selection of seedlings for transplanting
In solanaceous vegetable crops, 4–5 weeks old seedlings
with 10–15 cm height (4–5 leaves) are suitable for
transplanting (Fig. 3.6 and 3.7). Do not select weak, lanky
and overgrown seedlings. Watering of the nursery bed is
Fig. 3.7: Seedlings of tomato required just before uprooting. During transplanting, a
in pro-trays seedling must be:

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 • vigorous and sturdy Notes
• having a healthy root system
• free from insects, pests and diseases
• hardened in the nursery
Ideal conditions for transplanting
Transplanting is done when the weather is cloudy,
cool and moist. During sunny days, transplanting is
preferred late in the afternoon to allow the seedlings to
recover at the low temperature of the night.
Procedure for transplanting
Holes are made in the main field with the help of a
khurpi or a shovel at a specified distance for a crop.
One seedling is placed in each hole. Cover its roots
with soil firmly. The seedlings of solanaceous crops
are transplanted on a flat bed or on sides of ridges.
When planted on a flat bed, ridges and furrow are
made after the seedlings set firmly. Irrigation should
be done immediately after transplanting. In the initial
stages, seedlings are transplanted at the side of ridges,
and later, earthling up is done to bring the plant in the
centre of the ridges.
However, raised bed planting system is becoming
popular. Beds of 15–20 cm height and 1.2 m width,
irrespective of length, are prepared. These beds are either
furrow irrigated or drip irrigated. Polythene mulching is
another intervention to minimise weeds and save water.
Irrigation is preferably localised along plant rows,
leaving areas between the rows dry for transplanting
operation. This is possible with furrow and drip irrigation
but not with sprinkle irrigation. Irrigate the field 2–3
days before transplanting, if the soil is sandy or sandy
loam. In case of clayey soils, irrigate 5–6 days prior to
transplanting. Light irrigation is necessary immediately
after transplanting for better field stand of seedlings.
Time of transplanting
Solanaceous vegetable crops are warm season crops.
In India, these can be grown throughout the year in
areas where winters are less severe. Kharif season
crops, like tomato, brinjal and chilli are sown in June–
July and transplanted in the months of July–August.
Rabi or winter season crops are sown in September–
October and transplanted in November–December.
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 Notes For summer crops, seeds are sown in January–February
and transplanted in February–March.
Transplanting shock
Transplanting shock means temporary retardation in
growth or subsequent mortality of seedlings just after
transplanting. This can be prevented by hardening of
the seedlings by withholding water for 3–5 days before
transplanting. Seedlings can recover easily if watered
frequently for about a week after transplanting.

Precautions
(a) Water the seedlings before uprooting them in
order to reduce root injury.
(b) Tie the seedlings in suitable bundles for taking
them to the field.
(c) Do not place the seedlings under direct sunlight
after uprooting them.
(d) Protect the seedlings from farm animals.
(e) Preferably choose evening hours for transplanting.
(f) Treat the roots of seedlings with fungicides or
insecticides to prevent them from diseases,
insects and pests.
(g) Ensure that the field is kept moist for better
growth of the seedlings.

Staking (in tomato and chilli)

Staking is supporting a plant’s stem or branches
by tying them to wooden or metal stakes (planks).
Staking prevents dislodging of the plant due to wind.
It is observed that when solanaceous plants bear
heavy fruiting, their branches may get broken or bend
downwards. The breakage of branches reduces the
yield, while their bending brings the fruits in contact
with the soil and impairs their quality. Staking is,
generally, done to support the plant to keep it in an
upright position and the fruits in a hanging position
above the ground. Individual plants are staked on
wooden or metal planks. Indeterminate type of
varieties are staked by tying them to strings or wires
running across rows. Lines of strings are strung
between the stakes in order to provide support to
the plant. A stake of 5–6 feet high is required for the

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 staking of an indeterminate variety, while in case of
a determinate variety, 3–4 feet high stake is needed.
Method and time of potato planting
Potato crop is raised by planting tubers or pieces of a
tuber directly in the main field at required spacing
(Fig. 3.8). After the preparation of the land, the potato
seeds are planted in ridge and furrow system. In the
manual method of planting, potato seed tubers are
planted on the north side of each ridge, whereas, furrows
are made with the help of a tractor drawn 2–4 row planter- Fig. 3.8: Potato crop in a field
cum-fertiliser drills. Care is taken that seed tubers do
not come in contact with fertilisers.
Potato is taken as a winter season crop in plains. The
best temperature required for growing the crop is 30–32 ºC
and the minimum is 10–20 ºC. In plains, September–
October is the best time for planting potatoes. In hills, a
temperature range of 20–22 ºC (maximum) and 12–15 ºC
(minimum) is suitable for potato cultivation.
Spacing
Appropriate spacing to get the optimum plant population
is important for getting the maximum yield and better
quality produce, without unduly increasing the cost of
production. Closer spacing gives higher yield but the
tuber size is reduced. Besides, it increases the incidence
of pests and diseases. The spacing for the transplanting
of solanaceous crops is given in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Spacing for solanaceous crops
Crops Spacing in cm (row-to-row x plant-to-plant)
Tomato 60 x 45 (determinate varieties/hybrids)
90 x 60 (indeterminate varieties/hybrids)
Brinjal 60 x 45 (long fruits)
90 x 90 (round fruits)
Chilli 45 x 45
Potato 60 x 20

Cropping system
Intercropping
This is a cropping system, wherein two or more crops
are grown simultaneously in alternate rows or otherwise
on the same land, showing significant amount of
intercrop competition.

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 Notes Selection of intercrop
• Short duration and shallow-rooted crop is selected
as an intercrop with a deep-rooted crop.
• The prevailing climatic conditions should be
favourable for the selected crops.
• The selected crops, preferably, should not have
common insects, pests or diseases.
• The growing habit of one crop does not affect the
growth of the other.
• The selected intercrop flourishes well in the space
between two rows of the crop.
Suitable intercrop(s) with solanaceous vegetables
(a) Brinjal + Radish
(b) Tomato + Radish + Lettuce
(c) Tomato + Spinach
(d) Brinjal + Cauliflower
Advantages
(a) Intercropping increases production from a land
without reducing the yield of the main crop.
(b) It provides better utilisation of land, labour and
other resources.
(c) It provides additional income to farmers.
(d) Intercrops maintain a soil’s fertility as nutrient
uptake is obtained from different layers of the soil.
(e) Intercropping reduces soil erosion and helps in
weed control.
(f) Intercrops provide shade and support to other
crops planted on the same land.
Disadvantages
(a) Intercropping may require more agricultural inputs.
(b) Machines are needed for intercultural operations.
(c) There may be allelopathic effect (direct or indirect
harmful effect of one plant on another).
(d) Disease, and insects or pests may harbour more on
the preferred host crop as compared to intercrops.
Crop rotation
It is a system of growing crops in recurrent succession on
the same land either in a year or over a longer period of time.
Selection of crop for rotation
Companion crops are chosen with due care so that the
soil’s health is not impaired. Here, the cycle of cropping

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 sequence takes more than one year to complete. Crops Notes
with different types are included in rotation, so the
chances of harbouring of insects and pests can be
checked. A shallow-rooted crop is rotated with a deep-
rooted crop in order maintain the soil’s productivity.
Suitable crop rotation with solanaceous vegetables
• Early cauliflower (July to September) – brinjal
(October to March) – amaranth (March to June)
• Green manure crop (June to July) – early tomato
(August to December) – onion (December to May)
• Brinjal (May to October) – pumpkin (October to
February) – okra (February to May)
• Okra (June to October) – cauliflower (November to
February) – tomato (February to June)
• Okra (June to October) – potato (October to
February) – tomato (February to June)
• Tomato (June to November) – onion (December
to May)
• Potato (October first week to December) – wheat
– maize
• Potato (October first week to December) – wheat
– paddy
• Potato (November to January) – okra (February to
May) – soybean
Advantages
(a) Crop rotation improves and maintains soil fertility.
(b) It helps in preventing pests, weeds and soil-borne
diseases.
(c) It also checks soil erosion.
(d) Crop rotation conserves soil moisture in a field.

What have you learned?

Now, I am able to:
• understand the transplanting process.
• assess the spacing of crops in transplanting.
• understand intercropping and crop rotation.

Activity 1: Demonstrate the transplanting of seedlings.

Material required: Khurpi, shovel and seedlings
Procedure
• Prepare a suitable layout (flat bed or ridges and furrows)
for planting.

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 Notes • Mark the location for planting seedings at suitable spacing.
• Make holes at the point of planting with the help of a khurpi
or shovel.
• Place one uprooted seedling in each hole.
• Cover it with soil and press the soil around the seedling firmly.
• Water it immediately.

Check Your Progress

Fill in the Blanks
1. In plains, planting time of potato is ______________.
2. The appropriate height of seedlings should be __________
at the time of transplanting.
3. The ______________ facilitates to keep the fruits in
hanging position above the ground.
4. ______________ is a method of uprooting the selected
seedlings from a nursery bed and planting them in the
main field at suitable spacing.
5. Transplanting shock can be prevented by ______________
of the seedlings.
6. Potato crop is raised by planting ______________ directly
in the main field.
7. The best temperature for planting potato is ____________.
8. In intercropping, a ______________ crop is selected with a
deep-rooted crop.
9. ______________ maintains and improves soil fertility.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. At the time of transplanting, a seedling must be ____________.
(a) vigorous and sturdy
(b) having good root system
(c) hardened in the nursery
(d) all of the above
2. Transplanting is done when the weather is ____________.
(a) cloudy (b) cool
(c) both a and b (d) hot
3. Solanaceous vegetable crops are also known as _________.
(a) warm season crop
(b) cool season crop
(c) temperate crop
(d) none of the above
4. The temporary growth retardation or subsequent mortality
of seedlings after transplanting is called __________.
(a) damping off
(b) wilt
(c) transplanting shock
(d) none of the above

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 5. ______________ means supporting the plant stem or Notes
branches by tying them to wooden or metal stakes (planks).
(a) Rouging (b) Staking
(c) Pruning (d) Intercropping
6. Potato crop is taken as ______________ crop in plains.
(a) summer season (b) rainy season
(c) winter season (d) all the year round
7. Which of these system is followed when two or more
crops are grown simultaneously in alternate rows?
(a) mix cropping (b) intercropping
(c) relay cropping (d) crop rotation
8. The system of growing crops in recurrent succession on
the same piece of land either in a year or over a longer
period of time is known as ______________.
(a) mix cropping (b) intercropping
(c) relay cropping (d) crop rotation

Descriptive Questions

1. What is transplanting shock? How can it be minimised?

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2. What is staking? Enumerate its advantages.
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3. Write down the criteria for the selection of seedlings
for transplanting.
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4. Describe the method of potato planting.
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5. Give the recommended spacing required for various
solanaceous crops.
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Match the Columns

Vegetables Spacing
1. Tomato indeterminate type (a) 60 × 20 cm
2. Long fruit bearing brinjal (b) 45 × 45 cm
3. Chilli (c) 60 × 45 cm
4. Potato (d) 90 × 60 cm

Field Preparation and Transplanting in Solanaceous Crops

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