1 s2.0 S0959652622036836 Main

Journal of Cleaner Production 375 (2022) 134111
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
Biomass and cardboard waste-based briquettes for heating and cooking:

Thermal efficiency and emissions analysis
Navarro Ferronato a, *, Iris Jabneel Calle Mendoza c, Jazmín Gidari Ruiz Mayta b,
Marcelo Antonio Gorritty Portillo b, Fabio Conti a, Vincenzo Torretta a
a
University of Insubria, Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences (DiSTA), Via G.B. Vico 46, I-21100, Varese, Italy
b
Universidad Mayor de San Andrés (UMSA), IIDEPROQ, Calle 30, Cota Cota, La Paz, Bolivia
c
COOPI – Cooperazione Internazionale, Bolivian Office, La Paz, Bolivia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Handling Editor: Zhen Leng Waste-based briquettes can be an alternative option that can foster the reduction of waste inflow into final
disposal sites and introduce alternative energy sources for cooking and heating in rural areas. In particular, the
Keywords: assumption of waste-based briquettes in Andean areas can be of higher potential, due to the lack of biomass
Sustainable development sources locally available and the low environmental temperature that increases the requirements of heating
Solid waste management
systems. The current research would provide a contribution to the scientific literature by introducing a com
Developing countries
bustion analysis at 3300 m above the sea level for comparing the thermal efficiency and emissions of sawdust and
Appropriate technology
Waste-to-energy cardboard waste-based briquettes with conventional firewood for heating and cooking purposes. Laboratory tests
Solid recovered fuel were carried out for estimating five combustion efficiency parameters, as well as CO, CO2, and PM2.5 emissions.
Results suggested that 80% cardboard and 20% sawdust briquettes increase the boiling time of water by about
30–50% compared to firewood, due to the lower combustion power (− 44%). On the other hand, the thermal
efficiency increases of about 10–13%, while biomass consumption and energy consumption per minute decrease
by about 27% and 44%, respectively. In addition, emissions reduce compared to firewood, from 32.6 g CO kg− 1
to 22.9 g CO kg− 1 and from 1260 mgPM2.5 kg− 1 to 933 mgPM2.5 kg− 1. On balance, the research demonstrates
that non-recyclable cardboard waste obtained from separate collection and discarded sawdust from sawmills can
be employed for briquettes production as alternative fuels for heating systems in Andean rural areas, contributing
to reducing waste final disposal and boosting circular systems.
around 660 million people would still lack access to electricity in 2030
1. Introduction (Wit et al., 2018; World Bank, 2021). Low-income countries gather
about 48% of waste in cities, dropping to 26% outside of urban areas,
Depletion of biotic and abiotic resources is a global concern. The resulting in open dumping of waste for about 31% of the global gener
recovery of discarded materials is considered a priority to reduce the ation (Kaza et al., 2018). Therefore, alternative, and renewable energy
anthropic environmental footprint and support sustainable development sources, as well as waste recovery options should be found in the
(Hoekstra and Wiedmann, 2014; Tatsuno et al., 2021). Resource circu developing world.
larity reduces the use of virgin materials, potentially cutting global Waste-based briquettes can play an important role as alternative
greenhouse gas emissions by about 39% (Wit et al., 2018). fuels in developing countries (Brunerová et al., 2017; Sawadogo et al.,
Waste-to-energy can be a viable option when waste cannot be recycled 2018). A recent review underlines that waste-based briquettes can be a
or renewable energy sources are scarce (Kumar and Samadder, 2017). viable waste treatment alternative when no other recycling options are
Emphasis should be given to developing countries, where the lack of available, natural resources for energy generation are scarce, separate
energy sources is common and alternative fuels should be found for collection is implemented, and local applications are available (Ferro
cooking and heating (Kumar and Samadder, 2017), while waste open nato et al., 2022a). In addition, the use of biomass waste for energy
dumping and burning is a public concern (Peter et al., 2019). About 2.6 recovery can be a good alternative for reducing deforestation and
billion people remained without access to clean cooking in 2019, and depletion of fossil fuels (Ullah et al., 2021), reducing environmental
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (N. Ferronato).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134111
Received 9 May 2022; Received in revised form 20 August 2022; Accepted 11 September 2022
Available online 15 September 2022
0959-6526/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Ferronato et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 375 (2022) 134111
particular, the research was conducted in La Paz (Bolivia), at 3300 m

Abbreviations above the sea level (a.s.l.), near the Andean plateau. The Bolivian An
dean villages suffer from the lack of energy resources for heating and
MSW Municipal solid waste cooking, using mainly shrubs and llama dung, or liquid propane gas
SWM Solid waste management (LPG) if the villages are located near the municipal areas. In particular, a
MRF Material recycling facility parallel research conducted during some field works underlined that
LCV Low calorific value villages located near city centres allows obtaining LPG from local mar
LAC Latin America and Caribbean kets, while isolated areas have little or no access to LPG jars, too heavy
LPG Liquid propane gas and too difficult to be transported with llama or donkeys. On the other
SRF Solid recovered fuel hand, local small handcraft require huge amounts of wood or brushes for
LCA Life cycle assessment heating that are not always easy to be found and that are specifically
SDG Sustainable development goals required for the processes (e.g., lime and ceramic use and production).
LEMS Laboratory emissions monitoring system Electricity is not always available, or it is too expensive for small scale
CCA Clean cooking alliance commercial purposes. Therefore, the hypothesis is that waste-based
briquettes can be a potential alternative option for cooking and heat
ing in this region for reducing the consumption of LPG (non-renewable
energy), as well as for providing alternative and easy to manage fuels to
impacts and preventing ecosystems degradation, as well as avoiding isolated areas and to small scale handcrafts commercial activities.
waste uncontrolled disposal and open burning (Sagastume Gutiérrez The analysis is focused on non-recyclable cardboard waste discarded
et al., 2020). from a local material recycling facility (MRF), mixed with wood chips,
The use of biomass waste-based briquettes is already implemented in and sawdust discarded from local sawmills and timber workshops. Both
developing countries. Examples can be found in Cameroon, where crops discarded resources are disposed of in the local sanitary landfill.
residues are employed, suggesting that agricultural waste can be used Therefore, waste briquetting for energy production can be considered an
for briquette and energy production (Bot et al., 2022); in India, dried effective alternative to reduce environmental impacts and add value to
leaves, rice husk, and sawdust briquettes were assessed as a fuel for rural non-recyclable materials. Briquettes are produced mechanically from a
applications (Ajith et al., 2022); in Malaysia, briquettes from rice husk briquetting machine made available from a development project
with kraft lignin were efficiently formed and they emerged as an alter financed by the Italian Agency for Development Cooperation (Ferronato
native energy source (Saeed et al., 2021). A recent review underlines et al., 2022c) and tests are implemented at laboratory scale.
that biomass briquettes can meet the energy demands for cooking and The research aims to (1) compare the energy efficiency and emissions
heating needs in rural areas, where abundant biomass feedstock is between fuelwood and waste-based briquettes, and (2) evaluate the
available (Dinesha et al., 2019). In particular, in China, utilization of potential amount of sawdust and non-recyclable cardboard to produce
straw is challenging with the increase in crop production. They were the best briquettes. The analysis contributes to the scientific literature to
employed for briquette production, underlying that they can be used as measure, at the same time, the energy efficiency and the emissions
alternative fuel (Ji et al., 2018). This is confirmed by another review generated from the combustion of wood and cardboard-based briquettes
article, highlighting that organic waste like jackfruit waste can also be in the Andean area for cooking and heating purposes. The study would
used for briquette production (Nsubuga et al., 2020). Similarly, in West demonstrate that waste-based briquettes can be potential alternative
Africa, where rice corps are growing, and rice husk is a by-product of the fuels in rural areas that can be used instead of wood or fossil fuels for
milling process, it was demonstrated that rice husk briquettes represent improving cookstoves efficiencies and reducing combustion gas emis
an interesting alternative instead to firewood (Yank et al., 2016). Hence, sions. The results of the research can be of interest to other stakeholders
the literature recommends the use of cleaner briquette as an energy in developing areas where natural resources are lacking, and waste
source in developing countries (Zhang et al., 2021). management options are missing.
However, little or no literature is available for the Latin America and
the Caribbean (LAC), especially in countries of the Andean plateau like 2. Methods
Chile, Bolivia, Perú, and Ecuador (Silva et al., 2022), although the An
dean region suffers poor waste management and lack of resources for 2.1. Research procedure
energy production in rural areas (Salvador and Horn, 2021). In addition,
very little is known about the energy efficiency and emissions produc The research foresees five main phases: (i) feedstock collection and
tion due to biomass waste-based briquettes compared to conventional preparation; (ii) feedstock assessment; (iii) briquettes production; (iv)
fuels, such as firewood. A unique case study is available in the scientific laboratory analysis; (v) fuels comparison. The first phase involves non-
literature, which explores waste-based briquettes and combustion recyclable cardboard waste and sawdust collection and storage. At this
emissions (Xiu et al., 2018), reporting that paper briquettes with natural stage, the samples were selected and prepared to be analysed and bri
air flow emitted about 112 g CO, 5.7 g NOx, and 2.0 g PM per kg of fuel quetted. The second phase is related to the pre assessment of the feed
burned, lower compared to wood briquettes but higher compared to stock. In particular, laboratory tests were carried out for evaluating the
firewood. Only a few analysed the performances for cooking and heating low calorific value (LCV). Moisture content, ash contents, and volatile
(Kpalo et al., 2021; Lubwama et al., 2020). In Nigeria, it was found that solids (VS) of the samples (sawdust and cardboard waste) were also
briquettes took about 17.1 min to ignite and boil 1 L of water, with a fuel assessed. Only after this phase, briquettes were produced and stored in
burning rate of about 0.70 kg per hour, and fuel consumption around to different batches. During this step, briquettes with different sawdust
0.15 kg per litre of water boiled (Kpalo et al., 2021). In Uganda, water contents were produced. The fourth phase is the core of the research,
boiling test results showed that 200 g bio-composite briquettes were where the laboratory tests were performed. In particular, density
sufficient to boil 1L of water in less than 25 min, thanks to calorific assessment, moisture content analysis, combustion efficiency assess
values of the briquettes that was between 16.6 and 22 MJ kg− 1 (Lub ment, and emissions analysis were conducted. Laboratory tests are al
wama et al., 2020). ways conducted in triplicate for different compositions, as well as for the
The research presented in this article assesses the energy efficiency reference firewood collected locally. Finally, results are systematized
and the emissions of biomass waste-based briquettes in the Andean re and investigated with statistical analysis. Research outcomes are
gion, in order to compare its performances with firewood in areas of compared to assess potential improvements obtained thanks to the
higher altitude and with specific waste streams generated locally. In application of waste-based briquettes. In the following paragraphs, the
2
methodological approaches of each phase are detailed. 2.3. Phase 2: biomass characterization
The methodological approach to determine the LCV of a secondary

2.2. Phase 1: feedstock collection and preparation for briquettes recovered fuel (SRF) was implemented in a previous experience (Fer
production ronato et al., 2022b). For the analysis, recycled cardboard, corrugated
cardboard, Kraft paper, and sawdust were assessed individually.
2.2.1. Non-recyclable cardboard waste Another analysis was conducted for the paper mix obtained at the MRF.
The solid waste management (SWM) system of La Paz involves a The sample considered has a composition of 70:15:15 of recycled
separate collection system with separate street containers and a manual cardboard, corrugated cardboard, and Kraft paper, respectively. This
sorting plant that selects plastics, metals, glass, paper, and cardboard will be the cardboard mix employed for briquettes production, repre
waste. About 1 tonne of municipal solid waste (MSW) is collected per sentative of the cardboard waste generated at the MRF of La Paz. Finally,
day and about 50% of waste is rejected from the treatment plant (Fer a sample of natural biomass (pine firewood) was analysed. Therefore, six
ronato et al., 2021a). Rejects are disposed of into the sanitary landfill of different samples were pre-assessed before briquettes production. All
the city. For the analysis, the non-recyclable cardboard waste is analyses were conducted in triplicates.
collected here and segregated in order to evaluate its potential for bri
quettes production. 2.3.1. Moisture content
Three samplings of the cellulosic material of the non-recyclable Moisture content should be assessed in order to evaluate the quality
cardboard residues were carried out at the MRF of La Paz. According of the feedstock to be briquetted. At the same time, briquettes moisture
to EN 15442, about 20 kg of samples were collected and characterized in content was assessed for calculating the thermal efficiency, in particular
order to obtain a reference composition of the typical cardboard dis the energy consumption rate and the energy efficiency, following the
carded at the plant. The sample can be representative of a trimester of ISO 19867. Therefore, the moisture content is an important parameter to
the year (2021). The following types of cellulosic material were found be considered for briquettes production and fuel combustion. The hu
during the sorting procedure: 70% of non-recyclable cardboard, 15% midity of the feedstock at the laboratory level was determined using a
corrugated or unbleached cardboard, and 15% Kraft paper, with other humidity balance, while the humidity of the briquettes was determined
types of cellulosic material being present in negligible quantities (<2%). with a thermo-hygrometer. For the feedstock, the MX-50 moisture bal
In particular, non-recyclable cardboard is manufactured exclusively ance was used. The functionality of the humidity balance foresees the
with unbleached chemical pulp, and it is more resistant to humidity use of a hybrid super sensor designed for high resolution laboratory
compared to other cardboard types. Recycled cardboard is produced balances, using a 400W halogen lamp which is used as the heating
with recovered fibres, and it is made up of many layers of various fibre source. The balance allows evaluating the weight before and after the
types. It is used for containers of cereals, toys, etc. Finally, Kraft paper is heating period, giving the moisture content in percentage.
generally unbleached kraft pulp (90–100% chemical sulphate), com
bined with some bleached paper. 2.3.2. Ash content and volatile solids
Before briquettes production, non-recyclable cardboard was reduced The ash content, and VS were determined in order to finally obtain
in size. A shredding machine was employed, which is a Bolivian tech the LCV. In particular, the VS are obtained in the function of the ash
nology with a grinding capacity of 150 kg of cardboard per hour. The content (percentage values). Therefore, ash contents and moisture
aim is to obtain cardboard chips down to 1.5–2 cm in diameter. After contents were evaluated first and were employed for estimating the VS
shredded, the material is ready to be analysed and briquetted. of the feedstock. For ash content analysis, approximately 1 g of test
sample was weighed into a ceramic empty pot and spread in a layer on
2.2.2. Biomass waste the bottom surface. The plate plus sample was weighed and located in an
Sawdust and wood chips are collected from sawmills and timber oven. The oven temperature was raised uniformly to 250 ± 10 ◦ C over a
workshops. Sampling was carried out in six sawmills around the city of period of 50 min (an increase of 5 ◦ C min− 1). The temperature was
La Paz for preliminary studies of calorific value and moisture contents. maintained for 60 min to allow volatiles to leave the sample prior to
In addition, some operators at the workshops were interviewed in order ignition. Then the oven temperature was continued to be raised uni
to understand the potential amount of sawdust generated and the po formly to 550 ± 10 ◦ C over a period of 60 min (an increase of 5 ◦ C
tential uses. According to the interviews, the type of wood widely min− 1) and this temperature level was maintained for 120 min. At the
employed is Cedar. Sawdust is sometimes employed or sold for pet care end of the period, the pot was removed and allowed to cool in a desic
or composting in some remote areas. However, the demand for sawdust cator. The ash remaining on the pot was finally weighted and it was
for these purposes is limited and most of the residue ends up in compared with the starting weight. Results are then reported in
municipal mixed containers. Therefore, the vast majority of wood waste percentage.
enters the MSW management stream.
According to the EN 15442 standard, a sample of at least 4 kg of 2.3.3. Low calorific value (LCV)
sawdust mixed with chip mills was taken from each workshop. Samples The procedure of the Parr oxygen bomb calorimeter manual, the
were collected during the summer period, for a total amount of about 25 Bolivian regulation NB 750, and the EN 15400 standard SRF – “Deter
kg of sawdust collected for preliminary assessments. The initial hu mination of calorific value” was followed to determine the high calorific
midity of the samples was measured. Depending on the weather, the value. Pellets of the samples to be analysed were made and weighed on
humidity of the sample ranged from 16% to 20%, which is the maximum an analytical balance. The ignition wire was firmly clamped between the
acceptable humidity for the analysis of calorific value, and for briquettes electrodes in the combustion pump. The ceramic pot was placed on its
production. Therefore, pre-drying was carried out according to the EN support and the ignition wire was placed in contact with the sample
15413 – “Preparation of the sample”. For this purpose, sun drying was pellet. A defined amount of distilled water (1 mL) was added in the
considered to be the most economic and easier option to reduce sawdust combustion pump. Then, the combustion chamber was assembled and
humidity. On sunny days, the samples were laid down for about 3–5 h. slowly charged with oxygen at a pressure of 3.0 ± 0.2 MPa. The same
After this period, the moisture contents was evaluated, obtaining a hu procedure was used for both calibration and determinations. After
midity rate lower than 10%. At laboratory scale, samples were treated obtaining the high calorific value, the LCV was acquired with an equa
according to EN 15443 “Solid Recovered Fuels - Methods for the prep tion that considers the ash content and the VS, in agreement with the
aration of the laboratory sample”. For the analysis, subsequent milling EN15400 - “SRF. Analysis of the LCV”.
and sieving were required, in order to get a particle size less than 1 mm.
3
2.4. Phase 3: biobased briquettes production thermal and emissions analysis.
2.4.1. General characteristics of the machine

In Fig. 1, the machines used for the research and the briquettes 2.5. Phase 4: briquettes characteristics and laboratory tests
produced by the system are reported. The briquette machine used for
briquettes production has a weight of 700 kg and a capacity of 50 kg h− 1. 2.5.1. Thermal efficiency assessment
The power is 5.5 kW, maximum hydraulic pressure of 250 bar, amperage Briquettes combustion efficiency was analysed under test conditions
of 16 A, and voltage of 400 V. based on the Energy Efficiency and Kitchen Emissions Test of the ISO
The machine can work for about 1.5 h, after that it should be stopped 19867–1:2018 standard as a protocol evaluation. This standard is based
for about 2 h to cool down the hydraulic system. Therefore, the machine on a harmonization of the Water Boiling Test (WBT) and the determi
can work approximately 3–4.5 h a day, with a maximum production of nation of comparative metrics that are employed internationally (Arora
about 150–250 kg of material per day. According to the manufacturer’s et al., 2014; Quist et al., 2020). The test was conducted at laboratory
recommendations, it is suggested not to feed the briquette machine with scale with a designated improved cookstove aiming to determine the
material with a humidity greater than 18%. On the other hand, a little energy performance of briquettes. In particular, five parameters were
moisture is necessary for better compaction. From previous tests carried evaluated: Fuel consumption rate, energy consumption rate, combustion
out in the laboratory, a humidity between 5 and 15% humidity was power, boiling time, and energy efficiency. Results were compared
suggested. among different fuels (briquettes of various compositions and firewood).
The material that enters the briquette machine was previously Fuel consumption rate was calculated based on the fuel mass
shredded (Fig. 1a), weighed and mixed to obtain a homogeneous sample depleted during the combustion phase. The fuel was weighted before
with the required composition. After this pre-treatment, the feedstock combustion, and it was located into the cookstove chamber. The amount
was moved manually into the briquetting machine (Fig. 1b). The bri of fuel inflow was equal to the maximum volume that could be occupied
quettes that come out of the briquetting machine were counted and a in the combustion chamber. At the end of the combustion period, when
sample was extracted to measure the density and humidity (Fig. 1c). the water boiling is achieved, the total amount of fuel inflow into the
Briquettes produced have average diameter of 5 cm and 5.2 cm in system was calculated, considering the fuel remained unburned in the
height. The density is variable from 800 to 1200 kg m− 3 depending on cookstove. The weight of fuel consumed was divided by the time. The
the treated material and the compaction pressure, with a minimum of boiling time is another parameter obtained by experimental evaluations.
50 bar to a maximum of 250 bar. Therefore, the operating pressure to be The period (expressed in minutes) was taken by monitoring the time
set for briquettes production was evaluated. Then, briquettes were required to achieve the water boiling temperature, equal to 89 ◦ C at
stored in bags inside sealed and labelled boxes, indicating date, 3300 m a.s.l., also with the support of the visual analysis (bubbles
composition, quantity, humidity, working pressure, and environmental appearance).
conditions at the time of production. The energy consumption rate was obtained from the energy intake in
a period equal to 35 min. The LCV and the moisture content were
2.4.2. Briquettes density evaluation employed to estimate the energy generated by the fuel. In particular, to
Briquettes’ density was calculated in order to define the working determining the total energy consumption rate, in agreement with the
pressure of the briquetting machine to be set in order to obtain the best ISO 19867, the mass of fuel used during the combustion phase, the
qualitative mechanical characteristics of briquettes for guaranteeing an humidity of the sample, and the LCV were considered. Then, the energy
efficient combustion. Therefore, samples were collected from batches of efficiency is obtained by the rate of the energy required to boiling and
different blends and pressures. Five samples were randomly collected evaporating the water and the energy consumption. This parameter
from a batch, intended as the working phase that allows producing shows the effective amount of energy provided to the system. Specif
about 200 briquettes in 1h–1.5h. The feed rate during briquettes pro ically, the mass of water was registered before the combustion phase and
duction was of about 50 kg per hour. The pressure was tested from 50 to after testing period (35 min). Similarly, temperatures were registered
70 bar to 90 and 150 bar. Briquettes were weighted with a laboratory before heating and during the boiling phase. Considering the water heat
balance and the volume was calculated based on the cylindrical shape of capacity at isobaric conditions (4.18 kJ kg− 1 K− 1),and the latent heat of
briquettes. Measures were obtained with the aid of a calibre. No specific water vaporization, it was possible to obtain the energy required for
standards were used for the analysis and all the cylindrical volume was heating and evaporating the water. The sum of the two parameters
considered for estimating the density. Therefore, the average bulk (heating and evaporation) allow giving the energy intake of the system.
density of briquettes was registered per batch. Finally, briquettes pro The rate between the energy intake, and the energy generated by the
duced with different pressure were tested in the cookstoves in order to fuel (function of the moisture content and the LCV), gives the energy
verify the ignition and the general combustion phase. The briquettes efficiency. Finally, the combustion power was calculated in the function
with the best combustion characteristics were chosen for carrying out of the mass of fuel employed, times the LCV, divided by the time of the
test (35 min).
Fig. 1. Machines used in La Paz (Bolivia) and final products obtained for implementing the research: (a) shredding system; (b) briquetting machine, and (d) biobased
briquettes production.
4
A Jet-Flame was employed during the fuel combustion phase computer displays and records temperatures, flow rates, and concen
(Fig. 2a). The Jet-Flame is a tool that aid combustion. A fan blows jets of trations in real time. Subsequently, this data was processed to report the
air underneath the fire, through the fuel into the flames creating a heat behaviour of the cookstove based on mass and energy balances and
more intense and less smoke. The Jet-Flame was used to improve the emissions. Analysis were conducted in triplicate for different fuels.
combustion phase, for maximum performance, reduced combustion
time, and improved laboratory conditions. In addition, it should be
2.6. Phase 5: fuels comparison
underlined that analysis are conducted at about 3300 m a.s.l. Therefore,
results cannot be comparable with other studies conducted in other
2.6.1. Biobased briquettes and fuelwood composition
areas below this altitude since combustion efficiency is affected also by
Different compositions of sawdust and cardboard waste were eval
the low oxygen concentration (Yang et al., 2005). Based on this hy
uated for briquettes production. Results were compared with firewood
pothesis, the results of the analysis should be considered only to
as a reference to conventional fuels. In particular, combustion parame
compare the fuels employed in this research and for estimating thermal
ters and emissions were compared between pine firewood, 100%
and environmental benefits of waste-based briquettes combustion.
biomass-based briquettes (70% wood chips and 30% sawdust), 50%
sawdust and 50% cardboard waste briquettes, and 20% sawdust and
2.5.2. Emissions analysis
80% cardboard waste briquettes. No binders were added for compaction
The health impacts of the use of solid fuels in Bolivia are an impor
since lignin acts as a natural binder during the briquetting process,
tant concern since more than 60% of the population in rural areas use
which is present in the composition of wood, paper (0–15%) and card
firewood as solid fuel. Household air pollution causes various pulmo
board (Nanou et al., 2018). For 100% biomass briquettes, wood chips
nary diseases (Salvi and Apte, 2016). Therefore, according to the Clean
are required because they act as additional binder, which meets the
Cooking Alliance (CCA), efficient, affordable, and reliable technologies
conditions to bind and adhere the particles to the surface. The firewood
and fuels are essential to building a global market for clean cooking
was purchased from a sawmill, then taken to a carpentry shop that cut
solutions (Clean Cooking Alliance, 2021). Emissions of CO, carbon di
firewood into uniform pieces. Three replicates were made for each test
oxide, and PM2.5 are suggested to be analysed. Thus, these parameters
and statistical analysis were conducted.
were evaluated in this research.
The analysis was carried out on the LEMS (Laboratory Emissions
2.6.2. Parameters assessed
Monitoring System) at laboratory scale that collects and measures the
The parameters provided by the CCA related to cookstoves’ perfor
total emissions produced during the combustion phase (Fig. 2b). The
mance were considered for comparing the results. Though these pa
improved cookstove was located under a cover, where a fan collects the
rameters are generally used for comparing cookstoves performances
emissions. The flow rate and the temperature of the gases were
(MacCarty et al., 2020), in this research they are specifically used for
measured in the dilution tube. A fraction of the flow entering the system
comparing fuels. In other words, cookstoves improvements will be
was drawn by a suction pump through a sample line to the sensors. A
assessed in terms of fuels upgrade. “Tiers” performance targets set by the
thermocouple registers the temperature of the water in the pot and a
CCA provide benchmarks to monitor and assess progress in thermal ef
ficiency, fine particulate matter (PM2.5) emissions, and CO emissions
(Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, 2014). The levels range from the
lowest, Level 0, which represents the performance typical of open fires,
to the highest, Level 5, which represents the high level of performance.
Analysis of tiers level can be used to assess progress along with cook
stove performance and, in this case, changes due to fuel application.
Table 1 reports the tiers function of each parameter to be assessed.
2.7. Statistical analysis
The results obtained on a laboratory scale (energy efficiency and

emissions) were evaluated by analysis of variance (ANOVA) and t-stu
dent test. Statistical tests were used for evaluating the difference be
tween feedstock LCV and moisture content, underlying the statistical
significance between cardboard waste and biomass (sawdust and fire
wood), and for assessing eight parameters, which highlight the differ
ence between briquettes and firewood. In particular, the ANOVA was
used to test whether different fuels employed for the analyses have a
statistically different LCV or moisture content, while t-test for testing the
eight combustion parameters. Based on the results, therefore, it was
Table 1
Default performance levels (Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, 2014).
Tier* Thermal efficiency Emissions
(%)
CO (g MJ−d 1) PM2.5 (mg
MJ−d 1)
Performance 5 ≥50 ≤3.0 ≤5

4 ≥40 ≤4.4 ≤62
3 ≥30 ≤7.2 ≤218
2 ≥20 ≤11.5 ≤481
1
Fig. 2. Experimental setup: (a) Jet Flame used for conducting the combustion ≥10 ≤18.3 ≤1030
0 <10 >18.3 >1030
analysis; (b) Laboratory Emissions Monitoring System (LEMS) employed for the
emissions analysis. *Reported separately per each metric.
5
possible to evaluate the best performances that can be achieved by efficiency and the briquetting procedure.
different briquettes compositions. A p-value less than 5% (p < .05) was
considered to be statistically significant (95% confidence level). 3.2. Waste-based briquettes characteristics
In addition, a regression analysis was implemented for evaluating the
density of the briquettes obtained from the briquetting machines in 3.2.1. Briquettes’ density
function of the pressure excerpted to the material. The regression Fig. 4 reports the results of the density tests at different working
analysis allows understanding the variation in the function of the den pressures. For 100% biomass briquettes (Fig. 4a), it was obtained that
sity applied to the material. Empirical tests allows demonstrating that at for a pressure of 70 bar an average density of 871.5 ± 15.3 kg m− 3 can
a certain pressure the density of the feedstock does not increase, be obtained, while for 90 bar 895.1 ± 4.4 kg m− 3, for 150 bar 967.5 ±
achieving a maximum density level before achieving the maximum 15.3 kg m− 3, and finally, for 250 bar a density of about 1001.3 ± 5.1 kg
hydraulic pressure that the machine can exercise to the material. The m− 3. From the ANOVA, it can be highlighted that the increase of pres
objective of the statistical analysis is to evaluate the density behaviour in sure significantly enhances the density of briquettes (F(3,12) = 114.65; p
the function of the hydraulic pressure, identifying the pressure useful to < .05***). From the regression analysis, the quadratic model was chosen
achieve the maximum density. The outcomes can be of interest also for (adjusted-R2 = 0.959; F(1,12) = 115.2; p < .05***). From the production
future applications of the machine. The statistical analysis was per of 100% biomass briquettes, it was obtained that, at pressures lower
formed with the support of Design Expert v.12.0.3 software. than 50 bar, briquettes have a fragile texture, making them unsuitable to
be used. At 70 bar, consistent briquettes were obtained, however, the
3. Results densities measurements were heterogeneous. At a pressure of 90 bar,
adequate briquettes were obtained with a homogeneous density whose
3.1. Feedstock characterization: LCV and moisture content combustion is good and well developed by the time. At a pressure
greater than 150 bar, the combustion of briquettes was quite difficult,
Fig. 3 reports the results related to feedstock characterization before being near null at higher pressures. This is probably due to the lack of
briquetting. LCV ranges from 12.66 ± 0.14 MJ kg− 1 for Kraft paper to space between fibres, making impossible to oxygen to inflow into the
17.25 ± 0.12 MJ kg− 1 for firewood. LCV of cardboard waste is lower mass and giving power to the fire. On balance, the 90-bar briquettes with
than the LCV of biomass (sawdust and pine wood) by approximately 3 an average density of 895.1 ± 4.4 kg m− 3 were chosen.
MJ kg− 1. From the ANOVA, it was identified that there is a significant For 50% cardboard waste briquettes (Fig. 4b), it was obtained that at
difference among all feedstocks (F(5,12) = 155.14, p < .05***). In 50 bar, 70 bar, 90 bar, 150 bar, 250 bar, average densities of about 965.9
particular, analysing the results between samples (t-test), almost all the ± 8.4 kg m− 3, 997.2 ± 9.8 kg m− 3, 1061.7 ± 10.1 kg m− 3, 1198.1 ± 3.1
feedstocks assessed are significantly different (p < .05***). Only be kg m− 3, and 1192.3 ± 12.7 kg m− 3, respectively, can be obtained.
tween Kraft paper and recycled cardboard there is not a statistical dif Subsequently, the ANOVA showed that there is a significant effect of the
ference (t(12) = 2.12; p = .06), as well as for recycled cardboard vs. the compaction on the bulk density (F(3,12) = 534.10; p < .05***). The
mixture of cellulosic materials (t(12) = 0.383; p = .71). Therefore, be quadratic model was chosen to represent the results (adjusted-R2 =
tween cellulosic waste fractions, the LCV can be considered comparable, 0.972; F(2,15) = 335.6; p < .05***). From the production of 50% card
except for corrugated cardboard, which is higher. board waste briquettes, it was obtained that, at pressures equal to 50 bar
The moisture content of each sample was measured. Kraft paper has adequate briquettes were obtained. They have a homogeneous density
a humidity of about 6.30 ± 1.27%, similar to the recycled cardboard whose combustion is good and well developed by the time. At higher
6.09 ± 0.84%, the mixture of cellulose material 5.73 ± 0.33%, and the pressure, consistent briquettes were obtained, however, the combustion
corrugated cardboard 6.82 ± 0.21%. Sawdust has the highest moisture was really difficult. On the other hand, a lower pressure (less than 50
content, with 16.32 ± 0.30%, while firewood the lower, with 3.38 ± bar) does not give a durable structure to the briquette. Therefore, it was
0.03%. In general, the ANOVA confirmed that there is a significant determined to carry out the emissions and efficiency tests with the
difference (F(5,12) = 141.72; p < .05***). On the other hand, statistical briquette produced at 50 bar with an average density of 965.9 ± 8.4 kg
analysis between fuels highlights no significant difference between m− 3, being the maximum density with adequate combustion.
cardboard waste materials. Therefore, by the results, it can be expected Finally, for 80% cardboard waste briquettes (Fig. 4c), it was obtained
that the use of sawdust allows increasing the LCV of briquettes, but also that for pressures of 30 bar, 50 bar, 70 bar, 90 bar, 150 bar, and 250 bar,
raises the average moisture content, which can affect combustion an average density of 827.9 ± 38.5 kg m− 3, 986.4 ± 11.4 kg m− 3,
Fig. 3. Biomass characterization. (a) Low calorific value; (b) moisture content.
6
Fig. 4. Regression analysis of waste-based briquettes’ density: (a) Briquettes made of 100% biomass; (b) briquettes made of 50% cardboard and 50% sawdust; (c)
briquettes made of 80% cardboard and 20% sawdust.
1059.5 ± 8.4 kg m− 3, 1094.4 ± 10.4 kg m− 3, 1243.4 ± 11.9 kg m− 3, and chips, and it easier to be compressed for briquettes production. This
1180.7 ± 7.5 kg m− 3 can be obtained, respectively (F(3,12) = 261.9; p < mechanical behaviour allows increasing the amount of waste that can be
.05***). A quadratic model was chosen to represent the results potentially briquetted with cardboard waste, raising the amount of
(adjusted-R2 = 0.962; F(3,18) = 288.1; p < .05***). Similar to the 50% waste potentially treated per day, and reducing the energy demand of
cardboard briquettes, a pressure of 50 bar was chosen for generating the briquetting machine. Lower the pressure, lower the costs, and higher
briquettes with an average density of about 986.4 ± 11.4 kg m− 3. the production rate.
It can be underlined that, at a certain pressure, there are not benefits
in terms of briquettes densification. In particular, at higher pressures 3.2.2. Calorific value and moisture content
(>190–200 bar) the density of the briquettes remains steady or even Fig. 5 reports the results related to the comparison of fuel charac
decrease. This is particularly visible for the cardboard-waste based bri teristics. Values are reported per firewood, 100% biomass briquettes,
quettes. This can be due to the nature of the material and the efficiency 50% cardboard waste briquettes, and 80% cardboard waste briquettes.
of the machine. The higher pressure overheat the material and reduce From the analysis, firewood has an LCV of 17.25 ± 0.12 MJ kg− 1,
the moisture content of the feedstock, decreasing the densification biomass briquettes of 15.85 ± 0.09 MJ kg− 1, 50% cardboard waste
behaviour of the material. It can be visible for cardboard waste, which briquettes of 13.34 ± 0.22 MJ kg− 1, while 80% cardboard waste bri
has lower moisture contents compared to sawdust. These results are quettes of 13.33 ± 0.04 MJ kg− 1. The ANOVA showed that the differ
important for improving the briquetting efficiency during the produc ences among LCV are significantly different (F(3,8) = 648.94; p <
tion phase and the product quality for heating and cooking. .05***). On the other hand, between fuels, there is no statistical differ
On balance, after carrying out initial combustion tests, the experi ence between 50% cardboard waste briquettes and 80% cardboard
ence reports that combustion improved at lower bulk density, probably waste briquettes (t(8) = 0.136; p = .89). Therefore, the LCV of cardboard
due to the porosity present in the briquettes and their faster combustion waste-based briquettes can be considered similar, and the amount of
(Díez et al., 2018). At higher pressures, the combustion of the briquette cardboard waste employed for briquettes production does not affect the
become more difficult. In addition, it was demonstrated that LCV. This is probably due to the similar LCV between mixed cardboard
cardboard-based briquettes allow obtaining a higher density briquette waste and sawdust, as well as for the heterogeneity of the samples. In
with lower pressure compared to sawdust-based briquettes. It is prob particular, it can be underlined how LCV of 50% cardboard briquettes is
ably due to the nature of the material, which is softer compared to wood more variable (higher standard deviation) compared to 80% cardboard.
7
Fig. 5. Fuels characterization: (a) Low calorific value; (b) moisture content.
On the other hand, the moisture content is higher for 50% cardboard
waste briquettes compared to 80% cardboard waste briquettes. Bri
quettes of cellulose material count a moisture content of about 11.47 ±
0.24% for 50% cardboard, and 8.07 ± 0.42% for 80% cardboard,
increasing to about 10.32 ± 0.22% for 100% biomass-based briquette.
This is due to the higher hygroscopic capacity of sawdust, which
considerably increased the moisture content of briquettes. For bri
quettes, higher the cardboard content, lower the moisture content. At
the same time, the grater sawdust content, the higher moisture content
(F(3,8) = 549.98; p < .05***). However, no statistical difference can be
underlined for 100% biomass and 50% cardboard, although higher
sawdust is mixed in the second blend (30% sawdust in 100% biomass
briquettes vs. 50% sawdust in 50% cardboard briquettes). Therefore,
results suggest that firewood is the best fuel in terms of LCV and mois
ture content, while comparing the briquettes, 100% biomass has the
higher LCV, and the average moisture content is lower for 80% card
board waste.
3.3. Waste-based briquettes combustion efficiency analysis
Fig. 6 reports the results of the combustion analysis conducted at

laboratory scale. The description of each parameter assessed is reported
in the following sections.
3.3.1. Boiling time

From the analysis of the boiling time (Fig. 6a), for a volume of 5 L of
water, findings reports that firewood took 16 ± 3 min to reach the
boiling point. Longer time was obtained for briquettes combustion:
100% biomass briquettes 17 ± 2 min, 50% cardboard briquettes 25 ± 5
min, which is similar to 80% cardboard waste briquettes with a boiling
time equal to 23 ± 0.5 min. Different types of fuels significantly affect
the boiling time (F(3,8) = 7.85; p < .05*). Statistical significance was
detected also between fuels, excepting between firewood and 100%
biomass briquettes (t(8) = 0.311; p = .76), as well as between 50%
cardboard briquettes and 80% cardboard briquettes (t(8) = 1.09; p =
.31). It means that two groups of fuels can be detected: the ones formed
by biomass-based materials (firewood and sawdust), and the cardboard-
based briquettes. Therefore, on balance, cardboard briquettes increase
the boiling time by about 5–9 min compared to biomass-based fuels,
which is equal to about 30–50%. This represent a drawback for carboard
waste briquettes. In particular, biomass-based briquettes and firewood Fig. 6. Comparison of the combustion analysis: (a) boiling time; (b) thermal
seem to be more appropriated for cooking purposes, while cardboard efficiency; (c) fuel consumption rate; (d) Energy consumption rate; (e) com
waste-based briquettes are not optimum for cooking compared to fire bustion power.
wood since the boiling time can be higher.
8
3.3.2. Thermal efficiency briquettes achieved 2.73 ± 0.13 kW, while 50% cardboard waste bri
By the analysis, it was found that firewood has a thermal efficiency of quettes 1.91 ± 0.16 kW, similarly to 80% cardboard waste briquettes
about 51.2 ± 0.5% which represents the lower value (Fig. 6b). Higher with about 1.91 ± 0.01 kW (F(3,8) = 42.64; p < .05***). Between fuels,
values were found for densified residues, from biomass briquettes with there is not statistically difference between cardboard waste-based bri
61.4 ± 1.3%, and 50% cardboard waste briquettes with 61.04 ± 2.4%, quettes (t(8) = 0.77; p = .46), showing that these briquettes have a
to 80% cardboard waste briquettes with 64.0 ± 5.4% (F(3,8) = 10.43; p similar combustion power. Therefore, power is higher when biomass is
< .05**). Between fuels, according to the t-test, there is a p > .05 in three employed, about 77% more compared to cardboard waste briquettes.
cases: p = .87 between 100% biomass briquettes vs. 50% cardboard This result explains the higher time required for water boiling and it
waste briquettes; p = .33 between 100% biomass briquettes vs. 80% represent the final prove that demonstrate the lower performance of
cardboard waste briquettes; and p = .26 between 50% cardboard waste briquettes for cooking purposes.
briquettes vs. 80% cardboard waste briquettes. Therefore, briquettes
have a thermal efficiency always higher, about 10–13% greater than 3.4. Emissions analysis
firewood. It suggests that the thermal efficiency is not only dependent to
the nature of the material (LCV and moisture content), but rather on the 3.4.1. CO assessment
shape and density of the fuel. Thermal efficiency increase thanks to the Fig. 6 reports the results of the CO emission analysis. In terms of
higher energy present inside the same volume and thanks to briquettes’ emission per weight (Fig. 7a), firewood generates about 32.6 ± 5.8 g CO
shape, more compact compared to wood, and with less space availability kg− 1. The highest emission rate was obtained by 100% biomass bri
for letting the fire achieving the core of the fuel. This allows the flames to quettes, which count about 59.9 ± 9.2 g CO kg− 1, while lower values
burn the fuel in lower time, as will be demonstrated in the next section, were obtained for cardboard waste-based briquettes, with 19.2 ± 4.7 g
increasing the efficiency of the energy used for heating and cooking CO kg− 1 for 50% cardboard waste briquettes, and 22.9 ± 2.4 g CO kg− 1
purposes. Therefore, briquettes can be considered a better fuel for 80% cardboard waste briquettes(F(3,8) = 23.22; p < .05***). How
compared to firewood for maintaining the cookstove hot, or for ever, analysing the results between fuels, the t-test highlighted that there
improving efficiencies for heating systems. is no significant difference between cardboard waste-based briquettes
(t(8) = 0.539; p = .60). Therefore, the maximum value of CO emissions
3.3.3. Biomass consumption rate was obtained for 100% biomass briquettes and the minimum values for
The fuel consumption rate (Figure 6c) is higher for firewood, with cardboard waste-based briquettes. This is likely due to the shape of the
about 11.8 ± 0.8 g min− 1. Lower values are obtained for briquettes. This fuel and nature of the material used. In particular, biomass briquettes
is in line with the thermal efficiency obtained and the boiling time. are more compacted (higher density) compared to firewood. Therefore,
About 10.4 ± 0.8 g min− 1 for 100% biomass briquettes was found, while 100% biomass briquettes has higher CO emissions compared to firewood
8.59 ± 0.7 g min− 1 and 8.59 ± 0.1 g min− 1 were achieved for 50% and due to the lack of oxygen available for the burning phase. On the other
80% cardboard waste briquettes, respectively (F(3,8) = 18.42; p < .05**). hand, adding cardboard to briquettes allows giving a material that catch
On the other hand, there is no significant difference between cardboard fire easily, improving the characteristic of the combustion phase.
waste-based briquettes (t(8) = 0.002, p = .92). It means that the use of Similar results were obtained in terms of emissions per minute
cardboard waste allows reducing the fuel consumption rate of about (Fig. 7b). Firewood achieved a CO emission rate of 0.385 ± 0.079 g
27% compared to 100% biomass briquettes, improving briquettes min− 1, exceeded by 100% biomass briquettes with an emission rate of
characteristics. Following previous considerations, briquettes can be 0.634 ± 0.130 gCO min− 1. Lower values were obtained for cardboard
considered a good fuel for improving heating systems, improving the waste-based briquettes: 50% cardboard waste briquettes emitted 0.162
thermal efficiency. On the other hand, cardboard waste allows ± 0.028 gCO min− 1, while 80% cardboard waste about 0.197 ± 0.021 g
decreasing the biomass consumption, therefore saving fuel by the time, CO min− 1 (F(3,8) = 23.22; p < .05***). However, from the t-test, again,
and improving the characteristics of the fuel for heating purposes. there is no significant difference between cardboard waste-based bri
quettes (t(8) = 0.539; p = .60). On balance, cardboard waste-based
3.3.4. Energy consumption rate briquettes represent the fuel with lower emissions per mass and per
In terms of energy consumption (Fig. 6d), firewood expressed a rate minute. As mentioned before, this is likely due to the capacity of card
of about 201 ± 14 kJ min− 1. In agreement with previous results, lower board to burn with higher efficiency. Higher performances during the
energy consumption rates were obtained for briquettes, with 100% combustion phase allows reducing the amount of CO produced since the
biomass briquettes counting of about 160 ± 8 kJ min− 1, 50% cardboard fuel has more access to oxygen, reducing the quantities of CO emitted.
waste briquettes 112 ± 9 kJ min− 1, similar to 80% cardboard waste
briquettes with 112 ± 0.6 kJ min− 1 (F(3,8) = 64.88; p < .05***). In 3.4.2. CO2 emissions
particular, after the t-test, it was possible to observe that there is a sig Results related to the CO2 emission analysis are reported in Fig. 7.
nificant difference between firewood and briquettes of different According to the results, firewood generates about 1208 ± 12 gCO2 kg− 1
composition, while between 50% and 80% cardboard waste briquettes (Fig. 8a). Lower values were obtained for briquettes: about 1085 ± 55
there is not significant difference (t(8) = 0.015; p = .98). Therefore, gCO2 kg− 1 for 100% biomass briquette, while for 50% cardboard waste
cardboard waste-based briquettes performed better compared to fire briquettes 1015 ± 242 gCO2 kg− 1, similar to 80% cardboard waste
wood and biomass-based briquettes since the energy consumption rate briquettes with 1177 ± 82 gCO2 kg− 1. However, by the ANOVA, no
decreases of about 44%. It underlines, again, that cardboard waste im statistical significance was detected (F(3,8) = 1.34; p = .33) making CO2
proves briquettes’ combustion characteristics, suggesting that the use of emissions per mass a negligible parameter to be assessed for comparing
cardboard waste-based briquettes can be used for maintaining the flame fuel performance and efficiency.
active for a longer period compared to firewood and biomass. In terms of CO2 emission per minute (Fig. 8b), firewood achieved the
higher rate compared to other fuels, which is of about 14.3 ± 1.1 gCO2
3.3.5. Combustion power min− 1. Lower values were obtained for briquettes. In particular, about
Finally, the combustion power was assessed (Fig. 6e). This is an 11.5 ± 1.1 gCO2 min− 1 were emitted from 100% biomass briquettes
important parameter to evaluate the power that can be exercised for combustion, 8.8 ± 2.7 gCO2 min− 1 for 50% cardboard briquettes, and
heating during the combustion phase. As expected from previous results, 10.1 ± 0.8 gCO2 min− 1 for 80% cardboard briquettes. In this case, dif
firewood expressed the higher power, with about 3.39 ± 0.23 kW. This ferences are statistically significant (F(3,8) = 6.42; p < .05*). However,
is in line with the boiling time and the high biomass consumption rate. by the t-test, it can be highlighted that there is not any statistically
Lower power was detected for waste-based briquettes: 100% biomass significance between cardboard waste-based briquettes. On the other
9
Fig. 7. Comparison of carbon monoxide emissions per biofuel: (a) CO emission per mass (kg) – dry bases; (b) g of CO emitted per minute.
Fig. 8. Comparison of carbon dioxide emissions per biofuel: (a) g CO2 emission per feedstock mass (kg) – dry bases; (b) g CO2 emitted per minute.
hand, a difference can be detected between firewood and 50% card Therefore, cardboard-based briquettes achieved a considerably
board briquettes (t(8) = 4.18; p < .05**), as well as between firewood lower value of CO2 emissions per minute compared to firewood, un
and 80% cardboard briquettes (t(8) = 3.19; p < .05*). derlying that cardboard is beneficial for reducing CO2 emissions per
Fig. 9. Comparison of PM2.5 emissions per fuel: (a) mg PM2.5 emission per feedstock mass (kg) – dry bases; (b) mg PM2.5 emitted per minute.
10
minute, but not per mass. This can be an important finding for under Table 2
lying the better performance of cardboard waste-based briquettes Fuel comparison per parameter assessed (best values are reported in bold).
compared to firewood. It can be explained by the higher power and the Parameters Fuels
combustion rate of firewood, that emits higher carbon dioxide per
Firewood 100% 50% 80%
minute. On the other hand, there is no significant difference between biomass cardboard cardboard
fuels, underlying that the feedstock is similar in terms of carbon contents briquettes waste waste
and emission. However, regarding environmental benefits, wood briquettes briquettes
represent the most valuable carbon sink in the environment, therefore Boiling time 16 ± 3 17 ± 2 25 ± 5 23 ± 0.5
its combustion can affect ecosystem degradation. Whereas, cardboard (min)
waste, in the business-as-usual scenario, is disposed of in sanitary Thermal 51.2 ± 61.4 ± 1.3 61.0 ± 2.4 64.0 ± 5.4
efficiency (%) 0.5
landfill, affecting global warming due to anaerobic degradation.
Biomass 11.8 ± 10.4 ± 0.8 8.59 ± 0.7 8.59 ± 0.1
Therefore, at environmental point of view, cardboard waste-based bri consumption 0.8
quettes can be beneficial for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and the (g min− 1)
impact to the climate change. Energy 201 ± 14 160 ± 8 112 ± 9 112 ± 0.6
consumption
(kJ min− 1)
3.4.3. PM2.5 emissions testing Combustion 3.39 ± 2.73 ± 0.13 1.91 ± 0.16 1.91 ± 0.01
Results of the PM2.5 emissions analysis are reported in Fig. 9. In power (kW) 0.23
terms of emission per mass, firewood has an average PM2.5 emission CO emissions (g 0.385 ± 0.634 ± 0.162 ± 0.03 0.197 ± 0.021
equal to 1260 ± 150 mg kg− 1 (Fig. 9a). Lower values were obtained for min− 1) 0.08 0.13
CO2 emissions (g 14.3 ± 11.5 ± 1.1 8.8 ± 2.7 10.1 ± 0.8
briquettes, with 1175 ± 84 mgPM2.5 kg− 1 for 100% biomass briquette,
min− 1) 1.1
and 1128 ± 79 mgPM2.5 kg− 1 for 50% cardboard waste briquettes. The PM2.5 emissions 1260 ± 1175 ± 84 1128 ± 79 933 ± 51
lower value was obtained for 80% cardboard briquettes, with about 933 (mg kg− 1) 150
± 51 mgPM2.5 kg− 1 (F(3,8) = 5.97; p < .05*). However, there is no
significance between firewood and 100% biomass briquettes (t(8) =
1.05; p = .32), as well as between firewood and 50% cardboard bri This outcome suggests that cardboard waste-based briquettes are the
quettes (t(8) = 1.64; p = .14), and between 100% biomass and 50% optimum fuel to be employed for heating purposes or for maintaining
cardboard briquettes (t(8) = 0.59; p = .57). Therefore, 80% cardboard the fire ongoing for a longer period. This represent a good results for
briquette is the only fuel that is statistically different between the others, finding the best usage of this renewable fuel in the Andean context, such
achieving the lower PM2.5 emissions. This can be likely due to the as households heating systems and small handcrafts heating energy
higher efficiency of 80% cardboard waste briquettes combustion and the provision.
higher VS contents in cardboard waste compared to firewood and Results compared and reported in Table 2 are also confirmed by the
sawdust. This characteristics allows decreasing the amount of non- evaluation of the tiers provided by the CCA. Results are reported in
volatile solids (bottom ash) and fine particles (fly ash) produced dur Table 3. Here, results related to carbon dioxide emissions are not re
ing the combustion phase. ported since they do not represent a critical factor for estimating the
Fig. 9b reports the results in terms of emissions per minute. Firewood cooking performance and the combustion efficiency in cookstoves,
again achieved the highest emission rate, with about 14.3 ± 1.1 specifically related to human health. On balance, with an energy effi
mgPM2.5 min− 1, while lower values were obtained for briquettes. 100% ciency greater than 50%, tiers equal to 5 are obtained for all types of
biomass briquettes achieved an emission rate equal to 11.5 ± 1.1 fuel. However, the effect of different fuel application can be seen in CO
mgPM2.5 min− 1, while briquettes of 50% cardboard about 9.3 ± 0.4 and PM2.5 emissions. It is observed that the use of briquettes clearly
mgPM2.5 min− 1. Similar results were obtained for 80% cardboard waste improves cookstoves’ performance in relation to the emission of CO
briquettes with 8.0 ± 0.5 mgPM2.5 min− 1 (F(3,8) = 16.63; p < .05***). compared to firewood, presenting less adverse health risk, being tier 3
However, there is no difference between 50% cardboard and 80% for firewood vs. tier 5 for cardboard-based briquettes. Similar consid
cardboard waste briquettes (t(8) = 1.57; p = .16). Therefore, cardboard- erations can be introduced for PM2.5. Briquettes allow improving
based briquettes have always better performances compared to biomass cookstoves performance, moving from tier 3 to tier 4. However, the level
fuels in terms of PM2.5 emissions. is still low due to the nature of the fuels, which are not as clean as
methane or natural gas (Johnson et al., 2019). Usually, tiers of the CCA
are employed for comparing cookstoves. Therefore, it can be found that
3.5. Biofuel comparison
thermal efficiencies can vary from a conventional cookstove to an
improved one. In this specific case study, an improved cookstove was
Comprehensive results of the thermal and emission analysis are re
ported in Table 2. It can be underlined that firewood is the best fuel only
in terms of boiling time and combustion power, which are directly
Table 3
correlated: the rapid combustion process is related to the rapid energy Comparison of biofuel combustion performance in relation to the CCA param
consumption rate. On the other hand, firewood expressed the highest eters (tiers).
emissions in terms of CO2 and PM2.5. Therefore, briquettes have better
Fuelwood 100% 50% 80%
combustion and lower emissions compared to firewood. In particular, biomass- cardboard- cardboard-
adding cardboard to the briquette fuel allows for improving mostly all based based based
parameters except combustion power and boiling time. briquettes briquettes briquettes
In particular, 80% cardboard waste briquettes performed the best in Thermal 5 5 5 5
terms of thermal efficiency, biomass consumption rate, and energy efficiency
consumption per minute. In addition, it obtained the lowest level of with char
Thermal 5 5 5 5
PM2.5 emissions, while obtaining similar CO emissions compared to
efficiency
50% cardboard waste briquettes. Therefore, cardboard waste allows for without
reducing emissions and improving thermal efficiency during the com char
bustion phase. On balance, biomass-based briquettes improve in com CO emission 4 3 5 5
bustion efficiency compared to firewood, while cardboard allows PM2.5 3 4 4 4
emission
improving combustion efficiency compared to 100% biomass briquettes.
11
used and this approach was employed for demonstrating that the effi Circular economy is generally intended as a growing model where
ciency of the same cookstove can increase thanks to the use of an resources and energy are recirculated, resources demand is minimized,
improved fuel. This is another important result obtained from the cur and value is recovered from waste in a multilevel approach to achieve
rent research. sustainable development (Prieto-Sandoval et al., 2018). However, too
many times, the circular economy principles remain stuck on techno
4. Discussion logical solutions and the lack of an economic theory that can pragmat
ically guide the transition (Velenturf and Purnell, 2021). This is
4.1. Considerations about the results particularly true in Bolivia, as well as other developing countries, where
the missing opportunity of introducing high-tech solutions and
The research conducted in La Paz demonstrates that briquettes can eco-design, makes circular approaches difficult to be implemented in
play an important role in increasing energy efficiency for heating, while general terms. The research presented in this paper tried to provide an
cardboard waste contributes to improving biofuel quality. The best alternative and appropriate solution to a developing context that only
composition assessed with the laboratory test involves the presence of need the support in finding new ideas able to valorise local opportunities
biomass (20% sawdust) and cardboard (80%), the first that increase the and know-how. This can represent a local, and appropriate solutions for
LCV of the feedstock and the second that improve briquettes’ compac the future, focused on the exploitation of local opportunities (currently
tion and combustion efficiency. Boiling time increases due to the lower viewed as problems) in resource recycling and recovery. In this frame
LCV and the lower combustion power compared to pine firewood. work, the valorisation of waste to provide alternative fuels for rural
However, energy efficiency is higher, and the consumption rate is lower, areas can be beneficial and an appropriate approach for introducing
making the use of waste-based briquettes more appropriate for heating circular patterns based on local resources and products, as also under
and maintaining the same temperature for a longer time. Therefore, lined by other authors (Suárez-Eiroa et al., 2019).
potentialities can be found in combining the use of cardboard-based In Bolivia, as well as in other developing countries, it is imperative to
briquettes with conventional fuels or employing these alternative fuels give access to alternative and clean fuels. For example, in South African
for artisanal production systems that require energy for longer periods low-income areas, solid fuels are predominantly used in rural areas
and with higher efficiencies (e.g., lime production and ceramic goods where about 75% of non-electrified households rely on coal, char or
manufacturing). The laboratory analysis conducted in the Andean area wood for cooking (Bohlmann and Inglesi-Lotz, 2018). In this regard,
underlined that cardboard-based briquettes can be a renewable alter alternative fuel production can play a major role in economic growth for
native fuel, which can be also considered a viable option to valorise improving biomass waste management, producing a cleaner environ
discarded materials. ment, decreasing gaseous pollutants, and developing sustainability
The outcomes of the analysis can provide indication about the po (Bhan et al., 2020). This can be also demonstrated in Bolivia, where this
tential number of households that can benefit from briquettes produc research was carried out in order to prove that local opportunities are
tion in La Paz for heating and cooking systems, considering that the available and that can perform better than conventional options. The
industry of briquettes production can increase in the future. La Paz main objective, now, is to generate a market and a demand, giving
generates about 700 tonnes of MSW per day, of which about 5.7% is emphasis on the costs saved thanks to the avoidance in final disposal and
paper and carboard. Therefore, it can be estimated that La Paz generates the “green jobs” that can be created thanks to this new circular business.
about 40 tonnes of paper and carboard waste per day. Considering the A transformation towards a cleaner economy is challenging in
potential amount collected informally and the streams that are normally Bolivia. As also defined by many authors, the development of alternative
delivered to the mixed waste, it can be hypothesised that about 50% of energy routes should be supported by economic and societal aspects
this waste can be collected separately in the future (10 years horizon). (Kumar et al., 2020). Currently, LPG and methane is subsidized by the
Hence, about 20 tonnes of waste can be potentially collected by the local government, while rural inhabitants are not aware about the po
system: 50% can be recycled and sold to local markets, suggesting that tential alternative options that the market can introduce. As in other
about 10 tonnes of cellulosic waste can be discarded per day. This waste contexts, household fuel transition is driven mainly by social-economic
flow can be used for briquettes production. Considering that 80% of factors, and it depends on the interaction of consumption and produc
briquettes are made of cellulosic waste, it can be estimated that, tion household decisions (Muller and Yan, 2018). The support of local
potentially, 12.5 tonnes of briquettes can be produced per day in La Paz, governments and NGO is compulsory to start building a new green
with the hypothesis that sawdust production can be enough to cover market, supporting the transition, and giving incentives that can stim
local needs. The consumption per minute of briquettes for heating and ulate the market of cardboard waste-based briquettes. As mentioned by
cooking was calculated to be around 8.6 g min− 1. Considering that a fire other studies, governments should ensuring that alternative and clean
for cooking and heating should be lit for about 7 h per day and that, energy sources are available, while also making unsustainable fuels less
therefore, about 3.6 kg of briquettes are required per households per available (Puzzolo et al., 2019).
day, it can be estimated that around 3450 households made of four
components on average can benefit from the briquettes produced in La 4.3. Future applications and research developments
Paz. On balance, about 13,000 to 15,000 inhabitants of the Bolivian
Andean area can use the briquettes potentially produced in La Paz for Solid biofuels represent a cleaner and renewable energy alternative
heating and cooking, supporting local development. This represent a to mitigate CO2 emissions compared to fossil fuels. It is essential
good result that local decision-makers should consider for contributing selecting the best available technology in developing countries,
to solve local issues in terms of energy demand and waste valorisation. exploiting local opportunities and available feedstocks (Angulo-
Mosquera et al., 2021). The current research demonstrated that the
4.2. The importance of resource recovery and circularity biowaste briquettes can be an alternative option for energy production,
with better characteristics compared to firewood. The use of 80%
The recovery of discarded materials such as sawdust from sawmills cardboard waste briquettes can be also a link to the needs of big cities,
and cardboard waste for energy production can be considered a circular which are generating high amounts of waste, and rural areas that are
approach to reducing waste final disposal in Andean areas. In La Paz and experiencing lack of resource availability.
the Bolivian Andean cities briquettes production has for sure a potential This is particularly true in the Andean plateau where fuels are scarce
application due to the lack of alternative options for energy generation for rural areas and manufacturing, though big cities with more than
and waste management. Therefore, it represents a possible alternative 100.000 inhabitants are present with the continuous generation of waste
for introducing a circular economy in Bolivia, as an example for the LAC. that is finally disposed of in open dumps (Ferronato et al., 2021b). These
12
areas suffer the lack of biomass and conventional fossil fuels due to the to introduce alternative solid waste valorisation options, renewable
long distances that should be covered, the high prices of electric energy energy resources, and support the development of low-income
and the lack of forests or green areas where firewood can be easily countries.
collected for free or low prices. Therefore, cardboard waste-based bri
quettes can be an attractive fuel to be implemented in Andean areas. Funding
However, further analysis should be conducted, and a regulation
framework should be developed. This publication was produced with the financial support of the
Future research will be related to costs sustainability and population Italian Agency for Development Cooperation in the frame of the project
willingness to employ such densified materials as alternative fuel that “LaPazRecicla. Integrated approach to the waste management in Bolivia:
can be used instead of animal dung or local shrubs. A market analysis, development of new technologies to foster circular economy in the
social survey, and on field research should be conducted. Environmental municipality of La Paz” – AID 011908. Its contents are the sole re
life cycle assessment (LCA) to compare the biomass briquettes with fossil sponsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the
fuels should be implemented, to better focus on which environmental Agency.
impacts can be mitigated, which process is mostly affecting the pro
duction system, and how transportation distances can affect the results. CRediT authorship contribution statement
In this regard, advantages related to the avoided impacts obtained
thanks to the use of biomass waste instead of fossil fuels can be under Navarro Ferronato: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data cura
lined. Once confirmed potential environmental benefits, economic tion, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review
suitability, and population willingness to employ this biofuel, policy & editing. Iris Jabneel Calle Mendoza: Formal analysis, Investigation,
implications can also be introduced. Data curation, Visualization, Software. Jazmín Gidari Ruiz Mayta:
Local municipal governments should be encouraged to implement Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Visualization, Software.
this alternative technology for improving the SWM system and for giving Marcelo Antonio Gorritty Portillo: Conceptualization, Methodology,
a second life to discarded materials. In addition, at national and regional Validation, Supervision.Fabio Conti: Supervision. Vincenzo Torretta:
levels, regulations should be developed in order to allow the use of waste Supervision.
as fuel for heating in households and commercial areas. Therefore,
application of suitable policies to foster the use of discarded materials as Declaration of competing interest
fuels for cooking and heating is imperative. Cooperation between in
dustrial systems and commercial activities should be supported. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
The supply chain of discarded materials must be also guaranteed. interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
Therefore, sawmills should cooperate with the public sector (MRF and the work reported in this paper.
briquettes production) and the potential artisanal factories to ensure
constant fuel production, increasing selective collection and sorting of Data availability
discarded materials. Thus, an industrial symbiosis can be generated.
Finally, population awareness campaigns, publicity, and explanation to Data will be made available on request.
the communities about the potential benefits of this approach should be
organized, rising the willingness to use alternative fuels among the Acknowledgement
population and industrial activities.
The authors thank the Municipal Secretary of Environmental Man
5. Conclusions agement of the Autonomous Municipal Government of La Paz and the
Italian non-governmental organization COOPI, La Paz field office, for
On balance, the laboratory tests show that 20% sawdust and 80% their cooperation in implementing the research within the framework of
cardboard waste briquettes are a more efficient and clean fuel compared the project “LaPazRecicla. Integrated approach to the waste manage
to firewood. These results are particularly interesting in Andean low ment in Bolivia: development of new technologies to foster circular
income and rural areas, where fuels are not always available, and waste economy in the municipality of La Paz”, led by COOPI.
is mainly open dumped. Potential applications can be tested in future
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Journal of Cleaner Production 375 (2022) 134111

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

Biomass and cardboard waste-based briquettes for heating and cooking:

particular, the research was conducted in La Paz (Bolivia), at 3300 m

The methodological approach to determine the LCV of a secondary

2.4. Phase 3: biobased briquettes production thermal and emissions analysis.

2.4.1. General characteristics of the machine

2.7. Statistical analysis

The results obtained on a laboratory scale (energy efficiency and

Performance 5 ≥50 ≤3.0 ≤5

3.3. Waste-based briquettes combustion efficiency analysis

Fig. 6 reports the results of the combustion analysis conducted at

3.3.1. Boiling time

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