Combating Recidivism

Reforming Rehabilitation Programs in Prisons

Rachael Doxtader
Professor Babcock
English 138T
17 April 2023
Introduction

Following the murder of George Floyd and resulting increase in support for the Black

Lives Matter movement, mass incarceration has become a widely-discussed topic among

Americans - and rightly so. Roughly 1 out of 150 people in the United States is currently in a

federal or state prison or local jail, and even though less than 5% of the people in the world live

in the United States, the U.S. contains 20% of the world’s incarcerated population.1

Equally as pressing as mass incarceration but much less discussed among American

citizens and politicians is recidivism. The United States has some of the highest recidivism rates

in the world, which has enormous impacts on the wellbeings of American citizens. To

completely address the complex issue of recidivism in the United States, prisons must go through

many reforms; however, this brief focuses on one component of the reform process -

rehabilitation programs - as the most feasible first step toward alleviating recidivism in the

United States.

What is Recidivism?

Recidivism “refers to a person’s relapse into criminal behavior, often after the person

receives sanctions or undergoes intervention for a previous crime” and is determined by criminal

1
Peter Wagner and Wanda Bertram, “‘What Percent of the U.S. Is Incarcerated?’ (And Other Ways to Measure Mass
Incarceration),” Prison Policy Initiative, January 16, 2020,
https://www.prisonpolicy.org/blog/2020/01/16/percent-incarcerated/.
activity after release from prison that results in rearrest, reconviction, or return to prison.2

Roughly 2.3 million people in the United States are currently in a prison or jail, and the majority

of these individuals are arrested for committing another crime after being released.3 A study

conducted by the U.S. Department of Justice found that of the prisoners released in 2005 from

prisons across 30 states, 68 percent were arrested within three years of release, 79 percent within

six years, and 83 percent within nine years.4 As recidivism is used to evaluate the performance of

prisons, the recidivism rates of the United States reveal that the current prison system is

ineffective at reducing crime and arguably even perpetuates it.

Figure 1. Matthew R. Durose et al. “Recidivism of Prisoners Released in 30 States in

2
“Recidivism.” National Institute of Justice. Accessed April 16, 2023.
https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/corrections/recidivism.
3
Peter Wagner and Wanda Bertram, “‘What Percent of the U.S. Is Incarcerated?" (And Other Ways to Measure
Mass Incarceration),” Prison Policy Initiative, January 16, 2020,
https://www.prisonpolicy.org/blog/2020/01/16/percent-incarcerated/.
4
Matthew Clarke, “Long-Term Recidivism Studies Show High Arrest Rates,” Prison Legal News, May 2019,
https://www.prisonlegalnews.org/news/2019/may/3/long-term-recidivism-studies-show-high-arrest-rates/#:~:text=A
%20U.S.%20Sentencing%20Commission%20report,those%20convicted%20of%20nonviolent%20offenses.
Why Does it Matter?

The absence of employment opportunities for released prisoners, challenges reintegrating

into society, and mental health and substance abuse problems all contribute to recidivism.5 The

United States as a whole lacks empathy for incarcerated people, focusing heavily on exerting

power over these individuals rather than seeking to understand and support them. Prison is used

simply as a punishment for individuals who have broken the law instead of an opportunity to

address the root problems of crime in order to reduce crime rates. As a result, prisons in the U.S.

lack adequate rehabilitation programs, and incarcerated people are released back into the world

after years of isolation without the skills or knowledge necessary to successfully reintegrate into

society. The stigma surrounding formerly imprisoned people further isolates them from their

peers and makes it difficult for these individuals to find employment. With no job or

connections, these individuals are often unable to rebuild their lives and consequently fall back

into a pattern of crime, leading to rearrest or imprisonment.

The most vulnerable people in society are also at the highest risk of committing crimes as

well as becoming victims of crime, as recidivism disproportionately impacts poor communities

of color and uneducated individuals. Race greatly predicts recidivism, as black Americans are

much more likely to recidivate than their white counterparts, which is in part due to the

environment that these individuals enter back into after their release.6 Furthermore, the lack of

5
Charlotte Nickerson, “Recidivism: Definition, Causes & Examples,” Simply Psychology, February 24, 2023,
https://www.simplypsychology.org/recidivism.html.
6
Charlotte Whelan, “The Importance of Prison Rehabilitation Programs before and after Release,” Independent
Women's Forum, June 29, 2020,
https://www.iwf.org/2020/06/29/the-importance-of-prison-rehabilitation-programs-before-and-after-release/.
financial resources, employment, jobs, and social support also make an individual more likely to

recidivate. If prisons do not act to combat recidivism, impoverished and disadvantaged

communities will continue to suffer from high crime rates.

Rehabilitation Programs

Rehabilitation programs aim to reduce recidivism by improving the mental health,

behaviors, skills, access to education and employment, and social functioning of incarcerated

individuals.7 Current rehabilitation programs are underfunded and lack adequate services for

those who are imprisoned, particularly in education and cognitive behavioral therapy. To reduce

recidivism rates, prisons must implement successful rehabilitation programs.

Educational Programs

The majority of prisons in the United States have either insufficient or no educational

programs for inmates. Currently, only 44 percent of private prisons offer vocational training, and

only 27 percent of state prisons offer college courses.8 Even though 64 percent of inmates are

academically eligible to enter into a college prison program, only 9 percent complete these

7
“Practice Profile: Rehabilitation Programs for Adult Offenders.” National Institute of Justice, February 11, 2020,
https://crimesolutions.ojp.gov/ratedpractices/101#:~:text=Rehabilitation%20programs%20are%20designed%20to,ac
cess%20to%20education%20and%20employment.
8
Sophia Lam, “Updating the Prison System: Rehabilitation Reform,” The Gate, March 24, 2020,
http://uchicagogate.com/articles/2020/3/24/updating-prison-system-rehabilitation-reform/#:~:text=Providing%20a%
20classroom%20setting%20and,private%20prisons%20provide%20vocational%20training.
programs. Furthermore, studies have shown that 58 percent of incarcerated individuals do not

complete any education programs at all while in prison.9

In order to reduce recidivism across the United States, all prisons should incorporate

education into their rehabilitation programs. Because education is typically required for

individuals to secure employment and access to financial resources, the lack of education is a

strong indicator of recidivism. Former inmates who did not finish high school were rearrested at

60.4 percent, and those without a degree were rearrested at a rate of 19.1 percent.10 Educating

inmates while they are in prison combats recidivism by improving their chances of securing a job

after their release. Employment rates for formerly incarcerated individuals increase by 10 percent

when they complete a college education program during their time in prison,11 and inmates who

participated in any education program have a 28 percent higher chance of finding employment

post release. Additional educational opportunities that reduce recidivism include allowing

inmates to finish high school diplomas, learn a trade, and pursue post-secondary educational

opportunities while incarcerated. Incorporating educational opportunities into rehabilitation

programs, which results in greater employment opportunities for former prisoners, is shown to

significantly reduce recidivism, as a 2013 meta analysis revealed that inmates who take part in

educational programs have a 43 percent less chance of recidivating.12

9
“Report Shows Benefit of Prison Education,” Inside Higher Ed, January 15, 2019,
https://www.insidehighered.com/quicktakes/2019/01/16/report-shows-benefit-prison-education.
10
Sophia Lam, “Updating the Prison System: Rehabilitation Reform.”
11
“Report Shows Benefit of Prison Education.”
12
Sophia Lam, “Updating the Prison System: Rehabilitation Reform.”
Cognitive-Behavioral Interventions

Cognitive-behavioral therapy is a common type of talk therapy in which patients meet

with counselors or therapists in structured settings.13 When used in prisons, cognitive-behavioral

interventions (CBI) aim to help prisoners address the root causes of their crime, manage mental

health problems and substance use, and avoid situations that might lead to their committing a

crime.14 CBI commonly includes cognitive skills training, role-playing, relapse prevention, and

anger management programs.15

Figure 2., How Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Works to Change Behavior.

13
“Cognitive Behavioral Therapy,” Mayo Clinic (Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, March 16,
2019), https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/cognitive-behavioral-therapy/about/pac-20384610.
14
Sophia Lam, “Updating the Prison System: Rehabilitation Reform.”
15
“In Brief: Using a Cognitive-Behavioral Approach in Programs to Reduce Recidivism,” CSG Justice Center,
January 17, 2017,
https://csgjusticecenter.org/2017/01/13/in-brief-using-a-cognitive-behavioral-approach-in-programs-to-reduce-recidi
vism/.
 Despite the fact that CBI has been shown to reduce recidivism rates by more than 10-30

percent, only 20 percent of prisons in the United States have cognitive-behavioral therapy

programs, while only five percent of incarcerated people have access to these programs.16 The

implementation of CBIs in prisons across the country is crucial to combating recidivism in the

United States, as the most effective cognitive-behavioral interventions can reduce recidivism

rates by over 50 percent.17 The Washington state government, for example, has implemented

more cognitive-behavioral interventions in prisons after a four-month CBI program called

Thinking for a Change was incredibly successful in its first facility. A study found that inmates

who did not participate in a cognitive behavioral program were 57 percent more likely to be

rearrested compared to those who graduated from Thinking for a Change.18

Implementation

As rehabilitation programs exist in many prisons already, incorporating educational

programs and cognitive-behavioral interventions into rehabilitation programs is feasible over the

next two decades. Implementing educational programs and CBIs can be achieved through

increased funding, early assessment of risk, recommendations by government organizations, and

new policies created by individual prisons.

16
Sophia Lam, “Updating the Prison System: Rehabilitation Reform.”
17
Michelle Malia, “This Mental Health Program Helps People Stay Out of Prison,” VICE, December 15, 2017,
https://www.vice.com/en/article/wjzxq9/cognitive-behavioral-therapy-in-prison.
18
Sophia Lam, “Updating the Prison System: Rehabilitation Reform.”
Funding

Implementing more effective rehabilitation programs requires increased funding, which

government officials are reluctant to provide as they seek to spend that money in other areas.

While the federal government is unlikely to pass legislation regarding rehabilitation programs,

state governments can provide funding for prisons to improve their programs. When state

governments are considering increasing funding for rehabilitation programs, an important factor

to consider is that investing in rehabilitation actually saves money in the long term. In fact, each

dollar spent on educating incarcerated people saves four to five dollars in re-incarcerating costs

within the first three years after their release, saving both prisons and taxpayers money.19

Expanding access to college prison programs would lower recidivism rates and decrease

incarceration costs across states by $365.8 million a year as a result.20 In addition to educational

programs, investing in CBIs can save taxpayers millions of dollars in the long run, as one

research study discovered that thirteen out of fourteen studies found that cognitive-behavioral

therapy has a positive cost-benefit outcome.21

Early Assessment of Risk

Rehabilitation should begin while incarcerated individuals are serving their sentences.

The first step of rehabilitation should be determining which inmates are at the highest risk of

recidivating. Individuals that are identified as being high-risk for recidivism should undergo a

19
“Benefits of Prison Education,” Northwestern Prison Education Program,
https://sites.northwestern.edu/npep/benefits-of-prison-education/#:~:text=%5BPrison%5D%20education%20is%20a
lmost%20twice,first%20three%20years%20post%2Drelease.
20
“Report Shows Benefit of Prison Education.”
21
T.L. Andrews, “A Popular Psychology Technique Is Being Used to Reform the Prison System,” Quartz, April 28,
2017, https://qz.com/970945/cbt-cognitive-behavioral-therapy-is-being-used-to-help-us-prison-reform.
needs assessment, in which certain factors that could have influenced their criminal behavior are

identified. These factors can include previous criminal activity, substance abuse disorders, and

mental health disorders.22 Determining the risk and underlying issues of incarcerated individuals

will help staff members in prisons improve their rehabilitation programs to better fit the needs of

their inmates.

Recommendations by Government Organizations

Government organizations, such as the National Institute of Justice, can provide

guidelines and recommendations for improving rehabilitation programs, including educational

programs and cognitive-behavioral interventions. Strong recommendations by these government

organizations will greatly influence the changes that individual prisons make.

Policies Implemented by Prisons

Currently, it is more feasible to have individual prisons implement new policies

surrounding rehabilitation rather than relying on federal or state government policies.After

receiving more funding, individuals running rehabilitation programs prisons will be able to

follow guidelines presented to them by government organizations and improve upon their

programs.

22
Sean Jackson, “4 Proven Ways to Reduce Recidivism,” TReND Wyoming, April 2020,
https://www.trendwyoming.org/articles/proven-ways-to-reduce-recidivism/.
Call to Action

The high recidivism rates in the United States disproportionately affect low-income and

disadvantaged communities, who will continue to suffer if nothing is done. While rehabilitation

programs are incredibly effective at reducing recidivism, they will not be able to completely

solve this complex issue. The stigma surrounding formerly incarcerated people contributes to the

lack of social support and difficulties finding employment that these individuals face, increasing

their likelihood of committing another crime once they are released. It can be easy to write off

formerly incarcerated people as dangerous or immoral instead of making efforts to see them as

complete human beings with complicated lives and struggles. However, seeking to understand,

support, and empathize with released prisoners can go a long way in reducing the stigma

surrounding these individuals.