energies

Article
Electrical and Mechanical Characteristics of a High-Speed
Motor for Electric Turbochargers in Relation to Eccentricity
Tae-Woo Lee 1,2 and Do-Kwan Hong 1,2, *

1 Department of Energy and Power Conversion Engineering, University of Science and Technology,
Changwon 51543, Korea; [email protected]
2 Electric Machine and Drives Research Center, Korea Electrotechnology Research Institute,
Changwon 51543, Korea
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +82-(0)10-9601-9234

Abstract: As the demand for eco-friendly, high-efficiency transportation technologies increase due to
climate change, a high-speed electric motor, a key component of an electric turbocharger, has been
developed that can reduce emissions and increase fuel efficiency. Korea Electrotechnology Research
Institute with Keyyang Precision Co., Ltd., developed a high-speed surface-mounted permanent
magnet synchronous motor. It operates at a power of 3 kW at 100,000 rpm and is intended to fit
1600 cc diesel vehicles. In this paper, the electrical and mechanical characteristics of the high-speed
motor were reviewed in consideration of the effect of eccentricity among the various causes that
affect vibration. It was confirmed that eccentricity affected the distribution of the electromagnetic
force and inductance of the winding due to the uneven air-gap. Additional vibration was generated
at the half of pole passing frequency (1666.67 Hz). Diagnosing the presence or absence of eccentricity



when driving a motor takes a great deal of time and cost because the load is separated or the motor is

 diagnosed through disassembly and measurement. The characteristics of eccentricity identified in
Citation: Lee, T.-W.; Hong, D.-K. this paper can be checked using a relatively simple method when diagnosing the presence or absence
Electrical and Mechanical of actual eccentricity.
Characteristics of a High-Speed
Motor for Electric Turbochargers in Keywords: eccentricity; electric turbocharger; high-speed motor; one-way coupled analysis
Relation to Eccentricity. Energies 2021,
14, 3340. https://doi.org/10.3390/
en14113340

1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Adolfo Dannier
The recent demand for eco-friendly, high-efficiency transportation technologies, along
with the related regulations imposed on the automotive industry due to climate change,
Received: 30 April 2021
Accepted: 1 June 2021
is driving research for reduction in carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and for greater fuel efficiency
Published: 7 June 2021
of automobiles. The most representative way to realize these is to downsize the engine.
Engine downsizing is a methodology for reducing the engine displacement to prevent fuel
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
wasting. To compensate for the resulting insufficient performance, a great deal of fresh
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
air is forced through the engine using turbochargers or superchargers in what are known
published maps and institutional affil- as forced induction systems (FIS) [1]. The effect is similar to that from an increase in the
iations. exhaust capacity. A turbocharger, which reuses the exhaust gas to drive the turbine, was
introduced circa 110 years ago by the Swiss engineer Alfred Büchi [2]. However, it was
difficult to use in normal passenger cars because it must be accompanied by extreme heat
control technology and high engine durability. In addition, the turbo lag that occurs at low
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
speed (unlike with naturally aspirated engines) was another reason that the turbocharger
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
was difficult to use. However, turbochargers became widely used after improvement
This article is an open access article
of the engine durability and development of turbocharging technologies, including the
distributed under the terms and variable geometry turbocharger (VGT), 2-stage turbocharger (twin turbocharger), and
conditions of the Creative Commons electric turbocharger (ETC), which could reduce turbo lag. Ultimately, these technologies
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// are expected to evolve into an electric turbocharger technology. This is because the electric
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ motor is capable of producing maximum torque from the moment current is applied. This
4.0/). can effectively reduce turbo lag by rapidly rotating the turbine even at a low engine speed

Energies 2021, 14, 3340. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14113340 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

 12 2.0 140 12 EC MHI
13 2.0 140 12 EAT MHI
14 2.0 150 12 EAT IHI
15 1.5 160 12 EAT G+L innotec
BLAC
Energies 2021, 14, 3340
16 2.0 280 12 EAT EcoMotor 2 of 14
17 5.0 150 48 EAT EcoMotor
18 4.0 150 48 EAT Hanyang Univ.
19 2.0 150 12 EAT Aeristech
with low exhaust gas. This electric motor is not always running: it is designed to run
20 14.0 150 48 EAT Aeristech
only early in the initial acceleration stage to eliminate the turbo lag. The literature and
21 3.0 100 48 TEDC KERI/Keyyang
research on electric turbochargers for vehicles with 12 V to 48 V battery systems from the
1 Applied to Caterpillar 7.01 L heavy duty vehicles diesel engine. 2 Applied to Audi SQ7 4.0 L TDI
last 20 years are shown in Figure 1 and Table 1 [1,3–22].
engine. Applied to Mercedes-Benz 3.0 L M256 engine.
3

Figure
Figure 1.
1. High-speed
High-speedmotors
motorsof of
electric turbocharger
electric output
turbocharger power
output versus
power speed
versus for different
speed ma-
for different
chine topologies.
machine topologies.

Table 1. High-speed machines for electric turbochargers with 12 V to 48 V battery systems.

No. Motor Power [kW] Speed [krpm] Voltage [Vdc] Topology Designed/Studied by
1 1.4 250 12 EAT Honeywell
2 IM 2.8 120 48 EAT Honeywell
31 5.0 140 12/24 EAT Loughborough Univ.
4 SRM 2.0 70 12 TEDC Valeo/CPT
52 7.0 70 48 TEDC Valeo/CPT
6 1.5 80 24 TEDC WEM-PEC
7 1.7 60 12 TEDC BorgWarner
BLDC
83 5.0 70 48 TEDC BorgWarner
9 2.0 80 48 TEDC MMT
10 1.5 150 12 EC Nagaoka Univ.
11 3.5 120 48 EC Technische Univ.
12 2.0 140 12 EC MHI
13 2.0 140 12 EAT MHI
14 2.0 150 12 EAT IHI
15 1.5 160 12 EAT G+L innotec
BLAC
16 2.0 280 12 EAT EcoMotor
17 5.0 150 48 EAT EcoMotor
18 4.0 150 48 EAT Hanyang Univ.
19 2.0 150 12 EAT Aeristech
20 14.0 150 48 EAT Aeristech
21 3.0 100 48 TEDC KERI/Keyyang
1 Applied to Caterpillar 7.01 L heavy duty vehicles diesel engine. 2 Applied to Audi SQ7 4.0 L TDI engine.
3 Applied to Mercedes-Benz 3.0 L M256 engine.

In Table 1, the high-speed motors used in electric turbochargers are categorized

as induction motors (IM), switched reluctance motors (SRM), and permanent magnet
synchronous motors (PMSM). The IMs are suitable for the high mechanical stress that
accompanies high-speed operation because they are durable and structurally robust. Be-
cause the rotor does not use PMs, it is a good candidate for electric turbochargers that are
exposed to high-temperature environments. However, their efficiency is relatively low due
Energies 2021, 14, 3340 3 of 14

to additional losses from rotor current. SRMs are also suitable for electric turbochargers
used in high-speed operation and at high ambient temperature because of the absence of
PMs in the rotor. However, due to the torque generation principle, the stator inductance
changes very non-linearly according to the magnitude of the excitation current and the
relative position of the rotor and stator. Thus, the torque generated is proportional to the
time variation of the inductance, resulting in non-uniform rotational force. This causes
torque ripple, resulting in severe noise and vibration, and reduces efficiency. PMSMs,
including brushless AC and DC (BLAC and BLDC) motors, have a high power density
and efficiency because they use rare earth magnets with high energy integration. With
these advantages, miniaturization and weight reduction are possible. However, there is
also a disadvantage in that the price is increased because the rare earth magnet is used. In
the case of an electric turbocharger used in a high-temperature environment, in particular,
PMs with a high working temperature must be used to prevent demagnetization. In the
case of surface mounted permanent magnet synchronous motors (SPMSM), a retainer (or
sleeve) is required to prevent the PMs from scattering [22]. W. Lee et al. well described the
topology of electric forced induction systems (EFIS) according to the location of the electric
motor: electric compressor (EC), electrically assisted turbocharger (EAT), electrically split
turbocharger (EST), and turbocharger with an additional electrically driven compressor
(TEDC) [1]. Therefore, it is necessary to select an appropriate type of motor and EFIS
topology by carefully considering their advantages and disadvantages.
This study was conducted by those at the Korea Electrotechnology Research Institute
(KERI) along with those at the Keyyang Precision Co., Ltd. (manufacturer of conventional
turbochargers in Gimcheon-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, South Korea). Together, they developed
a high-speed surface mounted permanent magnet synchronous motor (SPMSM) and a
pulse width modulation (PWM) driven inverter. These provided high power density
and efficiency to drive a turbocharger with an additional electrically driven compressor
(TEDC) added upstream. In Table 1, the topology of most electric turbochargers is EAT
or TEDC. The reasons for choosing TEDC rather than EAT are as follows. First, with
TEDC it is easy to assure thermal stability because the electric motor is separate from the
conventional turbocharger. Second, it has the advantage of improving transient response
because the electric motor is separate. On the other hand, in the case of using PMs in the
EAT topology, it is not easy to secure thermal stability because the motor is located on
the conventional turbocharger shaft. That is, the moment of inertia of the shaft increases,
which is disadvantageous in terms of transient response. Our electric turbocharger system
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14
operates at a power of 3 kW at 100,000 rpm and is intended to fit 1600 cc diesel vehicles to
reduce turbo lag to within 0.4 s, as shown in Figure 2 [17,21,22].

Figure2.2. KERI
Figure KERI and
and Keyyang
Keyyang Precision’s turbocharger with
Precision’s turbocharger with an
an additional
additionalelectrically
electricallydriven
drivencom-
compres-
sor (TEDC).
pressor (TEDC).

When designingaahigh-speed
When designing high-speed PMPM motor,
motor, it isitimportant
is important to select
to select an appropriate
an appropriate ma-
material considering the operating environment and conditions, and other characteristics
terial considering the operating environment and conditions, and other characteristics ac-
cording to the pole–slot combination. In addition, it is necessary to consider a structure
that can withstand the centrifugal force generated by high-speed operation and that is
robust against vibration and noise. Selection of bearings suitable for these operating con-
ditions is also important. In this paper, the pole–slot combination and winding topology
Energies 2021, 14, 3340 4 of 14

according to the pole–slot combination. In addition, it is necessary to consider a structure

that can withstand the centrifugal force generated by high-speed operation and that is
robust against vibration and noise. Selection of bearings suitable for these operating
conditions is also important. In this paper, the pole–slot combination and winding topology
were selected after considering the pertinent electromagnetic characteristics. Then, the
electrical characteristics according to eccentricity were analyzed using ANSYS Maxwell,
and the mechanical characteristics were also analyzed using an ANSYS mechanical module
by mapping non-uniform electromagnetic force (one-way coupled) due to eccentricity of
the 3-dimensional (3D) model.

2. Selection of the Pole–Slot Combination and Winding Topology

One of the ways to maximize the power density is to increase the number of poles
of a PM motor. If there is a motor with the same saturation magnetic flux density at the
tooth and stator yoke, a design for one that increases the number of poles decreases the
outer diameter of the stator. If the magnetic and electric loadings are increased, the size of
the motor decreases and the power density can be improved. However, when considering
the controllability of the motor, increase in the number of poles is limited. If the number
of switching possible for control of the sinusoidal current is 10 to 20 times per period,
the number of poles is dependent on the maximum operating speed. Considering the
above conditions, the number of poles that can be used in a high-speed motor is between
2 and 4 poles [23]. Because the motor characteristics vary depending on the pole–slot
combination, it is important to determine the optimal number of slots. The number of
slots should be determined with consideration of factors such as cogging torque, winding
configuration, winding factor, the number of turns, power density, radial force, mechanical
structure, and manufacturing cost. The latter should be based on whether a given winding
can be produced using automation or if manual labor is required [24].
Before determining the optimal number of slots, it is first necessary to determine
which winding methods to use, such as concentrated winding or distributed winding.
Distributed winding, known as overlapping winding, is made with the winding pitch
equal or slightly shorter than the pole pitch. Such windings have a relatively high winding
factor. A disadvantage of this winding configuration is the long end coil, which causes
copper loss and consumption. On the other hand, the concentrated windings, referred to as
tooth-coil or non-overlapping windings, are usually made by putting conductors around a
single stator tooth [24]. Compared to the distribution windings, the concentrated windings
have a higher slot fill factor and less end coil, smaller copper loss, and excellent fabrication.
However, they require a higher number of turns (or increase in the stack length) to generate
the same torque as an equivalent motor with overlapping windings due to their relatively
low winding factor. Moreover, they have large harmonic components [24].
In the work reported in this paper, the number of poles was fixed to 2. The number
of slots was changed from 3 to 12 with a multiple of three, and both concentrated and
distributed windings were applied by adjusting the coil span. Among the possible combi-
nations, when the pole pitch (number of slots/number of poles) was fractional, only the
concentrated winding was applied. When the pole pitch was an integer, both concentrated
and distributed windings were applied. Among these options, only those with a winding
factor (calculated using Equation (1)) of 0.866 or more, are shown in Table 2.
 
hqγ
 γ sin 2 N
k wh = k ph k dh , k ph = cos h , k dh =  , q = s (1)
2 q sin hγ 3P
2

where kwh is the winding factor while kph and kdh are the pitch factor and distribution factor,
respectively. The term h is the harmonics order, q is the slot per phase per pole, γ is the slot
pitch, Ns is the number of slots, and P is the number of poles [25].
Energies 2021, 14, 3340 5 of 14

4 Ni a 1
MMFa = π 2 ∑ h k ph k dh cos[ hωt ]
h
4 Nib 1 2π
∑
 
MMFb = π 2 h k ph k dh cos hωt − 3 (2)
h
4 Nic 1 2π
∑
 
MMFc = π 2 h k ph k dh cos hωt + 3
h

Table 2. Pole–slot combinations according to winding topology.

No. Poles Slots Coil Span Topology Winding Factor

1 2 3 1 Concentrated 0.866
2 2 6 2 Distributed (short) 0.866
3 2 6 3 Distributed (full) 1
4 2 12 5 Distributed (short) 0.933
5 2 12 6 Distributed (full) 0.966

The stator winding magnetomotive force (MMF) in a three-phase motor is calculated

using (2), where N is the number of turns and ω is the excitation angular velocity [26]. In
studies of the spatial harmonic distribution, the harmonic component at the lowest order
is defined as the fundamental component. It has an order of h = P/2. To illustrate the
difference between the five cases considered, Figure 3 and Table 3 show relative amplitudes
(with respect to the fundamental) under 15th harmonics in the winding spatial distribution.
Spatial harmonics that are multiples of three are not listed in the table because they do not
create a net stator field [24,25]. Four cases (except Case 1) contain 6h ± 1st order harmonics
(Table 3). The losses in Case 1 are expected to be greater than in other cases because it
contains 6h ± 1st order harmonics, as well as additional even-order harmonics. To compare
the electromagnetic performance of these five cases, the inner, outer diameters, and the
stack length of the stator were kept the same, and the number of turns in series was also
the same. The tooth width was adjusted according to change in the number of slots, and
the thickness of the back yoke was kept constant. To obtain the same torque and output,
3D finite element analysis (FEA) was performed by adjusting the input current. The results
are shown in Table 4. When the performance of each case was considered, Case 4 exhibited
the best performance under the same conditions.

Table 3. Spatial harmonics in the winding distributions of the considered cases.

Harmonic Order Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5

2 0.43 0 0 0 0
4 0.22 0 0 0 0
5 0.17 0.17 0.20 0.01 0.05
7 0.12 0.12 0.14 0.01 0.04
8 0.11 0 0 0 0
10 0.09 0 0 0 0
11 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.08 0.09
13 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.07 0.07

Table 4. 3D electromagnetic analysis for the considered cases.

Parameter Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5

Torque (Nm) 0.2865 0.2865 0.2865 0.2865 0.2865
Torque ripple (%) 15.66 3.97 4.03 1.32 1.12
Power (kW) 3 3 3 3 3
Rotor core loss (W) 4.37 3.92 3.86 4.09 4.06
Stator core loss (W) 48.71 43.48 43.06 51.72 52.77
PM loss (W) 499.23 114.63 103.99 6.07 11.70
Winding loss (W) 58.89 68.23 66.60 55.70 63.25
Efficiency (%) 83.07 92.87 93.24 96.23 95.79
Energies 2021, 14, 3340 6 of 14
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)
Figure
Figure 3.3. Results
Results of the spatial
of the spatial harmonic
harmonic analysis
analysis for
for the
the five
five cases
cases considered
considered according
according to
to pole/slot
pole/slot combination
combination and
and
winding configuration: (a) Case 1: 2P3S, concentrated; (b) Case 2: 2P6S, distributed (short); (c) Case 3: 2P6S, distributed
winding configuration: (a) Case 1: 2P3S, concentrated; (b) Case 2: 2P6S, distributed (short); (c) Case 3: 2P6S, distributed
(Full); (d) Case 4: 2P12S, distributed (short); and (e) Case 5 (2P12S, distributed (Full).
(Full); (d) Case 4: 2P12S, distributed (short); and (e) Case 5: 2P12S, distributed (Full).

Table 3. Spatial harmonics in the winding distributions of the considered cases.

3. Analytical Model According to Eccentricity
Harmonic
The healthyOrderconditionCase of 1 the motorCase is 2 when the
Case 3
center Case
of the 4 and that
rotor Caseof5 the
stator are2 coincident. This 0.43allows the radial0 0
electromagnetic forces 0to cancel out and
0 the
4 0.22 0 0 0
tangential ones to produce balanced torque with an identical air-gap. However, it is difficult 0
5
to get perfect coincidence 0.17
of the rotor 0.17 0.20
and stator symmetrical axes0.01 0.05
due to manufacturing
imperfections,
7 issues during
0.12 operation,0.12 or other reasons.
0.14 Hence, the0.01
inherent level0.04
of static
or dynamic 8 eccentricity0.11 is typically within 0 10% of the 0 air-gap. Such 0 eccentricity0results
in bearing 10 damage, unbalanced0.09 magnetic 0 pull (UMP),0 and excessive 0 noise and vibration.
0
Consequently,
11 it may cause
0.08 the rotor poles
0.08 to rub against
0.09 the stator
0.08 poles, resulting
0.09 in
gradual 13 deterioration of0.07 the motor. The 0.07 eccentricity0.08consists of 0.07
static eccentricity
0.07 (SE),
dynamic eccentricity (DE), and mixed eccentricity (ME), as shown Figure 4. SE in electrical
motors
Table occurs
4. 3D when the analysis
electromagnetic rotor symmetrical axis is
for the considered concentric with the rotor rotational
cases.
axis, but is dislocated with respect to the stator symmetrical axis. Hence, the position
of the Parameter
minimum radial air-gap Case 1length is Case 2 This Case
fixed. can be3 causedCase 4
by stator Case
core 5
ovality,
or incorrect
Torque (Nm) positioning of0.2865
the stator core or bearing
0.2865 at commissioning
0.2865 0.2865 or following
0.2865 a
repair.
TorqueIts level
rippleusually
(%) does15.66 not change over 3.97time. DE 4.03
occurs when the1.32stator symmetrical
1.12
axis isPower
concentric
(kW) with the rotor
3 rotational 3axis, but is dislocated
3 with 3 respect to the
3 rotor
symmetrical
Rotor core loss axis.(W)
In this case,
4.37the position of the minimum
3.92 3.86 radial air-gap
4.09 rotates 4.06
with the
rotor. This can be
Stator core loss (W) caused by worn
48.71 bearings, a
43.48 bent shaft, asymmetric
43.06 thermal
51.72 expansion
52.77 of
the rotor, or by a high level of static eccentricity. The eccentricity in actual machinery often
PM loss (W) 499.23 114.63 103.99 6.07 11.70
exhibits a combination of both types of eccentricity (defined as ME). These types of faults
Winding loss (W) 58.89 68.23 66.60 55.70 63.25
can be formulated following equations based on their geometric behavior [26–28].
Efficiency (%) 83.07 92.87 93.24 96.23 95.79
 
r
ε= × 100 (%) (3)
g
 turing imperfections, issues during operation, or other reasons. Hence, the inherent level
of static or dynamic eccentricity is typically within 10% of the air-gap. Such eccentricity
results in bearing damage, unbalanced magnetic pull (UMP), and excessive noise and vi-
bration. Consequently, it may cause the rotor poles to rub against the stator poles, result-
Energies 2021, 14, 3340 ing in gradual deterioration of the motor. The eccentricity consists of static eccentricity 7 of 14
(SE), dynamic eccentricity (DE), and mixed eccentricity (ME), as shown Figure 4. SE in
electrical motors occurs when the rotor symmetrical axis is concentric with the rotor rota-
tional axis, but is dislocated with respect
  to the
−−−→  stator symmetrical axis. Hence, the posi-

tion of the minimum radial air-gap 
 length
 Os Ois fixed.
ω ,
 fThis
or SEcan be caused by stator core oval-
 

ity, or incorrect positioning of the  stator core
−−−→  or
 bearing at commissioning or following a
repair. Its level usually does not r=change  Oover
 ω Ortime.
, DE
 f or DE
occurs when the stator symmetrical (4)
axis is concentric with the rotor rotational axis,
 but is dislocated with respect to the rotor


−−−→

  
  Os Oofr the f or ME radial air-gap rotates with the
, minimum

symmetrical axis. In this case, the position


rotor. This can be caused by worn bearings, a bent shaft, asymmetric thermal expansion
where is theordegree
of the εrotor, of eccentricity
by a high level of staticand g is the radial
eccentricity. air gap length
The eccentricity in the
in actual case of a
machinery
uniform air gap.
often exhibits Here, Or , Os ,of
a combination and Oωtypes
both are the rotor, stator,(defined
of eccentricity and rotation symmetry
as ME). centers,
These types of
respectively.
faults can beThe three vectors
formulated in (4)equations
following are the static,
baseddynamic, and mixedbehavior
on their geometric transfer vectors.
[26–28].

(a) (b) (c)

Figure4.4.Positions
Figure Positionsofofthe
thestator,
stator,rotor,
rotor,and
androtation
rotationcenters
centersaccording
accordingto
toeccentricity:
eccentricity: (a)
(a) Static
Static eccentricity;
eccentricity; (b)
(b) Dynamic
Dynamic
eccentricity; (c) Mixed eccentricity.
eccentricity; (c) Mixed eccentricity.

4. Electrical Characteristics r

ε =   × 100 (% ) (3)
When eccentricity occurs and the balance  g  of the motor magnetic circuit is broken, the
result is UMP. In other words, there is a force that pulls the rotor to one side as well as

 O O to, thefor
rotation torque, and this force is transmitted bearing,
SE causing noise and vibration,
 
and accelerating deterioration of the bearing.
s ω
As mentioned in the previous section, for

r =of
this paper, the electrical characteristics  the
O ω Othree
r
for DE
, eccentricities were analyzed in a healthy
(4)
condition, and when the eccentricity was  
25% and 50%. The waveform of the current
 O s O r , for ME
supplied from a DC power source to the  motor through an inverter was examined. That
waveform supplies the current of the space vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM)
where ε is the degree of eccentricity and g is the radial air gap length in the case of a
waveform in which harmonic components are mixed in a sine wave. Therefore, in the
uniform air gap. Here, Or, Os, and Oω are the rotor, stator, and rotation symmetry centers,
two-dimensional (2D) electromagnetic field analysis with 12,459 elements, the SVPWM
respectively. The three vectors in (4) are the static, dynamic, and mixed transfer vectors.
current waveform obtained through circuit simulation was applied as a current source to
perform the analysis.
The electromagnetic force was calculated using the Maxwell stress tensor method
as shown in (5) and (6) with the magnetic flux density in the radial direction and the
tangential direction generated in the air-gap according to the amount of eccentricity. The
electromagnetic force pressure at that time is shown in Figure 5 [29].

1  2 
Fr = Br − Bt2 (5)
2µ0

1
Ft = Br Bt (6)
µ0
When the static, dynamic, and mixed eccentricity was 25%, the difference in the
electromagnetic force pressure between the healthy condition and eccentricity conditions
was not much, but when mixed eccentricity occurred, the asymmetry of the pressure
distribution in the radial direction increased. When the static, dynamic, and mixed eccen-
 Energies 2021, 14, 3340 8 of 14

tricity was 50%, the difference in the electromagnetic force pressure between the healthy
condition and eccentricity conditions was noticeable, and the asymmetry of the pressure
distribution in the radial direction increased in the case of mixed eccentricity. Based on
the results of the pressure distribution shown in Figure 5, it was predicted that the same
eccentricity would have a large asymmetric force transmitted to the stator teeth in the order
of mixed eccentricity, static eccentricity, and dynamic eccentricity, and would greatly affect
the vibration.
In fact, when eccentricity occurs in an electric motor, not only one static eccentricity or
dynamic eccentricity occurs; most cases involve mixed eccentricity with two at the same
time. Hence, mixed eccentricity was applied to simulate an actual situation. This was also
done to analyze clearly the effect of eccentricity because UMP is the largest. The changes in
021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW line inductance due to an irregular air-gap distance and UMP are shown 9 of 14 in Figure 6 and
Table 5. The change in line inductance between Phase A and Phase B was the largest.

(a)

(b)
Figure 5. Electromagnetic
Figure 5.pressure in the radial
Electromagnetic direction
pressure according
in the to the amount
radial direction of eccentricity:
according to the amount of eccentricity:
(a) Eccentricity 25% and (b) Eccentricity 50%.
(a) Eccentricity 25% and (b) Eccentricity 50%.
 Energies 2021, 14, 3340
(b) 9 of 14
Figure 5. Electromagnetic pressure in the radial direction according to the amount of eccentricity:
(a) Eccentricity 25% and (b) Eccentricity 50%.

ergies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 6. Line inductance
Figure 6. Lineaccording
inductanceto the amounttoofthe
according mixed eccentricity:
amount of mixed(a)eccentricity:
Healthy condition, (b) condition,
(a) Healthy
Mixed eccentricity 25%,
(b) Mixed and (c) Mixed
eccentricity 25%,eccentricity 50%.
and (c) Mixed eccentricity 50%.

Table 5. Line-to-line inductance (absolute value) according to mixed eccentricity.

Mixed
Lca (μH) Error (%) Lab (μH) Error (%) Lbc (μH) Error (%)
Eccentricity
0% 1.9627 - 1.9637 - 1.9632 -
25% 1.9643 0.0815 1.9664 0.1375 1.9641 0.0458
Energies 2021, 14, 3340 10 of 14

Table 5. Line-to-line inductance (absolute value) according to mixed eccentricity.

Mixed
Lca (µH) Error (%) Lab (µH) Error (%) Lbc (µH) Error (%)
Eccentricity
0% 1.9627 - 1.9637 - 1.9632 -
25% 1.9643 0.0815 1.9664 0.1375 1.9641 0.0458
50% 1.9697 0.3567 1.9746 0.5551 1.9718 0.4381

Figure 7 and Table 6 show average torque, torque ripple ratio, and maximum flux
density according to current waveforms, and mixed eccentricity considering static and
dynamic eccentricity. Comparing the ideal case where the current of a sine waveform is
applied and the actual case where a PWM current waveform close to the sinusoidal wave
is supplied, the average difference was 22.6% depending on the amount of eccentricity. In
terms of the torque ripple ratio according to the amount of eccentricity in the same current
waveform, the torque ripple ratio increased by 5.84% from 0.26% to 6.1% in the sine current
waveform. On the other hand, for the PWM current waveform, the torque ripple ratio
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
increased by 5.2% from 23.1% to 28.3%. The maximum flux density was the same according11 of 14
to the degree of eccentricity regardless of the current waveform.

Figure7.7.Electromagnetic
Figure Electromagneticfield
fieldanalysis
analysisresults
resultsaccording
accordingtotoeccentricity
eccentricityand
andcurrent
currentwaveforms.
waveforms.

Table6.6.Comparison
Table Comparisonofoftorque,
torque,torque
torqueripple,
ripple,and
andmaximum
maximumflux
fluxdensity
densityaccording
accordingto
toeccentricity
eccentricity
and current waveforms.
and current waveforms.
Sine Waveform (62Arms) PWM Waveform (64.7Arms)
Mixed Sine Waveform (62Arms ) PWM Waveform (64.7Arms )
Mixed Torque Ripple Max. flux Torque Ripple Max. Flux
Eccentricity
Eccentricity Torque Ripple Max. Flux Torque Ripple Max. Flux
(mNm) (%) Density (T) (mNm) (%) Density (T)
(mNm) (%) Density (T) (mNm) (%) Density (T)
0% 282 0.26 1.63 285 23.1 1.61
0% 282 0.26 1.63 285 23.1 1.61
25%
25% 281281 1.24 1.24 1.651.65 284
284 24.024.0 1.65
1.65
50%
50% 275275 6.1 6.1 1.731.73 278
278 28.328.3 1.73
1.73

5.5.Mechanical
MechanicalCharacteristics
Characteristics
Basedon
Based onthe
theresults
resultsofofelectromagnetic
electromagnetic analysis
analysis with
with eccentricity
eccentricity effect
effect in the
in the previ-
previous
ous section, forced vibration analysis was performed as shown in Figure
section, forced vibration analysis was performed as shown in Figure 8. The calculated 8. The calculated
electromagneticforces
electromagnetic forces(load)
(load)ininthe
theradial
radial and
and tangential
tangential directions
directions at the
at the endend of each
of each sta-
stator
tor tooth (with its harmonic components in the time domain) were converted
tooth (with its harmonic components in the time domain) were converted into the frequency into the fre-
quency domain using a fast Fourier transform (FFT). Then, the frequency components of
the load were applied as the exciting force in a 3D model of motor and jig with 878,784
elements.
 50% 275 6.1 1.73 278 28.3 1.73

5. Mechanical Characteristics
Based on the results of electromagnetic analysis with eccentricity effect in the previ-
Energies 2021, 14, 3340
ous section, forced vibration analysis was performed as shown in Figure 8. The calculated
11 of 14
electromagnetic forces (load) in the radial and tangential directions at the end of each sta-
tor tooth (with its harmonic components in the time domain) were converted into the fre-
quency domain using a fast Fourier transform (FFT). Then, the frequency components of
domain
the loadusing
were aapplied
fast Fourier
as thetransform
exciting (FFT). Then,
force in a 3Dthe frequency
model components
of motor of the
and jig with load
878,784
were applied as the exciting force in a 3D model of motor and jig with 878,784 elements.
elements.

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Concept
Concept of
of forced
forced vibration
vibration (electromagnetic-structural
(electromagnetic-structuralone-way
one-waycoupled)
coupled)analysis.
analysis.

Figure
Figure99 shows
shows thethe results
results of
ofthe
thevibration
vibrationvelocity
velocityininthethe Y-axis
Y-axis direction
direction forfor
thethe
de-
degree of mixed eccentricity. In the healthy condition, the vibration velocity
gree of mixed eccentricity. In the healthy condition, the vibration velocity was shown only was shown
only atpole
at the the pole passing
passing frequency,
frequency, which
which is theisexcitation
the excitation frequency
frequency caused
caused by theby typical
the typical
elec-
electromagnetic
tromagnetic force generated by an electric motor. The vibration mode can bepredicted
force generated by an electric motor. The vibration mode can be predicted
using
using the
the greatest commondivisor
greatest common divisor(GCD)
(GCD)ofof thethe number
number of poles
of poles andand the number
the number of
of slots.
slots. Because the GCD of this motor is 2, it is expected that an elliptical
Because the GCD of this motor is 2, it is expected that an elliptical vibration mode was vibration mode
was observed.
observed. In theIn analysis
the analysis results,
results, an elliptical
an elliptical vibration
vibration mode mode
was was observed
observed at pole
at the the
pole passing frequency (3333.33 Hz). As the degree of mixed eccentricity
passing frequency (3333.33 Hz). As the degree of mixed eccentricity increased, the vibra- increased, the
vibration velocity
tion velocity wasobserved
was also also observed at a frequency
at a frequency that wasthat
halfwas half
of the of passing
pole the polefrequency
passing
frequency (1666.67 Hz), and the frequency generated by the eccentricity
(1666.67 Hz), and the frequency generated by the eccentricity became resonant with the became resonant
with the natural
natural frequency frequency of the model,
of the model, resulting resulting in apeak.
in a large largeItpeak.
was It was confirmed
confirmed that thethat the
eccen-
eccentricity effect creates other frequencies aside from the pole passing frequency. Thus,
tricity effect creates other frequencies aside from the pole passing frequency. Thus, the
the presence or absence of eccentricity can be evaluated by measuring the vibration later.
presence or absence of eccentricity can be evaluated by measuring the vibration later.

Figure9.9.Vibration
Figure Vibrationvelocity
velocityofofY-axis
Y-axisdirection
directionconsidering
consideringmixed
mixedeccentricity
eccentricity and
and measuring
measuring point.
point.

6. Conclusions
In this paper, the electrical and mechanical characteristics of a high-speed motor were
analyzed according to various eccentricities using ANSYS software. Before analyzing the
Energies 2021, 14, 3340 12 of 14

6. Conclusions
In this paper, the electrical and mechanical characteristics of a high-speed motor were
analyzed according to various eccentricities using ANSYS software. Before analyzing the
effect of eccentricity, a 2P12S motor with distributed windings (short pitch) was selected
through comparisons of winding factor, spatial harmonics analysis, and electromagnetic
field analysis for a variety of models according to the number of poles and slots and winding
method. Based on the selected model, electromagnetic field analysis, and forced vibration
analysis were performed to determine their static, dynamic, and mixed eccentricity. When
the degree of eccentricity increased to 50%, the imbalance of the line inductance became
more severe and the discrepancy between the healthy condition and ME 50% was 0.55%.
Moreover, it was confirmed that other vibration frequencies (in addition to the pole passing
frequency or excitation frequency) were generated at half the pole passing frequency
(1666.67 Hz) in the forced vibration analysis. Eccentricity can be predicted by confirming
the change in the magnitude of the winding inductance and the imbalance of the line-to-line
waveform proposed in this paper. In the future, we plan to compare the prediction of
eccentricity with the analysis result due to the imbalance of the waveform between lines
of inductance when driving the motor. We also plan to measure the actual vibration and
compare it with the results from forced vibration analysis.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, T.-W.L. and D.-K.H.; software, T.-W.L.; validation, T.-W.L.
and D.-K.H.; investigation, T.-W.L.; writing—original draft preparation, T.-W.L.; writing—review
and editing, T.-W.L.; visualization, T.-W.L.; supervision, D.-K.H.; project administration, D.-K.H. Both
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the UST Young Scientist Research Program 2020 through the
University of Science and Technology, Korea (No. 2020YS30) and was supported by the Ministry of
Trade, Industry and Energy (MOTIE, Korea) under the Industrial Technology Innovation Program
[No.10062541, “Development of electric compressor to improve low end torque performance and
transient performance of 1.6 L grade small diesel engine”].
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Some or all of the data and the models generated or used during the
study, are available in a repository or online.
Acknowledgments: This project was conducted jointly with KERI, Keyyang Precision, Hanyang
University, and Kookmin University.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
BLAC Brushless alternating current
BLDC Brushless direct current
CO2 Carbon dioxide
DE Dynamic eccentricity
EAT Electrically assisted turbocharger
EC Electric compressor
EFIS Electric forced induction systems
EST Electrically split turbocharger
ETC Electric turbocharger
FEA Finite element analysis
FFT Fast Fourier transform
FIS Forced induction systems
GCD Greatest common divisor
IM Induction motors
ME Mixed eccentricity
MMF Magnetomotive force
Energies 2021, 14, 3340 13 of 14

PM Permanent magnet
PMSM Permanent magnet synchronous motors
PWM Pulse width modulation
SE Static eccentricity
SPMSM Surface mounted permanent magnet synchronous motors
SRM Switched reluctance motors
SVPWM Space vector pulse width modulation
TEDC Turbocharger with an additional electrically driven compressor
UMP Unbalanced magnetic pull
VGT Variable geometry turbocharger

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