Fuel Communications 10 (2022) 100046

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Fuel Communications
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Small hydropower as a source of clean and local energy in Nigeria:

Prospects and challenges
Collins O. Ugwu a, c, Paul A. Ozor a, b, *, C. Mbohwa b
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 410001, Nigeria
b
Quality and Operations Management, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
c
Africa Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Power and Energy Development (ACE-SPED), University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Just as the need for air is inevitable in our everyday existence, energy is consumed in every sector of any nation
Small hydropower schemes at every second. Due to the increase in technological advancements and high population growth rate, among
Prospects and challenges other factors, in the world today, there is the need for more energy than in the past centuries. Therefore, one of
Renewable energy source
the best solutions to address this issue of increasing energy demand in Nigeria is harnessing the enormous small
Small hydropower potential in Nigeria
hydropower potential sites that is scattered in many parts of the nation. It is unfortunate that out of over 278
potential sites with 734.3 MW potential capacity, Nigeria has yet explored only 37.0MW. It is noteworthy that
the SHP scheme has its own challenges especially in developing nations. For instance, it is reported to have high
capital investment. This challenge is offset by the fact that it incurs little operation and maintenance costs. It has
very high payback ratio which proves it to be a cheap source of energy. Furthermore, it is a clean and local source
of energy that is reliable, affordable and predictable due to the consistency in the availability of water in rivers
and its ability to be integrated with existing projects. Such multi-purpose schemes that can be integrated with the
SHP schemes while guaranteeing its primary function include; irrigation network, drinking water reservoirs,
wastewater treatment plants, etc. It also has the potential to create many job opportunities and also enhance
women development.

1. Introduction hydropower was the leading and the main energy source [1,3]. There
has been a strong shift in attention from hydropower sector to fossil fuels
Energy is one of the major and powerful ingredients for social, in the country due to the vast deposit of fossil fuels [3]. This develop­
technological, environmental and economic development of any nation. ment has led to the decay or neglect in the hydropower sector. Some
According to Ohunakin et al. [1], the energy availability, consumption studies revealed that hydropower, consequent of its remarkable ad­
and economic growth of any nation are strongly correlated. In other vantages when compared to other renewable resources, is the most
words, the level of accessibility of modern energy services has directly widely used in the world [1, 4]. Some of the outstanding advantages it
contributed to the poverty reduction of any country because it creates has over other renewable sources include; low cost, high energy density
the required foundation for wealth creation. The rapid increase in and high reliability. According to Kaunda et al. [2], one of the ways to
population and industrialization right from the 20th century are the address the negative impacts due to the increase in environmental
strong drivers for the increase in the demand for energy services [1]. degradation and climate change bedeviling the world presently is the
Currently, there is a reported increase in the demand for electricity in generation of electrical energy from such renewable energy sources like
the industries, households and services sectors in most developing na­ hydropower. Furthermore, many developing countries such as Nigeria,
tions [2]. This majorly to support the socio-economic development ac­ has the potential in the abundant renewable energy resources, if prop­
tivities in such nations. Nigeria is a developing nation that is greatly erly harnessed, to generate the quantity of mechanical and electrical
endowed with tremendous natural resources such as natural gas, crude energy to drive their developmental programs. Currently, only about
oil, hydropower, solar power, coal, biomass, wind energy, nuclear de­ 25% of the world’s hydropower potential has been explored [3]. Due to
posits, etc. For many years, before the discovery of crude oil in Nigeria, the social and environmental problems associated with constructing

* Corresponding author at: Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 410001, Nigeria
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (C.O. Ugwu), [email protected] (P.A. Ozor), [email protected] (C. Mbohwa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfueco.2021.100046
Received 25 June 2021; Received in revised form 30 August 2021; Accepted 9 September 2021
Available online 25 November 2021
2666-0520/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
C.O. Ugwu et al. Fuel Communications 10 (2022) 100046

large hydroelectric dams, experts have noted that it is currently contained in water flowing from higher to lower elevations in a river
impossible to develop every one of the remaining undeveloped resources that generates the hydropower. It is the force due to gravitational pull
[3]. Irrespective of the fact that small-scale hydro projects have the least that drives water from the upper position to lower stream in any river or
social and environmental impacts, it has not yet received the required ocean.
attention from many developing countries of the world [3]. It is also the Turbines and generators are the parts of hydro power plants that are
case with the Nigerian state. Despite its large and available small hy­ turned to generate electrical power by the water power of the water
dropower (SHP) potentials, considering the numerous rivers and dams body. This water power or the potential energy embedded in the water is
scattered all over the nation, Nigeria has failed to economically harness converted into mechanical energy first then into electrical energy as the
them [3]. It has the potential to contribute high percentage to the total turbines and generators rotate [5]. This is possible because the blade of
energy grid. In a great measure, this would extend, in great measure, the turbine is turned by the flowing water from a higher elevation to
electricity generation to the remote and rural areas of the nation which generate the mechanical energy which generates electrical energy when
would make room for further rural and general economic development. applied to the coil of an accompanying generator. Another parameter
Therefore, the aim of this work is to evaluate the challenges and that is essential in hydropower generation is the head. It is also known as
prospects of harnessing and improving on the enormous small hydro­ the vertical fall of the water [8]. It can be defined as the vertical distance
power in Nigeria, with a view to exposing the potentials, the environ­ between the upstream level and the downstream level that a moving
mental and economic advantages over other natural energy sources. water falls or travels to the power-producing turbine [6,8 9]. In other
This will, in one way or the other, awaken or drive the conscience of the words, it is the distance that determines how far the water drops. There
Nigerian government, private and/or foreign investors to tap into this is a certain amount of energy loss during the energy conversion process
opportunity. And this will improve the economic development of the due to the mechanical components like the turbine and generator [9]. In
nation greatly. addition, there are frictional forces that exist during the flow of water in
the pipes that reduce the flow rate of the flowing water. This irregularity
or the energy loss is because no equipment used in dam construction is
1.1. Mechanics of hydropower 100% efficient. The power output [2,6,9] is expressed in Eq. 1 below.
According to Anyaka and Imeaka [10], every SHP site that is regarded as
The water flowing in a river or water contained in lakes and reser­ theoretically efficient should possess a high flow rate and a high head.
voirs that are located at high elevation possesses potential or kinetic Hence, rivers that flow from hilly areas should generate high power
energy. And the energy so produced by such water is termed water [10].
power [6]. The power or electricity generation method as a result of this
P = ρ9.8QHe η (1)
water power is termed hydropower generation [5,6]. As seen in Fig. 1,
solar radiation drives the hydrological cycle that leads to the movement
where, P = Power output in kilowatts (kW); ρ = water density (1000 kg/
of water which generates the hydropower [5]. When the solar radiation
m3 at 4 ◦ C, elevation of 0m and 1atm); 9.8 = approximate value of free
from the sun rays is absorbed by the land and sea surfaces, it heats up the
fall acceleration due to gravitational pull (m/sec2); Q = Power discharge
surface thereby creating evaporation at those surfaces. This is possible
(m3/sec); He = Effective head (m); η = Combined efficiency of the
because about half of all the radiations from solar touching the surface of
components like the turbine and generator
the Earth causes the evaporation of water hence, drives the hydrological
Power output (P) is defined as the quantity of the electrical power
cycle [5]. This cycle is embedded with huge potential energy however,
generated as a result of the flowing water. The generated energy
the amount that may be technically developed is very limited. The water
expressed in kilowatt hour (kWh) is the electrical energy generated due
vapor content in the atmosphere gets increased by this evaporated water
to the continuous operation of P (kW) for a period of time T (hours) [6].
from the surface of the earth. The wind system generated globally,
regionally and locally, as a result of the spatial variations in the solar AnnualEnergyOutput(kWh)= P × hr × CF (2)
energy input, moves the air with its vapor content over the Earth sur­
face. Sometimes, this generated wind moves this air away up to thou­ where, P = the power output or the installed capacity which is expressed
sands of kilometers from the region or area that the evaporation in kilowatts; hr = Annual period or duration of power generation; and
occurred. At some point, the vapor condenses and falls as precipitation. CF = the Capacity Factor of the hydropower plant
According Kumar et al. [5], about 78% of the precipitation falls on the Osokoya et al. [8] claims that hydropower is the cheapest source of
oceans and the rest 22% falls on the land surface. It is the energy electricity generation today when compared to both renewable and
non-renewable energy sources. Furthermore, it stated that it costs much
less to generate electricity from a typical hydropower plant than from
fossil fuel which is regarded as another cheap form of electricity in the
US. On the other hand, it also compared the costs of power generation
from coal plants and hydro plants and stated that while the former costs
about four cents per kWh, it takes only about 1 cent per kWh for hy­
dropower plants. However, it noted that hydropower is only expensive
at first cost because it requires high investment cost for dam construc­
tion and equipment procurement. But with low maintenance costs, as
reported by Osokoya et al. [8], electricity generation from hydropower
is relatively inexpensive. Even at the reported high cost of installation,
Igweonu and Joshua [3] reported that the purported cost savings due to
the utilization of locally sourced labour and materials, standardized
power plants and the ease of developing local technology presents SHPs
as a reliable alternative for rural and off-grid applications.

1.2. Turbine selection/Technology

Turbines that are chosen for SHP plants are meant to perform well
Fig. 1. Hydrological Cycle [7]. over a variable range of flow available. Most times, many turbines are

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C.O. Ugwu et al. Fuel Communications 10 (2022) 100046

used so that they can operate optimally in a small range of flow [12].
Turbines utilized in SHP projects operate at very high efficiency of about
90% [12]. Turbine selection for any particular hydropower site is
majorly based on site characteristics especially the head and the flow
[12,13,14]. Nevertheless, there are other important considerations that
come into play while selecting turbines for any site, for instance,
whether there will be sufficient power generation under reduced flow
[13]. There are basically two types of turbine, namely; reaction and
impulse turbines [12,13,14]. The main difference between the two
major categories is determined from the pattern at which energy is
generated with respect to the type of inflows [14]. Reaction turbines
utilize water pressure and kinetic energy of flows. Also, the spinning
wheel or runner in the reaction turbine is completely immersed in the
water flow [12]. This turbine is mostly appropriate for low and medium
heads with higher flows [12,34]. Reaction turbines include fixed pitched
propeller, Francis and Kaplan turbines [12,14]. Impulse turbines are
mostly utilized where there is high pressure flow. When water passes
through the nozzle of the turbine, it converts it into a jet of water at
atmospheric pressure with high velocity and high kinetic energy. In
other words, impulse turbine utilizes the kinetic energy in flowing water
to drive the runner and discharge to atmospheric pressure. This type of Fig. 2. Run-off river type of small hydropower [2].
turbine is preferably applied in systems possess large falling water with
low flow [14]. Pelton, Turgo and cross flow turbines are examples of
impulse turbines [12,14].

1.3. Classification of hydropower

According to Anyaka and Imeaka [10], there is no internationally

accepted standard for the classification of SHP. But the head, installed
capacity/Power Supply Capability/size and facility/flow type are often
the main criteria for the classification of hydropower plants [5,6]. A
classification with respect to the head of the plant refers to the difference
in the head levels. That is, the difference between the higher elevation,
from where the flowing water falls from, and the downstream level of
the water. It is the value of the head that determines the pressure with
which the water enters the turbines. During the installation or pro­
curement of the turbine, the head and the discharge are the most
important parameters to be considered [5]. For instance, Pelton turbines
are the most appropriate for hydro plants with high heads, whereas
hydro plants with medium heads require Francis turbines and Kaplan
and Bulb turbines are utilized for low heads. However Kumar et al. [5]
noted that this particular classification by head varies widely from
country to country. This is because there is no internationally/generally
accepted standard or scale for classification due to head variation.
Hydropower plants are also classified according to operations carried
out (i.e. facility type) and type of flow. There are three major types of
hydropower according to the type of flow or facility type, viz; Run-of- Fig. 3. Reservoir/storage type of hydropower [15].
river (RoR), storage (reservoir) and pumped storage hydropower sys­
tems [5,6,9]. They are also referred as the most common types of hy­ generation on the variability of inflow from the local river. Depending
dropower plants. Depending on the characteristic topography and on the site characteristics and the economics/logistics of the dam con­
hydrology of the river watershed, they can be developed across a broad struction, the capacity, type and design of the reservoir can be made
spectrum of capacity and/or size. For instance, they can form part of an small or very large. This reservoir has a lot of advantages like storing
isolated local network or be connected to a national or central grid to water for later consumption or utilization for drinking or irrigation
support the energy demand. The run of river type of hydropower, just as purposes. In other words, the reservoir is an artificial lake. So as to in­
seen in Fig. 2, does not require a reservoir or pond rather it takes water crease the value of the head, the generating station, that is the installed
directly from the natural runoff for the generation of electricity [6]. power generating system, is located at the downstream level or the dam
However, Kumar et al. [5] noted that some run off river types may toe. The reservoir is connected to this generating system through the aid
include a short-term storage, like hourly or daily, but it is the local river of tunnels or pipelines [5]. According to a report by the Japan Inter­
flow conditions that will dictate the power generation profile. As a national Cooperation Agency [6], the pumped storage hydro plants
result, there may be a remarkable daily, monthly or seasonal variation serve more as storage devices rather than as energy sources. In such a
because generation depends on precipitation and runoff. The Reser­ system, water is usually pumped from a lower reservoir into an upper
voir/storage hydropower schemes have reservoirs constructed behind reservoir during the off-peak hours as seen in Fig. 4. Then to generate
the dams, typical of what is contained in Fig. 3. electricity during the peak load (when demand is high), the process is
These reservoirs have the ability to store water so as to de-couple reversed. Irrespective of the energy losses due to the pumping processes,
power generation from hydro inflows. This particular mechanism it is reported to be the largest capacity form of grid energy storage that is
makes it possible for the system to reduce the dependence of power

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C.O. Ugwu et al. Fuel Communications 10 (2022) 100046

MW. As contained in the Nigeria Renewable Energy Master Plan

(REMP), 30 MW is the upper limit of SHPs in Nigeria [18]. The mini
hydro (<1 MW) and the micro hydro (<100 kW) are the two major
subunits under this stated plan [18]. Irrespective of the fact that there is
no international standard for classification of hydropower systems with
respect to capacity or size, most countries have adopted this particular
classification as seen in this section and in Table 1 above [2,5].
As at 2005, the recognized SHP prospective for Nigeria was about
734.2 MW of which only 30 MW had been developed [19]. It has also
been approximated that the entire SHP potential in the nation might
reach 3500 MW at 2030, signifying 23% of the country’s entire hydro­
power potential [2,19]. According to the study by Kela et al. [19] on the
energy consumption in Nigeria by type and total, it revealed that there
was a tremendous increase in the amount consumed from hydropower
from 14.2% to 23.9% between 2003 and 2007. This shows that there is
improvement close to 100% within four years. Hence, vindicates hy­
dropower as contributing greatly to power sector [19]. Some interna­
tional agencies like the African Development Bank, ADB, National
Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure, NASENI, etc. have
been brought in to create the necessary awareness and generate the
capacity for the development of micro and small hydro power schemes
in Nigeria. Some of such projects include the 30kW and 150 kW capacity
Fig. 4. Pumped storage hydro plants [16].
small hydropower project in Enugu state and Bauchi state respectively.
These projects were undertaken through a partnership between the
readily available globally [6].
states, the local governments and the United Nations Industrial Devel­
There is also classification according to size. This type of classifica­
opment Organization, UNIDO. The equipment and proficiency was
tion led to the development of such concepts as pico, micro, mini, small,
made available by UNIDO while the states and local government pro­
medium or large hydro. The defining criterion for this type of classifi­
vided the required labor and logistics [19]. To ensure that the technol­
cation is based on the installed capacity. Illustrated in Table 1 is the
ogy is sustainably maintained locally, technical training and energy
capacity/size ranges of different types of hydropower in watts. The
efficiency responsiveness was also provided during the project execu­
small-scale hydropower plants (SHP) are usually made of the run-of-
tion. Such projects executed in partnership with the international bodies
river facilities than the larger hydropower plants. And even at that,
were initiated to provide electricity both in remote and local commu­
the reservoir/storage types also require almost the same technologies
nities. Some of the targeted areas included lighting to illuminate the
and basic components to construct hydropower systems of all sizes [5].
environment, agricultural processing for food security and information
Comparing the small hydropower to the large hydropower, it takes
and communications technology (ICT) to foster connection so as to be
lesser time, resources and effort to install/construct. It also takes lesser
abreast with the developments in other locations and the other parts of
resources to integrate the small schemes into local environment or in­
the world. Small hydropower potential sites exist in almost all parts of
dependent establishments. Consequently, the development and utiliza­
Nigeria. However, in some studies, it is stated that hydropower potential
tion of SHPs in remote areas, local communities, independent
sites and there river basins are only distributed in 12 states in Nigeria [9,
establishments, is increasing in most developed nations, especially in
17]. Based on this report, there are over 278 potential sites with 734.3
areas where other energy sources are not readily available, economically
MW as the total potential. There is also another report that only about
attractive or viable.
eight small hydropower systems, as shown in Table 2, with an overall
capacity of 37.0 MW has yet been exploited or developed in the country
1.4. Small hydropower (SHP) in Nigeria [9].
This varying information on SHP potential in Nigeria was also noted
The small hydropower (SHP) scheme is a type of hydropower and by Fagbohun [9]. It reported that UNIDO Regional Centre on SHPs
also one of the renewable energy sources that generates both electricity stated that sites with up to 10 MW potential capacity of electricity can be
and mechanical power [1]. The SHP scheme is termed as small summed up to a total gross potential of 720 MW. It also noted that about
depending on the installed capacity or the amount of electricity it can 605 MW from the total gross potential is technically feasible with about
generate [2,5,6]. According to Kaunda et al. [2], the pico, micro, mini, 498.4 MW as economically feasible. However, it is obvious from
and small systems are all regarded within the small hydropower cate­ whichever of the reports above that Nigeria is endowed with enormous
gory. Most countries and organizations regard systems that generate less SHP potential with a large percentage yet to be explored (Table 3).
than or equal to 10 kW as pico system, for systems that generate between
10 and100 kW as micro, mini as systems that generate between 100 kW
and 1 MW and small systems as those that generate between 1 and 10
Table 2
Existing SHP Schemes in Nigeria [9].
Table 1
River State Capacity Installed (MW)
Classification of Hydropower [2,4,5,9,17].
Bagel (I) Plateau 1
Type of Hydropower Capacity
(II) 2
Pico hydro Less than or equal to 5 kW Kurra Plateau 8
Micro hydro Between 5 and100Kw Lere (I) Plateau 4
Mini hydro Between 100kW and 1 MW (II) 4
Small hydro Between 1 and 10 MW Bakalor Sokoto 3
Medium hydro Between 10 and 100 MW Tiga Kano 6
Large hydro Greater than 100 MW Oyan Ogun 9
kW (kilowatt) = 1000watts and MW (megawatt) = 1,000,000 watts Total installed capacity = 37.0 MW

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C.O. Ugwu et al. Fuel Communications 10 (2022) 100046

Table 3 to the water bodies with the aid of flowing water or flood, wind and ice.
Summary of small hydro potential sites Nigeria [9,17]. In general, the sediment load of every river, lake or stream is consists of
State River Basin Sites Total MW sediments from the riverbed and the ones from the drainage basin
transported through erosion [19]. This is also supported by the report
Sokoto Sokoto-River 22 30.6
Katsina Sokoto-River 11 8.0 from the Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine
Niger Niger 30 117.6 Environment Protection [22] which stated that sediments form mostly
Kaduna Niger 19 59.2 due to bed load transportation, land runoff, beach and bank erosion. The
Kwara Niger 12 38.8 hydrologic characteristics of every river, like the slope, current velocity
Kano Hadejia-Jamaare 28 46.2
Borno Chad 29 20.8
and water depth, determines the sediment-carrying capacity of that
Bauchi Upper Benue 20 42.6 river. In addition, it also depends greatly on the materials around the
Gongola Upper Benue 38 162.7 catchment and the nature of sediments in the riverbed.
Plateau Lower Benue 32 110.4 Dam construction greatly reduces the current velocity and the slope
Benue Lower Benue 19 69.2
of the water body. It also results in the decrease of the sediment-carrying
Rivers Cross River 18 28.1
Total 278 734.2 capacity of a river.

2.2. Cheap source of electricity

2. The prospects and advantages of small hydropower
development Hydropower, in general, is reported to be one of the cheapest way to
generate electricity [8,23]. The cost for construction of dam for SHPs
The small hydropower development has not improved significantly and the equipment for electricity generation are the major cost impli­
since the 60s and early 70s. This is evident from the fact that a small cation in the construction of a hydropower plant. However, this initial
percentage of the SHP sites are developed out of the enormous potential capital investments cash outlay can be reduced drastically through the
it portends as already mentioned in the previous section. The nation involvement of villagers by donating their labor. In addition, equipment
needs substantial scaling up of quantity and quality of energy services in such as turbines can be sourced or manufactured locally [24] in Nigeria
view of the fact that the nation’s energy demand is on the increase and owing to the availability of different steel materials in the country.
the general power supply body, the electricity distribution companies of Therefore, the production of electricity from hydropower is relatively
Nigeria (DisCos), has been unable to meet the growing electricity de­ inexpensive due to the reported very low maintenance and operation
mand of the nation. Wider partaking in power production and supply is costs. With these cost reduction strategies coupled with the longevity of
very vital if Nigeria is to meet up with its energy demand and achieve the SHP, it can present as the cheapest technology for rural electrification
required industrial and economic advancement [19]. To address this over the lifetime of the system [20].
issue without exploiting the environment negatively, the government If the construction of large reservoir to operate a SHP plant would be
needs to pay serious attention to other complimentary sources of power, too high to make it economically viable, it can be easily integrated into
especially the SHP in the remote, local and sub-urban communities. reservoirs built for other purposes. It is highly possible to generate
Nigeria is so blessed with enough hydropower potential, of about 3500 electricity by employing the discharge apparatus compatible with the
MW, which is capable of catering for its rural electrification needs, as type of flow from the reservoir [8]. Unlike other power generation
well as the ICT power requirement and irrigation systems of all the sources, water can be stored by employing a pumped storage system.
surrounding villages, in over 278 small hydro sites cut across the six Therefore, for the sustainability of such systems, a pumped-storage
geopolitical zones of the country [17,19]. The overwhelming population system can be employed for use during the peak periods [8]. A report
and the widespread demands for energy in the nation make it possible to from the Alliance for Rural Electrification, ARE [25], stated that a SHP is
earn very high returns on investment hence, the investment opportu­ a technology that is highly competitive, reliable and economical [25]. It
nities in the sector are motivating for any investor whether local or further stated that irrespective of the fact that it requires substantial
foreign. With the enormous potential embedded in SHP, it portends initial capital expenditures (capex), it is characterized by very low
considerable competitive advantages that makes it a mature and reliable operating costs (opex) because of the absence of fuel costs.
technology. Hence, SHP scheme stands as a very reliable clean alter­
native that can improve rural electrification [20]. Furthermore, as a 2.3. As a source of sustainable energy
clean renewable energy source, it presents minimum alteration to the
environment and the atmosphere with little or no greenhouse gas Energy security can only be assured through sustainable energy
emissions. According to Omojolaa & Oladeji [21] SHP can serve both sources because of the sustainable provision of energy that can meet the
social and commercial purposes. The social purpose of the SHP is that it present energy needs of the country without jeopardizing or compro­
can supply electricity in a standalone mode. The SHPs serving this mising for future generations. In other words, the energy is recycled. The
particular purpose are usually characterized by their less load factor and SHP is one the energy sources that is sustainable. Other sustainable
small capacity. They are often used in distribution and are usually sources include geothermal energy, biomass, solar and wind because
supported by the government. The user charges collection realized are they present a very significant contribution to sustainable de­
usually used to offset the overhead and maintenance costs. On the other velopments. In addition to providing access to energy for the people,
hand, the commercial SHPs are characterized by larger capacities and especially to the poor, it also mitigates the amount of greenhouse gas
higher load factor. They are usually grid connected and also, they sell emissions through the reduction of harmful pollutants in the atmo­
power to distribution or trading companies. Presented below are the sphere. Through appropriate cooperation and collaboration, it creates
prospects and advantages of harnessing the enormous SHPs scattered in reliable economic opportunities while enhancing energy security [8,26].
all parts of Nigeria. According to Osokoya et al. [8], small hydropower is a great prospect,
among other renewable sources, for sustainable energy and water
2.1. Small hydropower construction aids with sediment reduction development in Nigeria.

Sediment is formed by the settlement of loose sand particles, clay, 2.4. Employment creation and women development
silt, waste and other soil particles at the bottom of a water body. Sedi­
ment also form as a result of the decomposition of plants and animals. It Just like other energy generating plants in Nigeria, installation of
can also form due to soil erosion. These particles are most times carried small hydropower plants will create many employment opportunities for

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C.O. Ugwu et al. Fuel Communications 10 (2022) 100046

the entire populace. Ranging from the installation stage to the operation improve rural electrification and human development.
and maintenance stage. For instance, as recorded by Gutierrez [27], the
installation and improvement in the Spanish small hydro sector would 2.7. Clean energy source
provide 18.6 new jobs per every megawatt installed. Likewise, if Nigeria
harnesses its enormous SHP potentials appropriately, it would alleviate Hydropower is a clean source of energy generation because it is
poverty and youth restiveness by creating jobs. According to Wash [28], fueled by water. [20,25]. It does not contaminate the atmosphere such
there are two types of jobs created through small hydropower projects, as power plants that combust fossil fuels, coals or natural gas before it
viz; direct and induced jobs. Direct jobs are those that involves turbine can generate electricity. Hence, the SHP project is sustainable solution
manufacturing, project design/permitting, etc. Induced jobs involves and environmentally friendly. Unlike the large hydro schemes, it does
the service sector jobs which include restaurant and other retail services not require the construction of large water reservoirs. As a result, it does
that are created to provide some basic needs to people working on site. not have a significant negative impact on the hydrological regimes,
Furthermore, small hydro stations can contribute greatly to women water quality, sediment retention and transportation, biological di­
and youth empowerment/development. Such industries that can be versity, habitat resettlement of both aquatic beings and humans on the
powered by small hydropower stations include water pumping activ­ downstream water users. Most importantly, it has a reduced greenhouse
ities, grinding and drying of corns, drying of tea leaves, corn milling, de- gas emission to the atmosphere. Harnessing SHP schemes reduces the
husking of rice and millets. Most of these activities are performed significantly the dependence on hydrocarbon products like diesel, fuel
manually and most times exclusively by women. For instance, in a study and kerosene for generating energy for the off-grid consumption espe­
conducted in Bangladesh, it showed that women are involved or cially for the high-income groups. This development will also minimize
otherwise, carry out all the domestic and some manual farm activities the cost of transportation these oil and gas products from different lo­
like fuel wood collection, water carrying, paddy parboiling, husking and cations to the rural areas. Another great point worthy of note is the
drying of cereal crops [24]. The development of SHPs can eliminate deforestation of the forest areas for the purposes of lighting and cooking
most of these menial tasks through the provision of electricity thereby [30]. This is because deforestation has great effect on climate change.
saving a significant amount of energy and time for the women. These Hence, the generation of electricity from SHPs do not affect the climate
energy and time saved can be utilized in achieving other meaningful drastically when compared to other forms that release
activities. Such activities include formal education, taking appropriate green-house-gases.
care of children and other income-producing works like embroidery, etc.
It is reported that after the provision of a certain water supply project in 2.8. High energy pay-back ratio
a region in Pakistan, there was a very remarkable increase in the
enrolment of girls in school to the tune of about 75% [29]. More so, it The SHP plants are reputed to have an elongated lifespan of about
can lead to significant increase in the level of productivity for the entire 100 years with a remarkable high efficiency about 70% to 90% [25].
nation hence, creating employment and at the same time, bringing about Consequently, they offer a very attractive energy. With this high
remarkable technological advancement especially in the remote and pay-back ratio, the SHP has proven to be an excellent alternative in
rural areas. About 400,000 people are engaged directly or indirectly by promoting economic growth, productivity and development in devel­
this scheme. In the same vein, SHP sites can be utilized as a tourism and oping countries like Nigeria [31].
fish farming centers and these sort of developments create employment
opportunities [30]. 3. Challenges posed by harnessing SHP

2.5. SHP schemes can be integrated into existing schemes In Nigeria today, the development of SHPs has faced several chal­
lenges. Most of the challenges can be readily resolved. In particular,
Small Hydropower scheme have the ability in design to recover en­ there is the need to consider or appropriately regulate tariffs, subsidies
ergy through the integration into existing infrastructures [20]. Such and concessions so as to encourage its development. Lack of appropriate
integrated multi-purpose schemes have proven to be efficient while and stable regulations do not encourage or help development of SHP
guaranteeing its primary function [20]. The SHP projects can comfort­ schemes. In addition to poor regulation, it is often difficult to fund some
ably be integrated with such plants like flood control dams, drinking of these projects as governments often prefer to execute larger projects
water reservoirs, desalination plant, irrigation network, water abstrac­ for reputational reasons [20]. Other identified issues bedeviling the
tion for a big city, recreational area, wastewater treatment plants, etc. development of this sector include difficulties in finding reliable local
Not only will this multi-purpose schemes greatly expand the SHP po­ partners, insufficient capacity building and determination of target
tential in Nigeria, it will also contribute immensely to finding lasting areas, inadequate rules to protect supply areas and private property, lack
solutions for issues such as the sustainable management of the resource of data on potential sites and meteorology as well as the need for local
in sectors like agriculture, wastewater treatment, water policy or manufacture of inexpensive materials so as to minimize the importation
drinking water supply. of equipment. As a result, rural populations especially, suffer underde­
velopment because they have limited access to financial resources.
2.6. Local energy source Summarily, the stand out barriers with respect to SHP development
include desertification, erosion, deforestation, massive water
The SHP is a local source of energy that is majorly derived from small impoundment and poaching, and settlements within the potential areas
rivers. Irrespective of the fact that the quantity of electricity generated is contribute immensely to the damage witnessed in the surrounding
site specific, the most important to note is that there are a lot of potential environment [30]. Therefore, it is necessary that the government and
SHP sites scattered everywhere in Nigeria. It can be harnessed to other financial institutions should pay more attention to executing more
enhance rural electrification due to its enormous availability hence, the of SHP projects in Nigeria. There should be the initiation, enactment and
development of skills and needed local technologies [20,25]. In part­ implementation of measures and policies that encourage SHP develop­
nership with some international bodies like the UNIDO, the local com­ ment. Such measures include soft loans, tax reduction and grants as well
munity where these projects are domiciled can run minor repairs, as encouraging and seeking foreign and private investment for the
change spare parts in the system if proper technology transfer and ca­ schemes.
pacity building is provided. Through the increase in the supply of While citing a small hydropower plant in any geographical location,
affordable and sustainable electricity, the SHP technology, if appropri­ there are significant risks associated with such constructions and they
ately installed, stand to be an interesting and long term solution that can need to be considered. These risks may include environmental,

6
C.O. Ugwu et al. Fuel Communications 10 (2022) 100046

hydrological, construction, or design flaws/risks [32]. According to the may be totally lost. In addition to the geological assessment of the
observation by Emetere et al. [32], one or more of these risks mentioned proposed site, there should also be an evaluation to ascertain the level of
above can destroy any installed hydropower station. This destruction potential damages with respect to human and aquatic displacement. In
can lead to avoidable litigations and unnecessary finance loss. Some of many cases, in order to mitigate the effects of the proposed project,
these risks like the plant design flaws and construction risk can be cor­ resettlement of people and their cultural artefacts, creation and move­
rected through the consultation of experts and with extra budgeting ment of displaced animals to new environment becomes a necessity.
however, some flaws as a result of hydrological and environmental risks, This also contribute to the high cost of installing a new hydro project.
most times, are unredeemable and may cause permanent or severe However, it is important to note that SHP schemes pose less challenge in
damage and loss [32]. this respect.

3.1. High installation cost 3.3. Pressure in the underlying structure

Irrespective of the size of any Hydro plant, they are characterized by Due to the enormous size and weight of some equipment employed
high installation costs. This is due to the procurement of expensive during the installation of hydropower plants, enormous pressure can be
equipment or the associated overhead cost involved during the hydro­ generated in the underlying strata which could lead to fractures. Such
power development especially during dam construction due to the pressures or potential fractures are capable to cause earthquake and
purchase or development of the turbine, penstock and generator taking other disturbances that occur beneath the soil surface. An extensive
into account the economic situation in the country and other developing geological survey is necessary once a site is identified. This is very
countries. This is actually posing as a serious impediment during the necessary to determine the state of the characteristic underlying struc­
installation of hydropower plants [30]. The main advantage is that it tures. If possible faults were not identified before installation starts, it
incurs very low maintenance and operation costs [24]. This relative high can be disruptive to the proposed project. In some cases where large
costs when compared to other energy sources are reported in many lit­ reservoirs are involved, the mass of water impounded by the dam can
eratures thereby supporting the assertion. As a result of such high create more stress. This underlying stresses is capable of generating
installation cost, many cash-strapped communities, especially in the seismic tremors. Despite the fact that the effects are sometimes small,
rural areas, may not afford the required funds for purchase and instal­ they are nevertheless capable of causing an alarming damage to the
lation of equipment. Most times, it is difficult to access loans or funds project or the surrounding human inhabitants or aquatic beings.
with a reasonable interest rate. As a result of non-availability of such
funding or loans with reduced interest rates, consumers end up spending 3.4. Contamination during and after construction
more to make use of energy from SHP sources than for energy from other
sources. The installation of hydropower equipment can impact water quality
and also disrupt water flow. Some of these equipment in the hydro­
3.2. Displacement of human and aquatic habitats power plants are capable of causing low levels of dissolved oxygen in
the water. This is a problem that pose much harm to the habitats in the
When some of the aquatic life swim into the penstock, turbine or riverbank. It can be mitigated by employing various aeration techniques
generator of the installed project, it will disturb the operation of the so that the water can be oxygenated. Another approach is to maintain a
plant. Most unfortunately, it can lead to large scale destruction of these minimum water flow to the downstream of the installed hydropower
inhabitants. The facilities of a new hydropower may impact the imme­ station. This is a very critical alternative for the survival the habitats at
diate or local environment by competing with other uses for the avail­ the riverbanks [33]. There is also this problem of particulate dust
able land space. Those alternative uses of the available land space like emissions during the construction and installation processes. It increases
farming, forestation for wild life and forest reserve may be disrupted to the aerosol loading in the entire geographical area. This emission will
the extent that those activities might be lost. In addition, humans, flora, deprive people of access to clean water during the whole construction
and fauna may be chased out of their natural habitat creating room for period. This development could as well complicate and worsen the sit­
resettlement which usually impact so negatively on the displaced specie. uation for asthmatic patients by creating more difficulty while breath­
Apart from the loss of lives of these aquatic beings, the mating seasons of ing. The noise pollution from the construction vehicles and other
some of these organisms/animals may be altered. This is possible machines may affect both the wildlife and the humans residing around
because some of these aquatic animals may have to swim against the the area.
water stream or travel long distances in search of more conducive en­
vironments during breeding seasons [32, 33]. For instance, fish pop­ 3. 5 Dumping of hazardous wastes into the river
ulations can be negatively impacted especially if they cannot swim
upwards past the impoundments created by dam construction to their There is a very high possibility that people residing around such
grounds where they spawn or when they cannot move or swim to the hydro stations could use the waterways or the surrounding environment
downstream of the ocean. However, the movement of fish to the up­ as a dumping site for all categories of waste [32]. The most harmful of all
stream can be supported by fish elevators or ladders. Trapping and the categories is the harmful ones that are duped by most companies.
hauling of fish by the aid of truck is another important solution to aid This attitude is so bad and may lead to the death of most aquatic lives
fish movement upstream. Racks or screens can be used to divert the and sometimes, it could impair the efficiency of the installed equipment
movement of fish from intakes of turbine to the downstream. Also, un­ [32]. This also contaminates the quality of the water thereby putting a
derwater lights and sounds can be employed to maintain a minimum stop to its use a drinking source. And if not noticed or treated with less
spill flow past the turbine. concern, may lead to loss of lives due to the spread of water diseases. The
More so, hydropower development, depending on the size of created construction may also distract tourists from visiting the water bodies
dam, may lead to massive flooding of areas within the river valley. There that has free fall thereby reducing the revenue generation capability of
is also the possibility that existing farmlands in areas around the site the host local government.
may be damaged thereby reducing food security and the income by in­
habitants. Human settlement and some aquatic habitats will be affected 3.6. Drought
greatly to the extent that some will be completely lost. Consequently, the
cultural or religious believes or heritage might also be altered or even One of the major impediments to the construction of hydropower
lost. In some cases, rare aquatic species involved in this displacement plants is drought. This is because when water is not readily available,

7
C.O. Ugwu et al. Fuel Communications 10 (2022) 100046

like in the dry seasons, the water level reduces drastically therefore, the provide the enabling environment for energy trading.
hydropower plant may not be able to produce electricity. Without
additional storage system that is so large to store water for such seasons, Conflict of Interest
stream flow may fall below the installed plant capacity hence, the
occurrence of power shortages may set in [24]. In this case, the in­ The authors wish to declare that there is no conflict of interest
dustries or establishments with large capital inputs will be greatly
affected. This will lead to uneconomical power generation because a
Acknowledgment
back-up source of energy will be sorted. So to address this particular
challenge, there is the need to install a secondary reservoir that can be
The authors acknowledge the support received from the Africa
filled during rainy seasons and utilized during the drought period to
Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Power and Energy Development
avoid uneconomical energy generation.
(ACE-SPED), University of Nigeria, Nsukka and the Quality and Oper­
ations Management, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment,
3.7. Sedimentation
University of Johannesburg, South Africa.

Sedimentation is one of the serious challenges encountered in

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