THE CONCEPTS OF CULTURE AND IDENTITY

Culture can be defined as all the ways of life including arts, beliefs and
institutions of a population that are passed down from generation to generation.
Culture has been called "the way of life for an entire society." As such, it includes
codes of manners, dress, language, religion, rituals, art.

The concept of culture is among the most widely used notions in sociology.
Normally, one can presume culture to be equivalent to higher things of the mind
such as art, literature, music and painting. However, in the perspective of
sociologist it goes beyond such activities. Culture refers to the ways of life of the
members of society, or of groups within a society. It includes how they dress, their
marriage customs, language and family life, their patterns of work, religious
ceremonies and leisure pursuits (Giddens, 2005). Cultural sociology is one of the
main major and most popular areas of the American Sociological Association. The
sociology of culture developed from the intersection between sociology, as shaped
by early theorists like Marx, Durkheim, and Weber, and with the rising
specialization of anthropology where researchers lead the way of ethnographic
approach forum folding and examining different diversity of cultures around the
world (Macionis and Gerber,2010). Culture can be conceptually distinguished
from society but there are very close connections between these notions. A Society
is a system of interrelationships which connects individuals together. All societies
are united by the fact that their members are organized in structured social
relationships according to a unique culture. No cultures could exist without
societies. But equally, no society could exist without culture. Without culture, we
would not be 'human' at all, in the sense in which we usually understand that term.
We would have no language in which to express ourselves, no sense of self-
consciousness, and our ability to think or reason would be severely limited
(Giddens, 2005; Itulua-Abumere, 2013).

Elements of culture

Symbols: Symbols are those illustrations that are used to represent a particular
meaning of something that people who share the same culture can easily recognize
(Lawley, 1994)

Language: A system of symbols that permits people to communicate with one

another (Swartz,1997)

Values: Culturally defined principles of desirability, goodness, beauty and many

other things that serves as broad guidelines for social living (Griswold, 2004)

Beliefs: Certain words that people hold to be true (Swidler, 1986)

Norms: Rules and expectations by which a society directs the conducts of its
members. The two types of norms are mores and folkways. Mores are norms that
are widely observed and have a great moral significance. Folkways are norms for
routine, casual interaction, Cultural diversity, Cultural beliefs are one of the things
that differ among cultures. However, they are other things that differ among
cultures. The diversity of human behavior and practices is also remarkable.
Acceptable forms of behavior vary extensively from culture to culture and often
contrast considerably with what people form Western societies believe is 'normal'.
For example, in the modern West we regard children aged twelve or thirteen to be
too young for marriage. But in some cultures, marriages and arranged between
children of that age as a matter of course. Jews do not eat pork, while Hindus eat
pork but avoid beef. Westerners regard kissing as a normal part of sexual behavior,
but in many other cultures the practice is either unknown or regarded as disgusting.
All these different traits of behavior are aspects of broad cultural differences that
distinguish societies from one another (Giddens, 2005). Culture plays an important
role in perpetuating the values and norms of a society; however it also offers
significant opportunities for resourcefulness and change. Subcultures and counter
cultures groups which largely discard the widespread values and norms of society
can promote views which show alternatives to the leading culture. Social
movements or groups of people sharing common lifestyles are powerful forces of
change within societies. In this way subcultures allow freedom for people to
express and act on their opinions, hopes and beliefs. (Giddens, 2005). Every
culture has its own unique patterns of behavior, which seem alien to people from
other cultural backgrounds. When you travel to a different country, you usually get
different sensation and feeling because most of what you see, hear and even eats
can be very different from what you do in your own country. Aspect of your daily
life style which you unconsciously take for granted in your own culture may not be
part of everyday life in other parts of the world. Even in countries which share the
same language, everyday habits, customs and behaviors may be quite different.
The expression culture shock is an apt one. Sometimes people feel disoriented
when they become immersed in a new culture. This is because they have lost the
familiar reference points which help them understand the world around them and
have not yet learned how to navigate in the new culture.

Cultural Identity

Cultural identity refers to a person's sense of belonging to a particular culture or

group. This process involves learning about and accepting traditions, heritage,
language, religion, ancestry, aesthetics, thinking patterns, and social structures of a
culture. Normally, people internalize the beliefs, values, norms, and social
practices of their culture and identify themselves with that culture. The culture
becomes a part of their self-concept. However, some studies have noted that
existing cultural identity theory may not account for the fact that different
individuals and groups may not react to or interpret events, happenings, attitudes,
etc. in the same ways as other individuals or groups.

The concept of identity in sociology is a multifaceted one, and can be approached

in a number of ways. Broadly speaking, identity relates to the understandings
people hold about 'who they are' and what is meaningful to them. These
understandings are formed in relation to certain attributes that hold priority over
other sources of meaning. Some of the main sources of identity include gender,
sexual orientation, nationality, or ethnicity and social class. They are two types of
identity often spoken of by sociologist which are social identity and self-identity or
(personal identity). These forms of identity are analytically distinct, but are closely
related to one another. Social Identity refers to the characteristics that are attributed
to an individual by others. Social identities can include student, mother, Anglican,
homeless, doctor, Asian, married and so forth. Many individuals have social
identities comprising more than one attribute. A person could simultaneously be a
mother, a doctor and a Christian. Multiple social identities reflect the many
dimensions of people's lives. Social identities therefore involve a collective
dimension. They mark ways that individuals are the same as others. Shared
identities predicated on a set of common goals, values, or experiences can form an
important base for social movements. Feminist, environmentalists, supporters of
nationalist movements are examples of cases in which a shared identity is drawn
on as a powerful source of meaning.

Common Heritage and National Symbols of Culture in Nigeria

A national symbol is a symbol of any entity considering and manifesting itself to

the world as a national community: the sovereign states but also nations and
countries in a state of colonial or other dependence, federal integration, or even an
ethno cultural community considered a 'nationality' despite having no political
autonomy.

National symbols intend to unite people by creating visual, verbal, or iconic

representations of the national people, values, goals, or history. These symbols are
often rallied around as part of celebrations of patriotism or aspiring nationalism
(such as independence, autonomy, or separation movements) and are designed to
be inclusive and representative of all the people of the national community.

In order to clearly understand cultural symbols, it is necessary to understand

the meaning of the individual words. A symbol is an object, word, or action that
represents a concept. Culture is all of the behaviors, languages, beliefs, traditions,
and its shared meaning that guides the standards of a group. Together, a cultural
symbol is a symbol that holds meaning and understanding for a group. Many
groups use symbols to express a concept of their culture. Symbols are used by a
culture to express a value of the culture. Cultural symbols allow a group that shares
the same beliefs to identify each other based on the experience of that symbol. A
continued belief or experience can be transmitted through the cultural symbol. For
example, when a flag from a country is raised, people who are affiliated with that
country will stand in honor of that flag as it represents nationalism.

Symbols are very important for cultures because they help a group create the
culture itself. Cultural symbols can represent many things and help cultures
express specific ideologies and social standards of the culture that are
communicated amongst the group.

Common National symbols

i. The flag or banner of a nation-state

 ii. The coat of arms of the land or ruling dynasty
iii. The seal or stamp of the land or ruling dynasty
iv. The head of state, especially in a monarchy
v. The associated device and motto can also be used separately
vi. The national colors, often derived from the above
vii. Abstract symbols
viii. National anthems, royal and imperial hymns; alongside such official hymns
custom may also recognize the national symbol values of very popular songs

Cultural Influence

Cultural influences mean historical, geographical, and familial factors that

affect assessment and intervention processes. In spite of so much differences
culture provides the society a sense of uniqueness and common identity,
common understanding and thoughts that have common attitudes, values, and
behaviour at least as a consumer broadly spending following behaviours are
influenced by culture but they are neither exhaustive of other cultures specially
culture of other countries what is called cross culture or greater influences of
subcultures.

Attitude and Behaviours Influenced by Ones Culture

i. Personality i.e. sense of self and society

ii. Language i.e. communication.
iii. Dress
iv. Food habits
v. Religion and religious faiths that is beliefs.
vi. Customs of marriages and religions and special social customs
 vii. Social relationship (system of marriage, family structure and relations,
social and religious organizations, government)
viii. System of education, role of churches, temples, mosques etc. on
education system) i.e. mental process of behaviour (formal and religious
symbols, colleges, technical institutes, universities etc.)
ix. Work habits and products. They differ widely from country to country
and region to region
x. Time value (punctuality, late coming working hours, rest hours and so
on.
xi. Values and norms (discussed later)
xii. Beliefs and faiths (religion, vegetarianism – meat eating, nonviolence –
rebirth, fate and luck and so on
xiii. Laws of the Government and social traditions and laws laid down by
religion

Though there are many other factors which may be included in culture and its
effects on the society but as our objective is to understand the influence of culture
on consumer behaviour “we define culture as the sum total of learned beliefs,
values and customs that serve to direct the consumer behaviour of members of a
particular society”.

Thus we broadly study following factors in culture which all are dynamic and
change with the change of time, development and progress of knowledge,
influence of other cultural discoveries, globalization etc. but still each society has
its culture.

For instance, in India in spite of influence of cross culture, education media,

knowledge and technological change we are not breaking from our traditions,
customs and beliefs passed on from our forefathers. This is one reason that in spite
of provisions in Indian Constitution against untouchability it is still prevalent in
many places especially in rural areas.

Social Change

Sociologists define social change as changes in human interactions and

relationships that transform cultural and social institutions. These changes occur
over time and often have profound and long-term consequences for society. Social
change is the alteration of the social order of a society which may include changes
in social institutions, social behaviours or social relations. Sustained at a larger
scale, it may lead to social transformation or societal transformation.

Change comes from two sources. One source is unique factors such as
climate, weather, or the presence of specific groups of people. Another source is
systematic factors. For example, successful development generally has the same
requirements, such as a stable and flexible government, enough free and available
resources, and a diverse social organization of society. On the whole, social change
is usually a combination of systematic factors along with some random or unique
factors.

Many theories attempt to explain social change. One view suggests that a theory of
change should include elements such as structural aspects of change (like
population shifts), processes and mechanisms of social change, and directions of
change.

Christian: In Christianity & Judaism social change is seen in terms of God's

blessings on faithfulness or curses on disobedience. See Deuteronomy chapter 28.

Hegelian: The classic Hegelian dialectic model of change is based on the

interaction of opposing forces. Starting from a point of momentary stasis, Thesis
countered by Antithesis first yields conflict, then it subsequently results in a new
Synthesis.

Marxist: Marxism presents a dialectical and materialist concept of history, seeing

humankind's history as a fundamental "struggle between social classes".

Types of change

Social changes can vary according to speed and scope and impetus. Some research
on the various types of social change focuses on social organizations such as
corporations.

Different manifestations of change include:

Fabian change – gradual and reformist incremental amelioration after the manner
of the Fabian Society

Radical change – improvements root and branch in the style of political radicalism

Revolutionary change – abrupt, radical and drastic change, with implications of

violence and of starting afresh (perhaps most popular as a political bogeyman)

Transformational change – a New-age version of radical change, and thus difficult

to define

Continuous change, open-ended change – change (allegedly) for the sake of

change

Top-down change – reliance on leadership

Bottom-up change – reliance on the huddled masses

ALIENATION AND SOCIAL STABILITY

Social alienation is a person's feeling of disconnection from a group – whether
friends, family, or wider society – to which the individual has an affinity. Such
alienation has been described as "a condition in social relationships reflected by a
low degree of integration or common values and a high degree of distance or
isolation between individuals, or between an individual and a group of people in a
community or work environment". It is a sociological concept developed by
several classical and contemporary theorists. The concept has many discipline-
specific uses, and can refer both to a personal psychological state (subjectively)
and to a type of social relationship (objectively). Alienation has also had a
particular legal-political meaning since as early as Ancient Roman times, where to
alienate property (alienato) is to transfer ownership of it to someone else. The term
alienation itself comes from the Latin alienus which meant 'of another place or
person', which in turn came from alius, meaning "other" or "another". Another
usage of the term in Ancient Greco-Roman times was by physicians referring to
disturbed, difficult or abnormal states of mind, generally attributed to imbalanced
physiology. In Latin alienatio mentis (mental alienation), this usage has been dated
to Asclepiades. Once translations of such works had resurfaced in the West in the
17th century, physicians again began using the term, which is typically attributed
to Felix Platter.

In medieval times, a relationship between alienation and social order has been
described, mediated in part by mysticism and monasticism. The Crusades and
witch-hunts have been described as forms of mass alienation.

Social stability is the degree to which a society and its institutions remain
predictable and reliable. This is important because it allows participants in society
such as individuals and groups to plan and conduct their affairs without disruption.
Measured on an individual level, social stability refers to the range of life structure
and reliable routine that is protective against further situational hazards and helps
maintain connections with social resources and societal expectations. The construct
is commonly assessed as the product of steady social circumstances within a
defined set of domains, e.g., housing, employment, social ties, sufficient income,
and lack of imprisonment. Most of the existing social stability measures assume an
independent or additive relationship among indicators, which may not fully reflect
the natural configuration of these factors within impoverished communities. There
is considerable variation within the existing literature and prior investigations leave
a number of questions unaddressed. The social role premise of social stability is
reflected in the most frequently referenced measures of social stability, which
calculate one’s cumulative social stability score based on a predefined set of
criteria. These most commonly include assessment of one’s employment, marital,
and housing status, but also include criminal justice and mobility indicators. For
example, Straus and Bacon measured social stability using a cumulative index of
living in one’s own home, residential immobility for at least 2 years, living with
wife, and having a steady job for at least 3 years. Consistencies about issues
relating to human social interaction, mutual awareness, social norm and social
order all smack of social stability. Theories addressing social issues abound and
remain crucial for the development and advancement of human society. The social
stability of any given society could be the result of a process of which
commencement was beak and murky but traversed hurdles of varied social
problems. As an important factor for political stability, social stability is an
ingredient of national sovereignty of which itself is the minor of natural of national
identity. The extent to which the content of social stability applies to Nigerian
national sovereignty remains focus of the piece. Could Nigeria actually boast of
sovereignty with viable social stability? The possible answer produces the question
of whether the country is enmeshed in any form of identity crises.