Advance Building Materials

Content
1. Stones
2. Bricks
3. Cement
4. Sand
5. Mortar
6. Concrete
7. Timber
8. Miscellaneous Building Materials
9. Types of Buildings
10. Foundations
11. Masonry
12. Floors

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 Chapter 1 : STONES

1.0 Introduction:

All the building structures are made out of various sorts of materials. These
materials are either called building materials or materials of development. It is
fundamental for a developer, might be a design or specialist or project worker, to
become acquainted altogether with these building materials. The information on
various kinds of material, their properties and utilizations for various purposes gives
and significant apparatus in the possession of the manufacturers in accomplishing
economy in material expense. The material expense in a building ranges 30 to 50
percent cost of all out cost development. Notwithstanding material economy, the
right utilization of material outcomes in better underlying strength, useful
productivity and stylish appearance

1.1 Classification of Rocks:

Building stones are gotten from rocks happening in nature and arranged threely.

1. Geological arrangement
2. Physical arrangement
3. Chemical arrangement

I. Geological Classification:
As per this arrangement, the stones are of the accompanying sorts.

a. Igneous rocks: Rocks that are framed by cooling of Magana (liquid or pale
rough material) are known as volcanic rocks. Eg: Granite, Basalt and Dolerite
and so on

b. Sedimentary rocks: these stones are shaped by the testimony of creation of

enduring on the previous rocks. Models: rock, sandstone, limestone, gypsum,
lignite and so forth

c. Metamorphic rocks. These stones are shaped by the adjustment in character

of the previous rocks. Molten just as sedimentary rocks are changed in

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 character when they are dependent upon incredible warmth and pressing
factor. Known as transformation.

Examples: Quartzite, Schist, Slate, Marble and Gneisses.

II. Physical Classification:

This arrangement depended on broad design of rocks.

As indicated by this, the stones are characterized into three sorts

a. Stratified Rocks: These stones gangs planes of separation or cleavage and

such shakes can be handily part along these planes

Ex: sedimentary rocks

b. And delineated rocks: The construction might be translucent granular or

minimized granular. Models: Igneous rocks and Sedimentary rocks influenced
by developments of the earth.

c. Foliated Rocks: These stones tend to separate a positive way as it were. Ex:
Metamorphic rocks.

III. Chemical Classification:

As indicated by this characterization rocks are ordered into three sorts.

a. Siliceous rocks: In these stones, silica prevails. The stones are hard; strong
and not effortlessly affected by enduring offices. Ex: Granite, Quartzite, and
so on

b. Argillaceous Rocks: In these stones, dirt prevails. The stones might be thick
and minimized or might be delicate.

Ex: records, Laterites and so forth

c. Calcareous rocks: In these stones, calcium carbonate prevails. The strength to

these stones will rely on the constituents present in encompassing air. Ex:
LimeStone, marble and so on

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1.2 Uses of stones:

1. Design: Stones are utilized for establishments, dividers, segments, lintels,

curves, rooftops, floors, soggy confirmation course and so on

2. Face works. Stones are embraced to give monstrous appearance to the

construction. Dividers are of blocks and confronting is done in stones of
wanted shades. This is known as composite workmanship.

3. Paving stones: These are utilized to cover floor of building of different sorts
like private, business, mechanical and so on They are likewise embraced to
frame clearing of streets, pathways and so on

4. Basic material: Stones are broken down and changed over to frame a
fundamental material for concrete cement, morum of streets, calcareous
concretes, fake stones, bless squares and so forth

5. Misalliances: Stones are additionally utilized for (I) weight for railroads (ii)
transition in impact heater (iii) Blocks in the development of scaffolds, docks,
projections, holding dividers, beacons, dams and so forth

1.3 Qualities of a decent building stone:

Coming up next are the characteristics or necessities of a decent building stone.

1. Crushing strength: For a decent building stone, the devastating strength

ought to be more noteworthy than l000kg per cm2.

2. Appearance: Good building stone ought to be a uniform tone, and liberated

from dirt openings, spots of other shading groups and so on fit for saving the
tone for long-term.

3. Durability: A decent building stone ought to be solid. The elements like

warmth and cold elective wet and dry, disintegrated gases in downpour, high
wind speed and so forth influence the solidness.

4. Fracture: For great building stone its crack ought to be sharp, even and clear.

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 5. Hardness: The hardness more noteworthy than 17, treated as hard utilized in
street works. It is between 14 to 17, medium hardness, less 14 said be helpless
hardness.

6. Percentage wear: For a decent building stone, the rate wear ought to be
equivalent to or less than 3%.

7. Resistance to fire: A decent building stone be flame resistant. Sandstone,

Argillaceous stone opposes fire very well

8. Specific gravity: For a decent building stone the particular gravity ought to
be more noteworthy then 8.7 or somewhere in the vicinity.

9. Texture: A decent building stone ought to have minimal fine translucent

design ought to be liberated from depressions, breaks or fixes of stuff or free
material.

10. Water assimilation: For a decent building stone, the rate ingestion by weight
following 24 hours ought not surpass 0.60.

11. Seasoning: Stones ought to be very much prepared prior to placing into
utilization. A time of around 6 to a year is viewed as adequate for legitimate
flavoring.

12. Toughness Index: Impact test, the estimation of strength under 13 – Not
intense, somewhere in the range of 13 and 19 – Moderate, more noteworthy
than 19-high

1.4 Characteristics of stones

To guarantee reasonable determination of the stone of specific work, one should be

acquainted with its organization, attributes, uses and spot of accessibility.

1.4.1 Granite

1. Igneous rock

2. Composed of quartz, feldspar and mica and minerals

3. Available in dim, green, earthy colored and pink and red

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 4. Hard and sturdy

5. High protection from enduring

6. The surface shifts with its quality

7. Specific gravity 2.7 and compressive strength 700 to 1300 kg/cm2

8. Used for elaborate, street metal, rail line weight, total for concrete; for
development of extensions, docks and marine works and so forth

1.4.2 Ballast

1. Igneous rock

2. It is reduced, hard and weighty

3. Available in red, yellow dark, blue and greenish dark tone

4. Specific gravity is 3 and compressive strength changes 1530 to 1890 kg/cm2.

5. Used for elaborate, rail street stabilizer, totals for concrete and so forth

1.4.3 SandStone:

1. Sedimentary stone

2. It is accessible in assortment of arrangements fine grained, coarse grained

minimal or permeable

3. Available in white, green, blue, dark, red and yellow.

4. Specific gravity 2.65 to 2.95

5. Compressive strength is 650kgs/cm2

6. Used for ashlar works

1.4.4 LimeStone:

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 1. Sedimentary stone: It is accessible in an assortment of structures which
contrast from each other in shading Compaction, surface, hardness and tough

a. Compact limestone

b. Granular limestone

c. Magnesian limestone

d. Kanker lime stone

e. Utilized for clearing, street metal, and so on

1.4.5 Marble

1. Metamorphic stone

2. Available in white, blue, green, yellow dark and red shading

3. High conservativeness,

4. Reasonable for enlivening works, divider lining segments, heap, table chunks,
hearths, tiled floors, steps of step case and so on

1.4.6 Slate:

1. Transformative stone

1. Non retentive, minimal fine grained and produce metallic ringing sound
when struck

2. Available in dark, dull blue, dim, rosy earthy colored and so forth

3. Used for giving moist confirmation course, clearing dados and so forth

1.5. Choice of stones

In pondering the utilization of stone for different designing works, the determination
of the nature and nature of stone is represented by the reason in see, cost of stone, its

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fancy worth and solidness Suitability different kinds of stones for various purposes
and circumstance is momentarily examined underneath

a. For face work, in everyday marble, rock and close-grained sandstone are
utilized as meager pieces (facade) where the construction is exposed to
unfriendly climate impacts.

b. For columns, balustrade, platforms, segments, sculptures and entryway and

window ledge and clearing stone, rock marble and reduced limestone can be
suggested in light of the fact that they can take great clean.

c. For decorative works like trim and carvings, fine grained sandstone, fine
grained marble and fine grained rock are utilized.

d. For spans, wharfs, docks, break-waters and other marine designs the stone
ought to be exceptionally hard, substantial, solid and strong rock and gneiss
are suggested for this reason

e. For street metal, stones ought to be hard, extreme, impervious to scraped

areas and sturdy. Basalt and coarse-grained rock are for the most part
suggested for this reason.

f. For rail line counterweight, the stone ought to be hard, thick, solid, intense
and effectively useful sandstone, reduced limestone, trap and quartzite are
ordinarily utilized

g. In circumstances like advances, entryways ledges, pavings and so forth where

there is a normal progression of traffic, stone ought to be hard, thick,
effectively useful and solid. Marble, records and sand stones are ordinarily
used in such places.

h. In flame resistant development, minimal sand stone ought to consistently be

preferred.

1.6 Artificial stones:

These are otherwise called projected stones or remade stones. Counterfeit stones
may take up different structures, for example,

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 a. Cement solid: This is the combination of concrete, fine totals, coarse totals
and water. It might very well be projected on site or pre-projected if steel is
utilized with concrete solid, it is known as built up concrete cement.

b. Mosaic tiles: Precast solid tiles with marble chips at top surface are known as
tiles. They are accessible in various shades and broadly embraced as of now.

c. Terrazzo : This is a combination of marble chips and concrete. It is utilized for

washrooms private buildings, sanctuaries and so forth

Benefits of counterfeit stones:

1. Cavities might be kept in counterfeit stones to pass on pipes, electric wires

and so forth

2. Grooves can be kept in counterfeit stone while it is being projected which are
valuable for fixing different fittings.

3. It can project fit as a fiddle

4. It can be made in a solitary piece and subsequently inconveniences getting

huge squares of stone for lintels, radiates and so forth is stayed away from.

5. It can be made more grounded than characteristic stone

6. It is modest and efficient

7. It is more strong than characteristic stone

8. Natural bed is missing in fake stones and henceforth, the subject of avoiding
potential risk as for the normal bed of stones doesn't emerge.

1.7 Aggregates - Grading:

Aggregates is gotten from volcanic, sedimentary and transformative shakes or is

produce from muds, slag and so on The properties of cement are straightforwardly
identified with those of its constituents and ought to be hard, solid, strong, and
liberated from dirt, topsoil, vegetables and other such unfamiliar issue. The presence
of mud or earth covering forestalls the attachment of concrete on the outside of totals

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and at last retards the setting and solidifying of concrete and decreases the strength,
sturdiness and adequacy of cement.

Contingent on their size, the totals are named (I) Fine Aggregative (ii) coarse totals.

1. Fine Aggregates: The material, the vast majority of when goes through
4.75mm I.S. sifter size, is named as fine totals. It ought not contain more than
1 to 8% of fine particles, which might be gotten from ocean, stream, lake or pit
might be utilized as fine totals however care ought to be taken every one of its
pollutants should be taken out

2. Coarse Aggregates: The material whose particles are of such size as are held
on 4.75mm, I.S strainer are called coarse totals. The size of the coarse totals
utilized relies on the idea of work. The greatest size might be 23mm for mass
cement, for example, dams and so forth and 63mm for plain concrete.
Squashed hard stone and rock are the regular materials utilized as coarse
totals for primary cements. Coarse totals generally acquired by smashing
rock, gneiss, translucent lime stone and great assortment of sandstone and so
on

Reviewing of Aggregates:

Reviewing of totals comprises proportioning the fine and coarse totals in such a
proportion, in order to get the most grounded and densest blend in with minimal
measure of concrete.

Evaluating the totals is so reviewed as to have least voids when blended in with all
fixings, and water should deliver a solid mass of simple usefulness.

The evaluating of totals are finished by the accompanying strategies

1. By trail – In this technique, proportioning of totals as to give heaviest load for

same volume, yield the densest cement

2. By artfulness modules technique (strainer examination strategy): in this

strategy, the examples of both coarse and fine totals are gone through a bunch
of nine standard sifters and the level of test held on every one of the said
sifters is resolved. The complete of these rates separated by 100 gives the
fineness modulus of test

3. By least voids technique: This strategy depends on the reality, that so acquire
thick cement the amount of concrete ought to likewise be marginally in

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 overabundance of voids more than the fine totals. In this technique the voids
in the fine and coarse totals are independently discovered with the assistance
of graduated chamber and water. The level of voids IN total, "X" given by the
condition.

Where v1, volume of water filled

Where v2, volume of totals.

4. By self-assertive principles: It is a generally received strategy for satisfying

the totals in a solid blend for little works of moderate significance. This
strategy isn't suggested for huge works or significant works in this technique,
the volume of concrete, sand and coarse totals are taken in the extent of 1:n:2n
separately. The amount of water to be utilized a changed suit the usefulness
described.

Ex: 1:1:2 M250 rich blend for segments, radiates

1:1:3 – M200 Water holding structures and so forth
1:3:6 – M150 piece's segments streets and so on
1:3:6 – M100 – establishments,
1:4:8 - For mass cement.

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 Chapter 2 : BRICKS

Bricks are acquired by trim mud in rectangular squares of uniform size and
afterward by drying and consuming these squares. As bricks are of uniform size,
they can be appropriately orchestrated, light in weight and henceforth bricks
supplant stones.

2.1 Composition - Manufacture Process.

Structure – Following are the constituents of good brick earth.

Alumina - It is the main constituent of each sort of mud. A decent brick earth ought
to contain 20 to 30 percent of alumina. This constituent gives versatility to earth with
the goal that it tends to be formed. On the off chance that alumina is available in
overabundance, crude bricks psychologist and twist during drying and consuming.

Silica - A decent brick earth ought to contain around 50 to 60 percent of silica. Silica
exists on earth either as a free or consolidated structure. As free sand, it is precisely
blended in with earth and in joined structure; it exists in compound synthesis with
alumina. Presence of silica forestalls saltines contracting and twisting of crude bricks.
It accordingly confers uniform shape to the bricks. Solidness of bricks relies upon the
legitimate extent of silica in brick earth. Abundance of silica annihilates the union
among particles and bricks become fragile.

Lime – A little amount of lime is attractive in a finely powdered state to forestalls

shrinkage of crude bricks. Abundance of lime makes the brick liquefy and
henceforth, its shape is last because of the parting of bricks.

Oxide of iron - A little amount of oxide of Iron to the degree of 5 to 6 percent is

attractive in acceptable brick to grant red tone to bricks. Overabundance of oxide of
iron makes the bricks dim blue or blackish.

Magnesia - A little amount of magnesia in brick earth confers yellow color to bricks,
and diminishes shrinkage. Be that as it may, abundance of magnesia diminishes
shrivel prompts the rot of bricks.

The fixings like, lime, iron pyrites, alkalies, rocks, natural matter ought not present in
great brick earth

Assembling of bricks:

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The assembling of brick, the accompanying tasks are included

1. Preparation of earth

2. Moulding

3. Drying

4. Burning

(I) Preparation of mud :- The readiness of mud includes

following tasks

a) Unsoiling :- Top layer of 20cm profundity is taken out as it contains

pollutants.

b) Digging: - Clay uncovered from ground is spread on level ground about 60cm
to 120cm loads.

c) Cleaning:- Stones, rocks, vegetable matter and so forth eliminated and

changed over into powder structure.

d) Weathering:- Clay is presented to the climate from a few weeks to full

preparation.

e) Blending:- Clay is made free and any ingredient to be added to it is fanned

out at top and turning it here and there vertically.

f) Tempering:- Clay is brought to a legitimate level of hardness, at that point

water is added to earth and entire mass is massaged or squeezed under the
feet of men or dairy cattle for enormous scope, hardening is normally done in
pug factory as demonstrated in the fig 2.1

Interaction:- Clay with water is put in a pug plant from the top. At the point when
the vertical staff is pivoted by utilizing an electric pair, steam or diesel or turned by a
pair of bullocks. Mud is altogether stirred up by the activities of flat arms and blades
when dirt has been adequately pugged, opening at the lower part of tub, is opened
cut and the pugged earth is taken out from incline for the following activity of trim.

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Embellishment: Clay, which is a readied structure pug factory, is sent for the
following activity of trim. Following are the two different ways of trim.

Hand Molding: Molds are rectangular boxes of wood or steel, which are open at top
and base. Steel molds are more sturdy and utilized for assembling bricks for huge
scope as demonstrated in fig 2.2. Bricks arranged by hand shaping are of two sorts.

Fig 2.1 Pug Mill

Fig 2.2 Wooden form and Steel shape

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a) Ground formed bricks

b) Table formed bricks

(a) Ground formed bricks: ground is first made level and fine sand is sprinkled
over it. Form is plunged in water and set over the ground to fill the dirt.
Additional earth is eliminated by wooden or metal strike after the form is
filled constrained shape is then lifted up and crude brick is left on the ground.
Form is then dunked in water each time lower appearances of ground shaped
bricks are harsh and it is beyond the realm of imagination to expect to put a
frog on such bricks.

Ground formed bricks of better quality and with frogs on their surface are
made by utilizing a couple of bed sheets and a wooden square

(b) Table-formed bricks: Process of trim these bricks is only like ground bricks
on a table of size about 2m x 1m.

(1) Machine shaping: This technique ends up being conservative when bricks in
tremendous amounts are to be made at a similar spot. It is likewise useful for
embellishing hard and string dirt. These machines are comprehensively
characterized in two classifications

(a) Plastic earth machines

(b) Dry earth machines

a) Plastic earth machines: This machine contains a rectangular opening of size

equivalent to the length and width of a brick. Pugged dirt is set in the
machine and as it comes out through the opening, it is cut into strips by wires
fixed in outlines, so their bricks are called wire cut bricks.

b) Dry dirt machines: In these machines, solid mud is initially changed over into
powder structure and afterward water is added to frame a firm plastic glue.
Such glue is set in shape and squeezed by machine to frame hard and all
around formed bricks. These bricks are conducted more than customary hand
shaped bricks. They convey unmistakable frogs and show a uniform surface.

(2)Drying: The sodden bricks, whenever consumed, are probably going to be

broken and distorted. Henceforth shaped bricks are dried before they are
taken for the following activity of consuming. Bricks are laid along and across
the stock in substitute layers. The drying of brick is by the accompanying
methods

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(i)Artificial drying – drying by burrows normally 1200C around 1 to 3 days

(ii)Circulation of air-Stacks are masterminded so that adequate air space is left

between them free flow of air.

(iii)Drying yard-uncommon yards ought to be arranged marginally more elevated

level forestall the gathering of downpour water

(iv)Period for singing – typically around 3 to 10 days to bricks to get dry

(v)Screens – screens are important, might be given to keep away from direct
openness to wind or sun.

(3)Burning: This is a vital activity in the assembling of bricks to grant hardness,

strength and make them thick and sturdy. Consuming of bricks is done either in
clasps or in ovens. Braces are brief constructions and they are received to make
bricks on limited scope. Furnaces are lasting designs and they are received to
produce bricks for an enormous scope. A common brace is as demonstrated in fig 2.3

Fig 2.3 Clamp

(1) A trapezoidal shape in arrangement with more limited is somewhat in

uncovering and more extensive end raised at a point of 150 from ground level

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 (2) A brick divider with mud is developed on the short end and a layer of 70cm
to 80cm thick fuel (grass, cow manure, ground nuts, wood or coal) laid on the
floor.

(3) A layer comprises of 4 or 5 courses of crude bricks laid on edges with little
spaces between them for flow of air

(4) A second layer of fuel is then positioned, and over it another layer of crude
bricks is putap. The absolute tallness of cinch in substitute layers of brick is
around 3 to 4 m

(5) When cinch is totally developed, it is put with mud on sides and top and
loaded up with earth to forestall the break of warmth

(6) The time of consuming is around one to two months and permit a similar
time for coding

(7) Burnt bricks are taken out from the clip Advantages:

1. The bricks created are intense and solid since consuming and cooling are slow

2. Burning in clasps ends up being modest and practical

3. No gifted work and management are needed for the development of clips

4. There is significant saving of clasps fuel

Disadvantages:

1. Bricks are not of needed shape

2. It is extremely sluggish interaction

3. It is unimaginable to expect to manage fire in a clasp

4. Quality of brick isn't uniform

Furnaces: An oven is a huge stove, which is utilized to consumed bricks by

1. Intermittent ovens

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 2. Continuous ovens

1) Intermittent ovens:
These are discontinuous in activity, which implies that they are stacked, terminated,
cooled and dumped.

a) Intermittent up-draft ovens

b) Intermittent down-draft ovens

a) Intermittent up-draft oven: This is as rectangular with thick external dividers as

demonstrated in the fig 2.4. wide entryways are given at each finish to stacking and
dumping of ovens. An impermanent rooftop might be introduced to shield from
downpour and it is eliminated after the furnace is terminated. Vents are given to
bring blazes or hot gases through the assemblage of furnace.

Fig 2.4 Intermittent oven

(i) Raw bricks are laid in line of thickness equivalent to 2 to 3 bricks and stature 6 to
8 bricks with 2 bricks dispersing between lines

(ii) Fuels are loaded up with brush wood which takes up a free without any problem

(iii) Loading of furnace with crude bricks with top course is done with level bricks
and different courses are shaped by putting bricks on edges

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(iv) Each entryway is developed with dry bricks and are covered with mud or dirt

(v) The oven is then terminated for a time of 48 to 60 hours and the draft ascends the
upward way from the lower part of the oven and achieves the consuming of bricks.

(vi) Kiln is permitted to chill off and bricks are then taken out

(vi) Same methodology is rehashed for the following consuming

Bricks fabricated by irregular up dry spell ovens are superior to those readied by
clips however bricks consumed by this cycle aren't uniform, supply of bricks isn't
constant and wastage of fuel heat.

(b) Intermittent down-draft furnaces:

These ovens are rectangular or roundabout fit as a fiddle. They are furnished with
lasting dividers and shut tight on the rooftop. Floor of the furnace has openings
which are associated with a typical fireplace stack through vents. Working is the
same as an up-draft furnace. In any case, it is so orchestrated in this oven that hot
gases are brought through vertical pipes upto the degree of the rooftop and they are
then delivered. These hot gases drop downwards by the smokestack draft and in
doing so, they consume the bricks.

Advantages:

(i) Bricks are equitably scorched

(ii) Performance of this oven is superior to that of up-draft oven

(iii) This oven is appropriate for consuming primary mud tiles, land cota as a result
of close control of warmth.

2. Persistent furnaces:
These furnaces are consistent in activities. This implies that stacking, terminating,
cooling and dumping are done all the while in these furnaces. There are three sorts
of ceaseless ovens.

a) Bull's channel furnace

b) Hoffman's furnace

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 c) Tunnel furnace

a) Bull's channel furnace: This oven might be of rectangular, round or oval shape in
the arrangement as demonstrated in fig 2.5. It is developed in a channel exhumed in
ground either completely under ground mostly projecting over the ground openings
is given in the external dividers to go about as pipe openings. Dampers are used as
iron plates and they are utilized to isolate the furnaces in reasonable segments and
the most generally utilized oven in India.

Fig 2.5 Bull's channel oven

The bricks are masterminded so that pipes are shaped. Fuel is set in vents and it is
touched off through pipe openings in the wake of covering top surface with earth
and cinders to forestall the departure of warmth typically two mobile iron chimney
stacks are utilized to frame draft. These stacks are set in advance of the segment
being terminated. Henceforth, hot gases leaving the smokestack warm up the bricks
in the next segment. Each segment needs around one day to consume. The
speculative game plan for various areas might be as per the following

Section 1 – loading
Section 2 – empty
Section 3 – unloading
Section 4 – cooling
Section 5 – Burning

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Section 6 – Heating

b) Haffman's furnace: this oven is built over ground and henceforth, it is now and
again known as a fire oven. Its shape is round to plan and it is partitioned into
various compartments or loads. A lasting rooftop is given; the oven can even
capacity during the blustery season. Fig 2.6 shows plan and segment of Hoffman's
furnace with 12 chambers

Chamber 1 - stacking
Chamber 2 to 5 – drying and pre-warming
Chambers 6 and 7 - consuming
Chambers 8 to 11 - cooling
Chamber 12 – dumping

The underlying expense in slowing down this oven is high, the accompanying
advantages

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(i) Good nature of bricks are delivered

(ii) It is feasible to control heat inside the chambers through fuel openings

(iii) Supply of bricks is persistent and standard

(iv) There is impressive saving in fuel because of pre warming of crude bricks by
vent gases

Examination between clamp-burning and kiln-burning

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c) Tunnel oven: This kind of furnace is a passage, which might be straight, round or
oval in the arrangement. Crude bricks are put in streetcars which are then moved
from one end to the opposite finish of passage. Crude bricks get dried and
pre-warmed as they approach the zone of fire. In the zone of fire, bricks are scorched
to the necessary deque and they are then pushed forward for cooling. At the point
when bricks are adequately cooled, they are dumped. The furnace ends up being
practical when the bricks are produced for a huge scope. As temperature is leveled
out, uniform bricks of better quality are delivered.

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2.2 Classification:

Bricks can extensively be partitioned into two classifications.

(i) Unburnt or sun dried bricks

(ii) Burnt bricks

(i)Un burnt or Sun dried bricks: UN consumed or sun dried with the assistance of
warmth obtained from the sun after the way toward embellishment. These bricks
must be utilized in the developments of impermanent and modest constructions.
Such bricks ought not be utilized at places presented to substantial downpours.

(ii) Burnt Bricks: The bricks utilized in development works are singed bricks and
they are arranged into the accompanying four classifications.

a. First Class bricks: These bricks are table formed and of standard shape. The
surface and edges of the bricks are sharp, square, smooth and straight. They
consent every one of the characteristics of good bricks and utilize it for
prevalent work of lasting nature.

b. Second class bricks: These bricks are ground shaped and they are signed in
furnaces. The outside of bricks is somewhat harsh and the shape is likewise
marginally sporadic. These bricks are normally utilized at where brick work is
to be given a layer of mortar.

c. Third class bricks: These bricks are ground formed and they are consumed in
inches. These bricks are not hard and they have harsh surfaces with sporadic
and misshaped edges.

These bricks give a dull sound when struck together. They are utilized for
irrelevant and brief designs and at places where precipitation isn't substantial.

d. Fourth class bricks: These are over singed bricks with sporadic shape and dim
tone. These bricks are utilized as a total for concrete in establishment, floors,
streets, and so forth in view of the way that the over consumed bricks have
compacted structure and henceforth, they are a few times discovered more
grounded than even five star bricks.

2.3 Qualities of Good Brick:

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(i) Bricks ought to be table formed, very much consumed in furnaces, copper hued,
liberated from breaks and with sharp and square edges.

(ii) Bricks ought to be uniform shape and ought to be of standard size.

(iii) Bricks should give a clear ringing sound when struck one another.

(iv) Bricks when broken should show a splendid homogeneous and reduced
construction liberated from voids.

(v) Bricks ought not ingest water in excess of 20% by weight for five star bricks and
22 percent by weight for inferior bricks, when absorbed coldwater for a time of 24
hours.

(vi) Bricks ought to be adequately hard, no impression, ought to be left on a brick

surface, when it is scratched with fingernail.

(vii) Bricks ought to be low warm conductivity and they ought to be sound
confirmation.

(viii) Bricks ought not break when dropped level on hard ground from a tallness of
around one meter.

(ix) Bricks, when adsorbed water for 24hours, ought not show stores of white salts
when permitted to dry in concealment.

(x) No brick ought to have pounding strength beneath 55kg/cm2

2.4 Special Types:

Bricks are made in a wide scope of shapes and to suit the prerequisites of the area
where they are to be utilized. Exceptional types of bricks might be required because
of underlying thought or for elaborate enhancement as characterized by the
designer. Extraordinarily formed bricks stay away from the unwieldy interaction of
cutting and adjusting the rectangular bricks to the ideal shape. A portion of the
exceptional sorts of bricks usually utilized are given underneath.

a. Squint Bricks: These bricks are made in an assortment of shapes and are
utilized to the development of charming and heartless squint quoins as
demonstrated in fig2.7.

25
 Fig 2.7 Types of Special Bricks

b. Bullnose Bricks: These bricks are utilized to frame adjusted quoins.

c. Perforated Bricks: These bricks might be standard size bricks created with
holes going through their thickness. Punctured bricks are not difficult to
consume and their light weight makes it conceivable to chop down the
heaviness of the construction and impact in establishments. The opening of
the holes is with the end goal that it gives the greatest measure of ventilation.
However, it doesn't allow the section of rodents or mice. These bricks are
utilized for developing burden bearing dividers of low buildings, board
dividers for multistoried buildings and for giving allotment dividers.

d. Hollow Bricks: These bricks are made of dirt and are furnished with at least
one pit. Bless bricks are light in weight and are utilized to build protection
against warmth and suddenness. They are utilized for the development of

26
 burden bearing dividers, segment dividers or board dividers to multistoried
buildings.

e. Circular Bricks: These bricks have inner and outside faces bended to meet the
prerequisite of the specific bend and sweep of the divider. These bricks are
utilized for wells, towers and so forth

f. Plinth molding and String Course Brick: These bricks are shaped in a few
examples with the object of adding design magnificence to the construction
and simultaneously to assisting with throwing the rack water off the essence
of the dividers.

g. Coping Bricks: These bricks are made in an assortment of shapes to set the
thickness of the divider and are throated on the underside to lose downpour
water as demonstrated in the fig2.7

h. Paving Bricks: These bricks are exceptionally made for clearing the outside of
roads and expressways. These bricks are normally produced using shale, fire
earth on a combination of the two. They are unaffected by climate and normal
traffic wear. They are stacked on the bed of sand which in term lays on the
establishment of stone or cement. The bricks are laid by grouting with
concrete mortar or black-top. They are machine formed and are singed in a
persistent oven to guarantee a serious level of vitrification.

2.5 Tests for bricks :

A brick is for the most part exposed to following tests to discover its appropriateness
of the development work.

ii. Retention
iii. Smashing strength or pressure strength
iv. Hardness
v. Presence solvent salts
vi. Shape and size
vii. Sufficiency
viii. Design

1) Absorption: A decent ought not ingest not in excess of 20% of weight of dry
brick

27
 2) Compressive strength: pounding or compressive strength of brick is
discovered by setting it in a pressure testing machine. It is squeezed till it
breaks. Least crushing strength of brick is 35kg/cm2 and for predominant
bricks, it might fluctuate from 70 to 140 kg/cm2.

3) Hardness: No impression is had on a superficial level the brick is blessed to

receive be adequately hard

4) Presence of solvent salts: The bricks ought not show any dim or white stores
after immersed in water for 24 hours

5) Shape and size: It ought to be standard size and shape with sharp edges

6) Soundness: The brick should give clear ringing sound struck one another

7) Structure: The design ought to be homogeneous, smaller and liberated from

any deformities

2.6 Grading of Bricks

According to IS10719557 and 1970 code particulars,

a. Bricks with compressive strength at least 140kg/cm2 – Grade A-A class.

b. Bricks with compressive strength at least 105kg/cm2 – First class bricks -

Grade A.

c. Bricks with compressive strength at least 70kg/cm2 – Second class bricks –

Grade B.

d. Bricks with compressive strength at the very least the normal worth
35kg/cm2 – class III bricks – Grade C.

28
 CHAPTER - 3 CEMENT

Cement in its broadest term implies any substance which goes about as a limiting
specialist for materials characteristic cement (Roman Cement) is obtained by
consuming and pounding the stones containing earth, carbonates of lime and some
measure of carbonate of magnesia. The mud content in such stones is around 20 to
40 percent. Characteristic cement takes after intently prominent pressure driven
lime. It isn't solid as fake cement, so it has restricted use by and by.

Fake cement is obtained by consuming at high temperature a combination of

calcareous and argillaceous materials to the right extent. Calcined items are known
as clinkers. A little amount of gypsum is added to the clinker and it is then
pummeled into fine powder known as cement. Cement was concocted by a
bricklayer Joseph Aspdin of Leeds in England in 1824. The regular assortment of
fake cement is known as expected setting cement or standard cement or Portland
cement.

3.1 Ingredients – Functions

Customary Portland cement contains two fundamental fixings, in particular

argillaceous and calcareous. In argillaceous materials, mud prevails and in
calcareous materials, calcium carbonate prevails. Great normal cement contains the
following ingredients.

1. Lime (cao) … … . 62%

2. silica (Sio2) … … . 22%

3. Aluminca(Al2 u3) … … . 5%

4. Calcium sulfate (CaSo4) … … . 4%

5. Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) … … . 3%

6. Magnesia (Mgo) … … . 2%

7. Sulphur … … . 1%

8. Alkalies … … . 1%

29
Elements of Ingredients:

1. Lime: Lime is the significant element of cement and its extent is to be looked
after cautiously. Lime in abundance makes the cement weak and makes the
cement grow and break down. Then again, if lime is in insufficiency the
strength of the cement is diminished and it makes cement set rapidly

2. Silica: This likewise a significant element of cement and it gives or confers fast
setting property to give solidarity to cement.

3. Alumina: This fixing confers a fast setting appropriately to cement. Express

alumina debilitates the cement.

4. Calcium Sulfate: This fixing is as gypsum and its capacity is to build the
underlying setting season of cement.

5. Magnesia: The limited quantity of this fixing bestows hardness and shading
to cement.

6. Sulphur: An exceptionally limited quantity of sulfur is helpful in making

sound cement. On the off chance that it is in overabundance, it makes the
cement become shaky.

7. Alkalies: Most of the alkalies present in crude material are diverted by the
pipe gases during warming and just little amount will be left. In the event that
they are in abundance in cement, blossoming is caused.

3.2 Types of Cement

Notwithstanding common cement, coming up next are different assortments of

cement.

a. Acid Resistance Cement: This comprises corrosive opposition totals like

quartz, quartzite, and so on, added substance, for example, sodium
fluorosilicate (Na2SiO6) and watery arrangement of sodium silicate. This is
utilized for corrosive safe and warmth safe covering of establishments of
synthetic Industry. By adding 0.5 percent of unseed oil or 2% of ceresil, its
protection from water is expanded and known as corrosive water safe cement.

30
 b. Blast Furnace Cement: For this cement slag has gotten from shoot heater in
the production of pig iron and it contains essential components of cement,
specifically alumina, lime and silica. The properties of this cement are pretty
much equivalent to those of common cement and end up being practical as
the slag, which is a byproduct, is utilized in its production.

c. Coloured Cement: Cement of wanted tone might be acquired by personally

blending mineral colors in with common cement. The measure of shading
may fluctuate from 5 to 10 percent and strength of cement on the off chance
that it surpasses 10%. Chromium oxide gives earthy colored, red or yellow for
various extents. Hued cements are utilized for completing of floors, outer
surfaces, counterfeit marble, windows

d. Expanding Cement : This sort of cement is delivered by adding an extending

medium like sulpho – aluminate and a balancing out specialist to
conventional cement. Henceforth this cement extends where as other cement
contracts. Growing cement is utilized for the development of water holding
structures and furthermore for fixing the harmed solid surfaces.

e. High alumina Cement: This cement is created by crushing clinkers framed by

calcining bauxite and lime. The complete substance ought not be under 32%
and the proportion by weight of alumina to lime ought to be between 0.85
and 1.30.

Advantages

1. Initial setting time is around 31/2 hours in this way, and permits more
opportunity for blending and putting tasks.

2. It can stand high temperatures.

3. It advances extraordinary warmth during setting hence not influenced by ice.

4. It opposes the activity of acids in a superior manner.

5. It lets off rapidly and achieves higher extreme strength.

Disadvantages:

1. It is exorbitant

31
 2. It can't be utilized in mass development as it advances extraordinary warmth
and as it sets soon.

3. Extreme consideration is to be taken to see that it doesn't interact with even

hints of lime or conventional cement.

f. Hydrophobic Cement: This kind of cement contains admixtures, which diminishes

the wetting capacity of cement grains. The typical hydrophobic admixtures are
acidol naphthene cleanser, oxidized petroleum and so forth when hydrophobic
cement is utilized, the fire pores in concrete are consistently dispersed and
accordingly the ice obstruction and the water opposition of such cement are
significantly expanded.

g. Low Heat Cement: Considerable warmth is delivered during the setting activity of
cement. To decrease the measure of warmth, this kind of cement is utilized. It
contains lower level of tricalcium aluminate C3A and higher level of dicalcium
silicate C2s. This kind of cement is utilized for mass solid works since it measures
less blower strength.

h. Pozzolana Cement: Pozzuolana is a volcanic powder and the rate ought to be

between 10 to 30.

Advantages

1. It achieves compressive strength with age.

2. It can oppose the activity of sulfates.

3. It advances less warmth during setting.

4. It gives a more serious level of water snugness.

5. It gives versatility and usefulness to mortar and cement arranged from it.

6. It offers incredible protection from development

7. It has higher rigidity

Disadvantages:

1. Compressive strength in early days is less.

32
 2. It has less protection from disintegration and enduring activity.

i. Quick Setting Cement: This cement is set up by adding a little rate aluminum
sulfate which lessens the level of gypsum or impedes setting activity and speeding
up the setting activity of cement. As this cement hardness under 30 minutes,
blending and setting activities ought to be finished. This cement is utilized to lay
cement under static water or running water.

j. Rapid Hardening cement: This cement has the same starting and last setting times
as that of conventional cement. However, it accomplishes high strength in early days
due to

1. Burning at high temperature.

2. Increased lime content in cement creation.

3. Very fine pounding.

Advantages:

1. Construction work might be done rapidly.

2. Formwork of cement can be taken out before.

3. It is light in weight.

4. It isn't harmed without any problem.

5. This cement requires a brief time of restoration.

6. Use of this cement additionally higher admissible burdens in the plan.

7. Structural parts built with this cement might be stacked before.

k. Sulphate Resisting Cement: In this cement level of tricalcium aluminates is kept

under 5 to 6 percent and it brings about the expansion in opposing force against
sulfate. This cement is utilized for structure which are probably going to be harmed
by cut off soluble condition, for example, channel linings, courses, siphons and so on

l. White Cement: This is an assortment of conventional cement and it is readied

structure such crude materials which are for all intents and purposes liberated from
shading oxides of Iron, manganese or chromium. For consumption of this cement, oil

33
fuel is utilized rather than coal. It is utilized for floor finish; mortar work, elaborate
works and so forth

3.3. Uses of Cement:

1. Cement mortar for workmanship work, mortar, pointing and so on

2. Concreter for laying floors, rooftops and building lintels, radiates, climate
sheds, steps, columns and so on

3. Construction of significant designing construction like scaffolds, courses,

dams, burrows stockpiling repositories, beacons, deckles and so forth

4. Construction of water tanks, wells, tennis courts, septic tanks, light posts,
streets, phone lodges and so forth

5. Making joints for channels, pipes and so on

6. Manufacture of precast pipes, heaps, garden seats, falsely planned urns,

vases, and so forth dustbins, fencing posts and so on

7. Preparation of establishments, watertight floors, trails and so on

3.4. Admixtures – Uses.

These are the fixings or substances, which are added to cement to improve its
properties like strength, hardness, water opposing force, functionality and so forth
Numerous admixtures like alum and so on are usually utilized for this reason.

34
 CHAPTER - 4 SAND

Sand is a significant building material utilized in the readiness of mortar, concrete,

and so forth

4.1 Sources of Sand:

Sand particles consist of little grains of silica (Si02). It is shaped by the disintegration
of sand stones because of different impacts of climate. Coming up next are the
normal wellsprings of sand.

a. Pit Sand: This sand is found as stores in soil and it is acquired by framing pits
to a profundity of about 1m to 2m from ground level. Pit sand comprises
sharp precise grains, which are liberated from salts for making mortar, clean
pit sand liberated from natural and mud should just be utilized.

b. River Sand: This sand is gotten from beds of streams. Waterway sand
comprises fine adjusted grains. Shade of stream sand is practically white. As
the stream sand is generally accessible in clean condition, it is broadly utilized
for all reasons.

c. Sea Sand: This sand is gotten from beaches. Ocean sand comprises adjusted
grains in light earthy colored tone. Ocean sand comprises salts which draw in
the dampness from the climate and causes moistness, blooming and
deterioration of work. Because of every such explanation, ocean sand isn't
recommendable for designing works. Anyway be utilized as a nearby
material in the wake of being completely washed to eliminate the salts.

4.2 Characteristics of sand:

1. It ought to be artificially dormant

2. It ought to be perfect and coarse. It ought to be liberated from natural matter.

3. It ought to contain sharp, rakish and sturdy grains.

4. It ought not contain salts, which draw in the dampness from air.

35
 5. It ought to be all around reviewed (i.e.) ought to contain particles of different
sizes in appropriate extents.

4.3. Reviewing of Sand:

As per the site of grains, sand is delegated fine, coarse and gravelly

● Sand going through a screen with a clear opening of 1.5875mm is known as

fine sand. It is for the most part utilized for workmanship works.

● Sand going through a screen with clear openings of 7.62mm is known as

serious sand. It is for the most part utilized for putting.

● Sand going through a screen with a clear opening of 3.175mm is known as

coarse sand. It is for the most part utilized for masonry work..

4.4 Bulking of Sand:

The presence of dampness in sand expands the volume of sand. This is because of
actuality that dampness causes film of water around the sand particles which bring
about the expansion of volume of sand. For a dampness substance of 5 to 8 percent,
the expansion in volume might be around 5 to 8 percent, contingent on the
evaluating of sand. The better the material, the more will be the expansion in volume
for a given dampness content. This wonder is known as the building of sand.

At the point when dampness content is expanded by adding more water, sand
particles pack close to one another and the measure of building of sand is
diminished. Subsequently the dry sand and the sand totally overflowed with water
have basically a similar volume.

For discovering the building of sand, a test is completed with the following system
as in the fig 4.1.

36
 Fig 4.1. Building of Sand

I. A holder is taken and it is filled two thirds with the example of sand to be
tried.

II. The stature is estimated, say 20cm.

III. Sand is removed from holder

IV. The holder is loaded up with water

V. Sand is then gradually dropped in the compartment and it is altogether

blended through a bar.

VI. The tallness of sand is estimated say 16cm, at that point building of sand =

37
 CHAPTER - 5 MORTAR

The term mortar is utilized to demonstrate a glue arranged by adding required

amounts of water to a combination of restricting material like cement or Lime and
fine totals like sand. The two parts of mortar specifically the limiting material and
fine totals are a few times alluded to as framework the sturdiness, quality and
strength of mortar will chiefly relies upon amount and nature of the grid. The
consolidated impact of the two parts of mortar is that the mass can tie the bricks or
stones solidly

5.1 Properties – Uses:

The significant properties of a decent mortar blend are versatility, placeability and
water maintenance. The versatility is utilized to demonstrate the consistency of
mortar blend, which may go from firm to liquid

The versatility of mortar relies on pieces of mortar and mortar blends to be utilized
for workmanship work, completing works, and so on are made adequately portable.

The placeability or the straightforwardness with which the mortar blend can be set
with least expense in a flimsy and uniform layer over the surface relies upon the
portability of mortar. The placeablity of mortar blend ought to be to such an extent
that a solid bond is created with the outside of the bed.

A decent mortar blend should force the capacity if holding sufficient dampness
during the transportation and laying over the permeable bed.

On the off chance that water maintenance force of mortar blend is low it isolates into
layers during transportation and when it comes into contact with the permeable bed
like brick, wood, and so on, it parts with its water to that surface. Accordingly the
mortar gets poor in a measure of water and remaining water ends up being lacking
for its solidifying. Henceforth required strength of mortar won't be accomplished
with such a mortar blend will.

Properties of good mortar

1. It ought to be fit for growing great grip with the building units like bricks,
stones and so on

2. It ought to be equipped for building up the planned anxieties.

38
 3. It ought to be fit for opposing entrances of water.

4. It ought to be modest.

5. It ought to be solid.

6. It ought to be effectively useful.

7. It ought not influence the sturdiness of materials with which it comes into
contact.

Usess:

1. To tie the building units like bricks, stones and so on

2. To complete canvas and mortar chips away at uncovered surfaces of brick

work

3. To structure an in any event, bedding layer for building units

4. To structure joints of lines

5. To improve the presence of design.

5.2 Types of Mortar

The mortar are arranged on the bases of the accompanying

1. Bulk thickness

2. Kinds of restricting material

3. Nature of use

4. Special mortars

5.2.1 Bulk thickness:

As per mass thickness of mortar in dry express, the mortars are two sorts

39
 a. Heavy mortars mass thickness is more than 1500kg/m3 and arranged from
substantial quartz

b. Lightweight mortars – mass thickness is under 1500/mg3 and arranged from

light permeable sands.

5.2.2. Sorts of restricting Material

As indicated by the sorts of restricting material, a few factors like anticipated

working conditions, solidifying temperature, dampness conditions, and so on ought
to be thought of. The mortars are arranged into four classes.

a. Lime Mortar - in this engine, lime is utilized as restricting material. Lime

might be destiny lime or Hydraulic lime. Fat lime mortar 1:2 to 1:3 and
pressure driven lime mortar may be 1:2 by VOLUME.

b. Cement mortar: In this mortar, cement is utilized as restricting material.

Contingent on the strength required and significance of work, the extent of
cement to sand changes from 1:2 to 1:6 or more.

c. Gauged Mortar or composite mortar: The way toward adding cement to lime
mortar to improve the nature of lime mortar is known as measuring. It makes
lime mortar conservative, solid and thick. The standard extent of cement to
lime by volume is about 1:6 to 1:8

d. Gypsum mortar: These mortars are set up from gypsum restricting material
like building gypsum and anhydrite restricting materials.

5.2.3 Nature of Application:

As per the idea of use, the mortars are grouped into two classifications.

A. Brick laying mortars: Mortars for brick laying are planned to be utilized for
brick works and dividers. Depending on the functioning conditions and sort
of development, the arrangement of brick work mortars as for the sort of
restricting materials is chosen.

B. Finishing Mortars: these mortars incorporate basic putting work and mortars
for creating compositional or fancy impacts. By and large cement or lime is
utilized as restricting material.

40
5.2.4. Extraordinary Mortars:

A. Fire safe mortar - This mortar is set up by adding 1:2 proportion of aluminous
cement with squashed powder of fire bricks utilized for fire brick lining
heaters, chimneys, stoves and so forth

B. Lightweight mortar – This mortar is set up by adding sawdust, wood powder

to lime or cement mortar for sound confirmation and warmth verification
development

C. Packing Mortar – To pack of oil wells, extraordinary mortars having the

properties of high homogeneity, water obstruction, foreordained setting time,
capacity to shape strong water verification connects breaks and voids of rocks,
protection from earth water pressure and so on must be framed with cement
sand, cement topsoil and cement sand soil mortars.

D. Sound engrossing mortars: To diminish the commotion level, sound retains

mortars with Portland cement, lime, gypsum, slag Portland cement and so on
as the limiting materials utilized in its structure. The totals re chose from
lightweight permeable material like pumice, soot and so forth

E. X-beam protecting mortar: This sort of mortar is utilized for giving the
putting coat to dividers and ceiling of x-beam cupboards. This is substantial
mortar with mass thickness over 2200kg/m3 is utilized. The totals are
obtained from substantial stone and appropriate admixture are added to
improve the defensive property of such a mortar.

5.3. Planning of cement mortar

For planning mortar, water is added to insinuate combinations of restricting material

and sand. The water to be utilized for this reason ought to be liberated from dirt,
earth and different pollutions. Water which is good for drinking should just be
utilized for planning mortar.

Cement mortar might be set up by manual blending or by mechanical blending.

Mechanical blending is favored when mortar is needed in enormous amounts to be
utilized in persistent requests.

a. Mixing in mechanical blender: For this situation, cement and sand in wanted
extent are taken care of in the blender and blended dry. Water is then added

41
 continuously and the wet blending a proceeded for at any rate one moment to
get the mortar of wanted consistency. It is important to guarantee that the
amount of mortar which can be utilized inside thirty minutes of its blending
ought to be set up at a time. This is fundamental as following 30 minutes the
mortar starts to set.

b. Manual blending: For this situation, indicated amount of sand is spread and
leveled on a clean dry stone work stage. Required amounts of cement packs
are purged into a ridiculous layer. The fixings are then blended altogether by
turning them over the sand layer. The fixings are then blended altogether by
turning them again and again. In reverse and forward a few times with the
assistance of spade. Dry blending is proceeded till the blend has achieved a
uniform tone. A bunch of dry blend is then placed in the shallow stone work
tank and simply adequate amounts of water are added to carry the mortar to
the consistency of a glue. The amount of dry blend taken in each group ought
to be such the mortar shaped each time is burned-through inside 30 minutes.

Precautionary measures in utilizing mortar

1. Consumption of mortar – the utilization of mortar ought to be just

about as ahead of schedule as could really be expected
Line mortar – with in a day and a half after its arrangement
Cement mortar – within 30 minutes
Gaged mortar – within 2 hours.

2. Frost activity - Setting activity of mortar is influenced by the presence of ice

and is not prudent in cold climates.

3. Soaking of building units: Building units ought not be splashed before

utilization of mortar. In the event that this precautionary measure isn't taken,
water of mortar will be consumed by the building units and mortar will get
powerless.

4. Sprinkling of water: The development work completed by mortar ought to be

saved dam or wet by sprinkling water for around 7 to 10 days to stay away
from fast drying of mortar.

5. Workability: Mortar ought not contain overabundance water and it ought to

be hardened as can be helpfully utilized. Joints ought to be very much framed
and abundance mortar from joints ought to be conveniently taken off by a
scoop. Surface shaped by mortar for building units to rest ought to be even.

42
 CHAPTER - 5 CONCRETE

Cement concrete is a combination of cement, sand, stones or squashed stone and

water. At the point when put in the skeleton of structures and permitted to fix, it
turns out to be hard similar to a stone. Cement concrete is significant building
material in view of the accompanying reasons.

1. It can be formed into any size and state of sturdy underlying part.

2. It is feasible to control the properties of cement concrete.

3. It is feasible to automate totally its readiness and setting measures.

4. It has satisfactory pliancy for mechanical working.

The cement concrete has the accompanying properties

1. It has high compressive strength

2. It is liberated from consumption

3. It solidifies with age and proceeds for quite a while after concrete has
achieved adequate strength

4. It is end up being efficient than steel

5. It ties quickly with steel and it is frail in strain, steel reinforcement is put in
cement concrete at appropriate spots to take up malleable concrete or
basically R.C.C.

6. It structures a hard surface, equipped for opposing scraped area stresses. This
is called built up cement.

7. It has the propensity to be permeable to stay away from this legitimate

reviewing and combination of the totals, least water-cement proportion ought
to be embraced.

6.1 Constituents - Requirements.

The principal constituents of concrete are

43
 a) Cement/Lime: Before presentation of customary Portland cement, lime was
utilized as cementing material. At present the majority of the cement concrete
works in the building development is finished with standard Portland
cement. Be that as it may, other uncommon assortments of cement, for
example, fast solidifying cement, high alumina cement are utilized in specific
situations. The cement ought to follow every single standard particular

b) Fine Aggregates: The material, which has gone through a 4.7625mm B.S.test
strainer, is named as fine totals. Normally regular waterway sand is utilized
as fine totals. In any case, places where common sand isn't accessible
monetarily, finely crushed stone might be utilized as fine totals.

c) Coarse Aggregates: The material held on 4.7625mm size B.S.test strainer is

named as coarse totals. Broken stone is by and large utilized as coarse totals.
For dainty pieces, and dividers, the greatest size of coarse totals ought to be
restricted to 33% the thickness of the concrete segment

d) Water: Water to be utilized in the concrete work ought to have the

accompanying properties.

1) It ought to be liberated from oils

2) It ought to be liberated from acids or alkalies

3) It ought to be liberated from Iron, Vegetables matter or other substance, which

is probably going to have an unfavorable impact on concrete.

4) It ought to be good for drinking reason

Capacity of Water

1. It goes about as ointment for fine and coarse totals.

2. It demonstrations synthetically with cement to shape restricting glue with

coarse totals and reinforcement.

3. It is important to motion the cementing material over the outside of the totals.

4. It is utilized to sodden the concrete to forestall them retaining water crucially

vital for synthetic activity

44
 5. It empowers the concrete blend to blow into molds.

6.2. Uses and types

Uses of Concrete:

1:2:2 - For hefty stacked R.C.C segments and R.C.C curves of long ranges

1:2:2 - For little precast individuals from concrete like fencing shafts, utility poles and
so forth watertight development.

1:2:3 - For water tanks, spans, sewers and so on

1:2½:3½ - For pathway, concrete streets

1:2:4 - For general work of RCC like steps, radiates, sections, pieces, and so forth

1:4:8/ 1:5:10 For mass concrete for weighty dividers, establishment footings and so
forth

6.3 Preparation of concrete blend:

There are two kinds of concrete blending

(i) Hand blending

(ii) Machine blending

1. Hand Mixing: This technique for blending concrete is turned to when the
amount of concrete to be utilized in a work is deficient to warrant the need of
a machine. This is utilized with advantage in where apparatus can't be
utilized because of their non-accessibility or in works close to an emergency
clinic where the commotion of the machine isn't attractive. Hand blending is
done on a spotless, hard and impermeable surface. Cement and sand are first
blended dry in with the assistance of digging tools until the combination
achieves a uniform tone. Aggregates are then added to this combination and
the entire blend is then turned by scoops until the stone pieces consistently
spread all through. After this, an ideal amount of water is filled the pile from
a can fitted with a rose. The mass is then turned until a functional

45
 combination is acquired. It is encouraged to add 10% additional cement to
prepare for the chance of insufficient blending by this technique.

2. Machine Mixing: - The machine utilized for blending concrete is named as

concrete blender. Two sorts of concrete blenders are in like manner are

1. Continuous blenders

2. Batch blenders

Persistent blenders are utilized in huge development where huge and constant
progression of concrete is wanted. The way toward taking care of the blending is
pretty much programmed. The machine requires cautious oversight to get the
concrete blend of wanted consistency.

In a cluster kind of concrete blender. The ideal extent of materials are taken care of
into the container of a drum wherein the materials get blended by the arrangement
of sharp edges or confounds inside the blender. Clump blenders are further two
sorts 1. Shifting drum type 2. shut drump type. In the principal type, parts are taken
care of in the spinning drum in a shifted position and after at some point the
concrete blend is released by shifting the drums the other way. In the last kind the
drum remains turning one way and purged through a container which slants to get
the release.

While utilizing the blender, coarse totals ought to be taken care of first, sand and
cement ought to be put subsequently. In this spinning state, the parts get blended
while water is poured with the assistance of can. The concrete ought to be for at least
2 minutes, the time being estimated after every one of the fixings including water
have been taken care of into the drum. The bunch type concrete blender is as
demonstrated in the fig 6.1.

46
 Fig 6.1 Batch type Concrete Mixer

6.4 Compaction - Methods:

Concrete ought to be set and compacted following blending. The concrete ought to
be put inside 30 to 40 minutes to forestall the threat of concrete getting its underlying
set, prior to laying the concrete, the covering ought to be cleaned of the entirety of
residue or flotsam and jetsam. Unrefined petroleum or oil and so forth is normally
applied to the covering prior to cementing to forestall the covering retaining the
water from the concrete or getting stuck to it. In setting the concrete, care ought to be
taken to see that it ought not be tossed from statues. Concrete ought to be laid in
layers 15 to 30 cm (6" to 12") in thickness and each layer ought to be appropriately
compacted prior to laying the following one.

Compaction of concrete ought to be continued following the setting. The capacity of

compaction of concrete is to oust the air rises in the mass and make it impermeable
notwithstanding its getting the ideal strength. The concrete mass ought to be
solidified or compacted till the cream of the cement begins showing up on a
superficial level. Over-compaction may prompt isolation of concrete
while-under-compaction may leave air voids in concrete and results in nectar
brushing. Compaction might be finished by hand or mechanical gadget.

(i) Hand compaction: The hand compaction might be finished by rodding, packing
or pounding. Packing is typically received for compacting concrete for sections or
other such surfaces. Rodding is accomplished for slight vertical individuals.
Pounding is accomplished for huge plain concrete works and for compacting a
practically dry concrete the surface is beaten with substantial level base rammers till
the slim film of mortar begins showing up on a superficial level.

(ii) Mechanical compaction: Mechanical compaction is finished by the utilization of

vibrators. Vibrators are of three kinds 1. Interior 2. Outside 3. Surface. Inward
vibrators are regularly utilized in huge works for level surface compaction. In this
the vibrator is inundated in the full profundity of the concrete layer. The vibrator
ought to be kept in one situation for around 3 minutes and afterward eliminated and
set another position. Outside vibrators are put against the structure work and are
just received for flimsy parts by individuals or in places where inside vibrators can't
be utilized easily. Surface vibrators are for the most part utilized in concrete street
development. Compaction of concrete by utilization of vibrators allows the
utilization of hardened concrete blend of high strength and guarantee preferable
compaction over that acquired by the technique for hand compaction

47
6.5 Curing of concrete:

Restoring concrete is one of the fundamental necessities of the cycle of cementing.

Relieving is interaction of save the set concrete soggy for certain days to empower
the concrete increase more strength Purposes:

(i) Curing shields concrete surfaces from sun and wind

(ii) Presence of water is fundamental for cause the compound activity which an
organizations the setting of concrete

48
 CHAPTER - 5 TIMBER

Timber means wood, which is appropriate for building or carpentry or different

other designing purposes like for development of entryways, windows, rooftops,
parts, radiates, posts, cabinets, racks and so on

Uses of timber:

(i) Used as heaps, posts, radiates, lintels, entryway/window casings and leaves,
rooftop individuals and so forth

(ii) Used for deck, roof, framing and development of parcel dividers

(iii) Used for structure work for concrete, for the timbering of channels, centring for
curve work, framework, transmission shafts and fencing

(iv) Used in cart and mentor building, marine establishments and extensions

(v) Used in making furniture of agribusiness carries out, sports merchandise,

instruments, well controls, mortar bodies, trucks and carriages, rail line rests,
pressing cases and so forth

7.1 Classification of trees

Contingent on their method of development trees might be separated in the

accompanying two classes

(i) Endogenous trees – These trees develop inwards and stringy mass is found in
their longitudinal segments. Timber from these trees has extremely restricted
designing applications Ex: bamboo, stick , palm and so forth

(ii) Exogenous trees: These expansions in mass by developing outwards and utilized
for designing purposes.

Exogenous trees are further sub isolated into two gatherings

a) conifers
b) deciduous

49
 a) Conifers or evergreen trees: These trees having pointed, needle like or scale
like leaves and yield delicate wood

b) Deciduous trees: The trees having level wide leaves and leaves of those trees
fall in harvest time and new ones show up in spring season. Timber for
designing reason for existing is for the most part gotten from deciduous trees.
These trees yield hardwood.

Ex: debris, sea shore, oak, sal, teak, shisha and walnut

Comparison of softwood and hardwood

Design of tree: From the perceivability perspective, the construction of a tree can be
partitioned into two classifications

1. Macro design

2. Micro design

I. Macro structure: The design of wood noticeable to the unaided eye or at a

little amplification is called full scale structure. Fig 7.1 shows the full scale
design of exogenous trees.

50
 Fig 7.1 Micro design of exogenous tree

(i) Pith: The deepest focal bit or center of the tree is called essence or medulla

(ii) Heart wood: The inward yearly rings encompassing the substance is known as
heart wood. It confers unbending nature to tree

(iii) Sap wood: The cuter yearly rings between heartwood and cambium layer is
known as sap wood

(iv) Cambium layer: Thin layer of sap between sap wood and internal bark is known
as cambium layer

(v) Inner bark: The internal skin or layer covering the cambium layer is known as
inward bark

(vi) Outer Bark: The external skin or front of the tree is known as external bark

(vii) Medullary beams: The slender spiral filaments stretching out from essence to
cambium layer are known as medullary beams

II. Micro structure: The construction of wood obviously just at extraordinary

amplifications is called miniature design under miniature degree, it becomes
clear that the wood comprises living and lead cells of different sizes and
shapes.

51
7.2 Defects in Timber:

Imperfections happening in timber are gathered into the accompanying divisions.

a) Defects because of change:

During the way toward changing timber over to business structure, the
accompanying imperfections may happen.

(i) Chip mark: imprint or sign put by chip on completed surface of timber

(ii) Diagonal grain: Due to ill-advised sawing of timber

(iii) Torn grain: Due to falling of hardware little impression is shaped

(iv) Wane: Presence of unique adjusted surface on the fabricated piece of

timber

b) Defects because of parasites:

The assault of timber by organisms when dampness substance of timber is
above 20% and presence of air and warmth for the development of growths
the accompanying deformities are caused

(I) Blue color: Sap of wood is finished to bluesh shading

(ii) Brown decay: Decay or illness of timber by expulsion of cellulose

compounds from wood and wood expects the earthy colored tone

(iii) Dry decay: Convert the wood into dry powder structure

(iv) Heart decay: This is framed when branch has emerged from a tree and the
tree gets frail and gives out honor sound when hit with a mallet

(v) Sap finish: The sapwood loses its tone in view of feed on cell substance of
sap wood.

(vi) Wet decay: Caused substance disintegration of wood of the timber and
timber converts to grayish earthy colored powder known as wet decay.

(vii) White decay: Attack lignin of wood and wood expects the presence of
white mass

52
c) Defects because of creepy crawlies:

(i) Beetles: Small creepy crawlies structure openings of size about 2mm width
and assault sapwood of all species of hardwoods. Passages are framed every
which way in sapwood by the hatchlings of these bugs and changed over into
fine flour like powder. They don't upset the external cover and look sound.

(ii) Marine drills: These make openings or bore burrows in wood for taking
safe houses. The wood assaulted by marine drills loses shading and strength

(ii) Termites: White subterranean insects are quick in consuming the wood
from the center of the cross segment. They make burrows inside in various
ways and generally do not upset the outer shell or cover

d) Defects because of characteristic powers:

The primary characteristic powers answerable for causing abandons in timber
are unusual development and euphoria of tissues

(i) Burls: Irregular projections show up on the group of timber due to stun at
more youthful age

(ii) Callus: Soft tissue or skin which covers the injury of a tree.

(iii) Chemical stain: Discolored because of the compound activity caused

(iv) Coarse grain: Annual rings are broadened, tree develops quickly
subsequently timber has less strength

(v) Dead wood: Timber got from dead standing tree

(vi) Druxiness: White rotted spots by organisms

(vii) Foxiness: Due to helpless ventilation during capacity or by

commencement of rot due to over development demonstrated by red or
yellow hint in wood

(viii) Knots: Bases of branches or appendages which are severed or cut from
the tree as demonstrated in the fig 7.2.

53
 Fig 7.2 Knot

(ix) Rind nerves: Rind implies bark and nerve demonstrates unusual
development and peculiar bended swellings found on the body of a tree.

(x) Shakes: These break what halfway or totally separate the filaments of
wood as demonstrated in fig. 7.3.

Fig 7.3 Different kinds of shakes

(xi) Twisted filaments: or Wandering hearts: brought about by bending of

youthful trees by quick blowing wind as demonstrated in fig 7.4.

54
 Fig 7.4

(xii) Upsets or breaks: Indicate wood strands which are harmed by smashing
or pressure as demonstrated in fig 7.5.

Fig 7.5

7.3 Wood based items:

Timber which is arranged logically in a manufacturing plant is named as modern

timber and such timber has wanted shape, appearance strength

(a) Veneers: These are slight sheets or cuts of 0.40 to 6mm wood of prevalent
quality. Indian timbers, which are appropriate for facade, are mahogany, oak,
rosewood, sissoo, teak and so forth The way toward setting up a sheet of
venus is known as veneering. Facades are utilized to create compressed
woods secure sheets and lamin sheets.

(b) Plywoods: Plywoods are sheets, which are set up from slight layers of wood
or facade. At least three facades in odd numbers are squeezed utilizing
cements. The pressed woods are utilized for different purposes like roofs,
entryways, furniture, segments, framing dividers, pressing cases, rail line
mentors, formwork for concrete and so on. Thickness may differ from 6 to
25mm.

(c) Fibre sheets: These are unbending sheets and they are otherwise called
squeezed wood or reproduced wood. The thickness shifts from 3mm to

55
 12mm. These are accessible in lengths from 3 to 4.5m and width shifting from
12 to 18m. These are utilized for

● For inner completion of rooms, for example, divider framing; suspended

roofs.

● To build structure work for cement concrete.

● To build allotments.

● To plan flush entryways, highest points of tables and so forth

● To give a protecting material of warmth and sound.

● To fill in as clearing or ground surface material.

(d) Impreg timbers: Timber which is completely or in part covered with gum is
known as impreg timber. The standard gum utilized is phenol formaldehyde
which is dissolvable in water. Impreg timber is accessible under business
trademarks like formica, sungloss, sunmica and so on and it is utilized for
molds, furniture, improving articles and so forth

(e) Compeg timbers: The way toward getting ready compreg timbers is the same
as that of impreg timbers aside from that relieving is done under tension. The
strength and sturdiness of compreg timbers is more when contrasted with the
impreg timbers.

7.4. Attributes of good timbers:

1. Appearance: A newly cut surface of timber should display hard and of

sparkling appearance.

2. Colour: A tone ought to ideally be dim

3. Defects: A decent timber ought to be liberated from arrangement

imperfections like bunches, blemishes, shakes and so on

4. Durability: A decent timber ought to be strong and equipped for opposing the
activity of organisms, bugs, synthetic substances, actual organizations, and
mechanical offices.

56
5. Elasticity: The timber gets back to its unique shape when burden causing its
deformity is taken out

6. Fibres: The timber ought to have straight strands

7. Fire opposition: A thick wood offers great protection from fire

8. Hardness: A decent timber ought to be hard

9. Mechanical wear: A decent timber ought not crumble effectively because of

mechanical wear or scraped spot

10. Shape: A decent timber ought to be fit for holding its shape during change or
preparing

11. Smell: A decent timber ought to have a sweet smell. Horrendous smell shows
rotted timber

12. Sound : A decent timber should give an unmistakable ringing sound when
struck

13. Strength: A decent timber ought to be adequately solid for functioning as

underlying part like joist, pillar, crossbeam and so forth

14. Structure: The construction ought to be uniform

15. Toughness: A decent timber ought to be intense (i.e.) equipped for offering
protection from stuns because of vibration

16. Water penetrability: A decent timber ought to have low water porousness,
which is estimated by the amount of water sifted through unit surface space
as an example of wood.

17. Weathering impacts: A decent timber ought to have the option to stand
sensibly the enduring impacts (dry and wet)

18. Weight: The timber with significant burden is viewed as sound and solid.

19. Working conditions: Timber ought to be effectively useful. It ought not stop
up the teeth of saw.

57
 CHAPTER - 5 MISCELLANEOUS BUILDINGS
MATERIALS

8.1 Metals:

Metals are utilized for different designing purposes like primary individuals, roofing
materials, moist verification courses, pipes, tanks, entryways, windows and so on
out of the relative multitude of metals, iron is the most famous metal and it has been
utilized in the development movement since pre-notable occasions. With the end
goal of study metals are assembled in the accompanying two classes

(i) Ferrous metals: Ferrous metals contain iron as their fundamental constituent

Ex: Cast iron, fashioned iron, steel

(ii) Non-ferrous metal: Non ferrous metal doesn't contain iron as their primary
constituent

Ex: Aluminum, copper and so forth

Significant assortments of iron minerals:

Coming up next are the significant business assortments of iron minerals, which are
generally utilized, in the assembling interaction

(1) Haematite – Red oxide of iron (Fe2O3) 65 to 70% of iron

(2) Limonite – 2Fe2O3, 3H2O ( 60% of iron)

(3) Magnetite – Fe3O4 (70 to 73% of iron)

(4) Pyrite – FeS2 (45 to 47% of iron)

(5) Siderite – FeCO3 (40% of iron)

58
8.1.1 Pig Iron:

The unrefined tainted iron, which is separated from iron minerals, is known as
pig-iron and it frames the fundamental material for the assembling of cast-iron,
created iron and steel.

The pig iron is fabricated by the accompanying activities

(i) Dressing: Crushed into pieces 25mm, pollutants of dirt, topsoil and other hearty
matter eliminated by washing, attractive separators are utilized for attractive
contaminations

(ii) Calcination and cooking: Water and carbon dioxide are eliminated from metals
by calcinations. By simmering, making the ares hot and dry after evacuation of
sulfur

(iii) Smelting: refining is completed in an extraordinary kind heater known as impact

heater. The crude material comprises iron minerals, the fluxing materials like
limestone and fuel like coal, charcoal is permitted to through the throat part of the
heater. By decreasing, the pig iron gathers in the hearth of the heater. The slag frame
is taken out and hot gases dust escapes through the outlet, which is given in the
throat segment of the heater as demonstrated in fig 8.1.

59
8.1.2 Cast iron:

Cast iron is made by remelting pig iron with coke and limestone. This remelting is
done in a heater known as dome heater, which is pretty much the same as an impact
heater. Its shape is round and hollow with measurement about 1m and stature of
about 5m as demonstrated in fig 8.2. The crude materials are driven from the top and
the heater is terminated. The pollution of pig iron is eliminated somewhat by
oxidation. The liquid cast iron is driven into molds of expected shapes to frame what
are known as solid metal castings and slag is taken out from the highest point of cast
iron at customary stretches.

Fig 8.2 Cupola Furnace

Structure of cast iron:

(1) Cast iron contains around 2 to 4 percent of carbon.

(2) Manganese makes cast iron-weak and hard, so it very well might be kept
underneath 0.75 percent.

(3) Phosphorus makes it fragile and the rate might be 1 to 1.5 percent.

(4) Silicon reductions shrinkage and guarantees milder and better castings and it
very well might be under 2.5 percent.

(5) Sulphur makes cast iron fragile and hard and ought to be kept underneath
0.10 percent.

Properties of cast-iron:

(1) If put in salt water, it turns out to be delicate.

(2) It can be solidified by warming and unexpected cooling.

60
 (3) It can't be charged.

(4) It doesn't rust without any problem.

(5) It is fusible.

(6) It is hard, yet weak.

(7) It isn't pliable and can't be embraced to ingest stuns and impacts.

(8) Melting temperature is around 12500 C.

(9) It therapists on cooking.

(10) Its structure is granular and glasslike with a whitish or grayish hint.

(11) Its explicit gravity is 7.5.

(12) It needs pliancy and subsequently it is unacceptable for manufacturing

work.

(13) It is frail in pressure (1500kg/cm2) and solid in pressure (6000kg/cm2).

(14) Two bits of C.I. can't be associated by the way toward riveting or welding
(They are to be associated by stray pieces).

Utilizations cast iron:

(1) For making storages, water pipes, gas lines and sewers, sewer vent covers and
clean fittings.

(2) For making elaborate castings like sections, doors, light posts and so forth

(3) For making portions of hardware which are not exposed to stun loads.

(4) For assembling pressure individuals.

(5) For planning rail seats, carriage wheels and so forth

61
8.1.3 Wrought Iron:

Wrought iron is practically unadulterated and it scarcely contains carbon more than
0.15 percent. Yet, the interaction of its assembling is arduous and dreary. Created
iron is produced by four activities

a. Refining

b. Pudding

c. Shining

d. Rolling

Properties of fashioned iron:

1) It can be effectively manufactured and welded

2) It can be utilized to frame transitory magnets

3) It is pliable, malleable and intense

4) It is decently flexible

5) It is unaffected by saline water

6) It opposes erosion in a superior manner

7) Its dissolving point is about 15000C

8) Its explicit gravity is about 7.8

9) Its extreme compressive strength is around 2000 kg/cm2

10) Its extreme rigidity is about 4000kg/cm2.

Uses of created iron:

It is utilized for bolts, chains, fancy iron work, rail line couplings, water and steam
lines, screws and nuts, horseshoe bars, handrails, lashes for timber rooftop brackets,
kettle tubes, material sheets and so forth

62
8.1.4 Steel :

According to carbon content is concerned, steel frames a halfway stage between cast
iron and fashioned iron. Cast iron contains carbon from 2 to 4 percent and created
iron contains 0.15 percent. In steel the carbon content fluctuates from 0.25 to 1.5
percent. The steel is made by the accompanying cycles.

1) Bessemen cycle

2) Cementation cycle

3) Crucible steel measure

4) Duplex cycle

5) Electric cycle

6) L.D. Cycle

7) Open-hearth measure

Actual properties of steel:

I) Carbon content: Variation in carbon rate produces steel of various evaluations.

Carbon consistently helps with expanding the hardness and strength of steel and
diminishes the pliability of steel.

ii) Presence of debasements:

a) Silicon content is about 0.30 to 0.40 percent, flexibility and strength of steel are
extensively expanded.

b) Sulphur content between 0.02 to 0.10 percent, no calculable impact on

flexibility or strength anyway malleability and weld capacity diminishes.

c) Phosphorus content underneath 0.12 percent decreases stun obstruction,

malleability and strength of steel.

63
 d) Manganese content 0.3 to 1.00 percent, the steel turns out to be exceptionally
fragile and henceforth, it loses its underlying worth

iii) Heat treatment measures: It is feasible to adjust the properties of steel by

warming and cooling under controlled conditions. Coming up next are the
motivations behind heat treatment

I) To modify attractive properties of steel

ii) To change the construction of steel
iii) To increment protection from warmth and erosion
iv) To increment surface hardness
v) To make steel effectively useful
vi) To differ strength and hardness

The chief cycles associated with the warmth treatment of steel

1) Annealing-To make steel delicate

2) Case solidifying The center of example stays extreme and bendable

3) Cementing-The skin of the steel is soaked with carbon (880 to 9500C)

4) Hardening-It is converse interaction of strengthening to make hard

5) Normalising-To reestablish steel to ordinary condition and it is embraced

when design of steel is truly upset under any circumstance

6) Tempering-This cycle is applied to steel, which are treated with solidifying

measure

iv) Magnetic properties of steel: Steel broadly utilized in electrical hardware,

produces, transformers and so on For making steel appropriate for such use, its
attractive properties are given incomparable significance and these properties are
acquired via cautiously changing its substance structure.

a. Carbon – carbon content as low as could really be expected and ought not
surpass 0.10 percent.

b. Silicon-presence of silicon brings about an impressive increment of electrical

misfortunes and consequently it is profoundly unwanted.

64
 c. Sulphur and phosphorus: Combines substance of sulfur and phosphorus
surpasses 0.3 percent, attractive properties of steel are incredibly influenced.

d. Manganese: If manganese content surpasses 0.3 percent, it ends up being

damaging to the attractive properties of steel.

Uses of steel:

8.1.5 Non Metals:

I. Aluminium:- Aluminum is significant nonmetal happens in plenitude on the

outside of earth in different structures like oxides, sulfates, silicates,
phosphates and so on Bauxite (Al2O3, 2H2O) is hydrated oxide of aluminum
created industrially.

Aluminum is separated from bauxite as per the following.

1. Bauxite is filtered.

2. It is then disintegrated in melded cryolite which is twofold fluoride of

aluminum and sodium, Al F2, 3NaF.

65
 3. This arrangement is then taken to an electric heater and aluminum is isolated
out by electrolysis.

Properties:

1. It is acceptable conduit of warmth and power

2. It is a gleaming white metal with a somewhat blue hint and it displays shine
on a newly broken surface.

3. It is once in a while assaulted by nitric corrosive, natural corrosive or water. It

is profoundly impervious to erosion.

4. It is light in weight, pliable and pliable

5. It is extremely delicate.

6. It melts at about 6580C.

7. It has extraordinary sturdiness and rigidity

8. It promptly disintegrates in hydrochloric corrosive

9. Its explicit gravity is about 2.70.

Uses:

1. This metal is utilized for making portions of plane, utensils, paints, electric wires,
window outlines, coating bars, associated sheets, underlying individuals, facts,
posts, boards, balustrades, and so on

II. Copper:

The significant metals of copper are cuprite Cu2O, Copper look Cu2S, copper pyrites
CuFeS2, Malachete CuCo3, Cu(OH)2 and Azuritc @CuCo3, cu(OH)2.

Properties:

1. It gets weak just beneath its dissolving point

2. It can be worked in hot or cold condition yet it can't be welded.

66
 3. It has a curious red tone

4. It is a decent channel of warmth and power

5. It is assaulted by steam at white warmth.

6. It isn't assaulted by dry air, yet soggy air gases a green covering to copper
surface.

7. It isn't assaulted by water at any temperature

8. It is malleable, malleable and delicate

9. Its explicit gravity is 8.90.

Uses:-

1. The market types of copper are ingots, sheets, cylinders and wires.

2. It is widely utilized for making electric links, composites, family utensils,

electroplating, lighting conveyors, dowels in stone workmanship, and so on

8.2. Plastics:

Plastic is one the new designing materials, which has shown up in the market
everywhere in the world. Plastic is a natural substance and it comprises common or
manufactured folio or saps with or without embellishment compounds. Plastics are
the mixtures of carbon with different components like hydrogen, nitrogen and
oxygen.

Properties:

1. Appearance: Some Plastics are totally straightforward in appearance

2. Chemical opposition: Plastics offer extraordinary protection from dampness,

synthetics and solvents.

3. Dimensional Stability: This property of plastic kindnesses agreeably with that

of other basic designing materials.

67
4. Ductility: Plastic needs flexibility. Thus its part may come up short all of a
sudden

5. Electrical Insulation: Plastic forces fantastic electric protecting property

6. Durability: Please are very sturdy.

7. Finishing: Any surface treatment might be given to plastic. It is additionally

simple to have specialized control during its production.

8. Fire Resistance: Plastic are natural in nature and consequently, all plastics are
burnable.

9. Fixing: Plastics can be effortlessly fixed in position they can be darted,

clipped, penetrated, stuck, screw strung or just pushed filled in position.

10. Humidity: The properties of plastic are administered somewhat by stickiness.

11. Maintenance: It is not difficult to keep up plastic surfaces.

12. Melting Point: Most plastics have a low dissolving point of about 500C.

13. Optical Property: Several sorts of plastics are straightforward and clear.

14. Sound Absorption: Acoustical sheets are set up by impregnating fiberglass

with phenolic saps.

15. Strength: Plastic is sensibly solid. The strength of plastics might be expanded
by building up with different stringy materials.

16. Thermal property: Thermal conductivity of plastics is low contrasted with

wood.

17. Weather Resistance: Only certain assortments of plastics can be presented to

climate.

18. Weight: Low Specific gravity. The length weight of the plastic lessens the
vehicle costs and works with fixing.

68
Uses of Plastics:

1. Bath and Sink units

2. Cistern ball drifts
3. Corrugated and plain sheets
4. Decorative overlay and moldings
5. Electrical behaviors
6. Electrical protections
7. Films of water sealing, moist sealing
8. Floor tiles
9. Foams for warm protection
10. Jointless deck
11. Lighting apparatuses
12. Overhead water tanks
13. Paints and stains
14. Pipes to convey cold water
15. Roof lights
16. Wall tiles
17. Safety glass
18. Water safe glues and so on

8.3. Glues:

A glue is a substance, which is utilized to join at least two sections in order to frame
a solitary unit.

Advantages:

1. A wide assortment of mix is joining is conceivable

2. It can be utilized for holding the surfaces of glass, metal, plastics and wood.

3. It makes a huge impact

4. It is feasible to forestall erosion between various metals joined by glue.

5. It produces satisfactory strength

6. Permeable joint can be made impermeable for water and gas by the use of
glues

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 7. The cycle of applying glues is simple, affordable and fast.

Disadvantages

1. It is unimaginable to expect to embrace any cement for all substances.

2. The sticky substances doesn't get solid following its application

3. The sticky substances don't by and large stay stable at high temperatures.

8.4 Asbestos:

Asbestos is normally a strong mineral substance. It is made out of hydrous silicates

of calcium and magnesium (CaSio3,3MgSio3) It additionally contains modest
quantities of Iron Oxide and alumina Natural asbestos can be isolated into two
gatherings.

1. Acid protections asbestos.

2. Non Acid obstruction asbestos.

Properties:

1. Holes can be bored and screws can be fitted on its surface.

2. It can be cut into pieces

3. It is an amazing protector of warmth and power.

4. It is flame resistant and corrosive evidence

5. It is adaptable delicate and Non-evidence

6. It is smooth like glass and silk

7. It possesses a decent adsorption limit

8. Its tone is earthy colored, dark or white

70
 9. Its liquefying point is 1200C to 15500C

10. Its explicit gravity is 3.10

11. Its quality is basically influenced by the length of filaments

12. Its atoms are solid bound together just one way and that is the reason it has
extremely high rigidity along the strands.

Uses:

1. Asbestos cement items have gotten exceptionally mainstream as of now

2. Asbestos felt can be set up by covering asbestos filaments with bitumen and it
is utilized as a moist confirmation layer.

3. It is utilized as covering material for attractive curls

4. It is utilized as coating material of wire box and switch box

5. It is utilized for protecting boilers, heaters, and so forth

6. It is utilized for planning five proof materials, ropes and so on

7. It is utilized to shape asbestos paint.

8.5 Glass:

Glass is a combination of various metallic silicates, one of which is normally that of

an antacid metal. It is indistinct, straightforward or clear. It might likewise be
considered as a hardened super cooled arrangement of different metallic silicates
having boundless thickness. For the reason if arrangement glass might be grouped
into the accompanying three classifications.

1. Soda-lime glass. Na2, CaO, 6SiO2

2. Potash-lime glass. K20, CaO, 6SiO2

3. Potash – Lead glass. K20, PbO, 6SiO2

71
Properties:-

1. It assimilates, refracts or communicates light.

2. It can take up high clean and might be utilized as an alternative for each
exorbitant diamond.

3. It has no unmistakable glasslike structure.

4. It has no sharp softening point.

5. It is influenced by alkalies

6. It is a magnificent electrical separator

7. It is accessible in wonderful tones.

8. It acts more as strong than most solids as in it is versatile

9. It is equipped for being worked from various perspectives

10. It is amazingly weak.

11. It isn't normally influenced via air or water

12. It is feasible to deliberately after a portion of its properties like fusibility,

hardness, refractive force or to suit various purposes.

13. It isn't effectively assaulted by normal synthetic reagents.

14. It is feasible to object to glasses with enhanced properties. The glasses might
be clear, vapid, diffuse and stained.

15. It is possible to weld bits of glass by combination

16. It is straightforward and clear.

17. When it is warmed, it turns out to be delicate and delicate with an accent in
temperature.

18. It is feasible to make glass lighter than plug or milder than cotton or more
grounded then steel by utilizing advancement of science.

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Usess:

1. Soda lime glass: It is utilized in the assembling of glass tubes, research facility
device, reinforced glass, window glass and so forth

2. Potash lime glass: It is utilized in the manufacturer of glass articles, which

need to withstand high temperatures.

3. Potash – Lead glass: It is utilized in the assembling of counterfeit pearls,

electric bulbs, focal points, crystals and so forth

4. Common Glass: It is mostly utilized in the assembling of medication bottles.

8.6 Plaster of paris.

When finely ground gypsum rock is warmed to a temperature somewhere in the

range of 1000c and 1400c, three fourths of the consolidated water passes off as a gas
stream. The excess item is known as 'Mortar of Paris' if unadulterated gypsum has
been utilized and 'Hard divider Plaster' of the gypsum rock contains contaminations.

Utilizations:

1. Plaster of Paris is utilized for cast of nonmetal plasterwork

2. It creates hard surface, sharp shapes.

8.7 Linoleum:

It is a combination of oxidized linseed oil, pounded plug, wood flour, shades and
tones, all spread in a uniform layer on material the outside of which might be
painted in various examples, the surface is at that point, thereafter water-sealed with
the assistance of an oil paint.

It is accessible in various gauges(i.e thickness 6.7, 6.0, 4.5, 3.2, 2.0 and 1.6mm) and is
effortlessly cleaned with cleanser water. It isn't influenced by oil yet marginally
influenced by acids. Flooring is made in moves just as in tiles. Tile is utilized for floor
covers of clinics, bottles, homes, workplaces and mechanical buildings.

73
8.8 Wall paper:

Backdrops are presently generally utilized for creating improved completed inside
dividers and they are made solely from paper or joined with different materials.
They might be unprimed, prepared, embellished, metal-covered and so forth They
are accessible in single or multi color examples imprinted on the face surfaces.
Stained backdrop can be cleaned subsequent to hanging to build up the impact of
the facade framed divider. Particular kinds of backdrops are launderable. Backdrop
with sound engrossing properties are additionally accessible Metal-covered
backdrops are set up from backdrops covered with a groundwork of metallic
powder and afterward designs are printed or decorated on the surface.

8.9 a)Bitumen:
Bitumen is the limiting material, which is forestall in black-top. This is additionally
called far acquired from incomplete refining of unrefined petrol

1. It is artificially a hydro-carbon

2. Insoluble in water

3. Soluble in carbon disulphide

4. Black or earthy colored in shading

Coming up next are the types of bitumen

1. Bitumen emulsion

2. Blow bitumen

3. cut-back bitumen

4. plastic bitumen

5. straight run bitumen

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b) Tar:
Tar is a dim dark fluid with high consistency. As indicated by its source, tar is
arranged into following classes

1) Coal Tar
2) Mineral Tar
3) Wood Tar

1) Coal Tar: Usually got as a bye-item during the assembling of coal gas. Coal tar
is utilized for making macadam streets, saving timber and so forth

2) Mineral tar: This assortment of tar is acquired by refining bituminous shales.

It contains less unstable matter

3) Wood tar: This kind of tar is acquired by refining of pines and comparative
other resinous trees. It contains creosote oil consequently, it has solid additive
property.

Uses:

1. Rooting, sodden sealing felts

2. Fill cracks in masonry structures, for halting spillages and so on

8.10 Thermocole:

It is utilized for warm protection and sound protection.

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 Chapter – 9 Types Of Buildings

9.1 Classification:

Concurring National Building code of India, 1970 the buildings based on inhabitants
are arranged into following gatherings

Group A: Residential buildings:

Every one of those buildings in which resting convenience is accommodated living

for all time or brief with or without looking or dinning or the two offices are named
as private building

Ex: Apartments, Flats, Bungalows, Dormitories, private houses, Hotels, Hostels,

Cottages, Hole day camps, clubs, lodgings, Inns and so on

These buildings are additionally partitioned into 5 gatherings

A1 - Lodging Houses

A2 - Family Private Dwellings

A3 - Dormitories

A4 - Flats

A5 - Hotels

Group B: Educational buildings:

Each one of those buildings which are intended for training from nursery to college
are remembered for this gathering

Ex: schools, universities, colleges, preparing foundations and so on

Group C: Institutional Buildings:

This gathering incorporates any building or part thereof, which is utilized for the
reasons like clinical, wellbeing, recuperating well being after sickness, physical or

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mental infections, care of babies or matured people, board confinement and so forth
These buildings typically give resting convenience to the tenants.

Group D: Assembly Buildings:

This gathering incorporates any building or part or a building where gatherings of

individuals amass or assemble for entertainment; diversion, social, strict, devoted or
comparative reason for instance theaters, film lobbies, galleries, exercise centers,
cafés, spots of love, ballrooms, club rooms, traveler stations, public transportation
administrations, outdoors theaters, pools and so on

Group E-Business Buildings:

This gathering incorporates any building or part or a building which is utilized for
purposes like exchange of business, keeping of records and records and so forth;
dispensaries and facilities, banks, city lobbies, court corridors, libraries and so on

Group F – Mercantile Buildings:

This gathering incorporates any building or part of a building which is utilized for
shops, stores, market, for safe and show of items or waves either entire deal or retail.

Group G – Industrial Buildings:

This gathering incorporates any building or part of a building or design where

results of various types and properties are manufactured, collected or prepared. For
instance, labs, gathering plants, laundries, gas plants, power plants, treatment
facilities, journals and so on

Group H – Storage Building:

This gathering incorporates those building structures which are fundamentally

utilized for the capacity structures which are essentially utilized for the capacity or
protecting of products, waves or product vehicles or creatures, for instance
distribution centers, cold stockpiles, cargo stops, storage facilities, travel sheds, truck
terminals, carports and so on

Group J – Hazardous Building:

This gathering incorporates those building structures which are utilized for the
capacity, taking care of, production or handling of materials which are responsible to
ignite with outrageous quickness and demonstrate perils to wellbeing; building or

77
building substance. Perils might be because of fire; harmful vapor or gases, blasts,
starts and so on from materials exposed to different tasks. Buildings utilized for
capacity of gases under high tension or for capacity and treatment of exceptionally
combustible fluids or explosives, firecrackers and so forth are remembered for this
gathering.

9.2 Component parts of building

The building essentially comprises of three sections in particular,

1) Foundation
2) Plinth and
3) Super design as demonstrated in the fig 9.1

Fig 9.1 Component parts of building

i) Foundation: It is the most minimal falsely arranged part beneath the outside of the
encompassing ground which is circuitous contact with sub-layers and communicates
every one of the heaps to the ground (or subsoil)

ii) Plinth: It is the centerpiece of the design, over the outside of the encompassing
ground up to the outside of the floor quickly over the ground. Its capacity in the
building is the same as that of the sub-structure on account of the scaffold.

78
iii) Super structure: It is that piece of the design which is developed over the plinth
level (i.e., ) ground level

A building in everyday made of the accompanying primary segments

1. Foundation

2. Plinth

3. Walls and wharfs in super construction

4. Ground, storm cellar and upper floors

5. Doors and windows

6. Sills, Lintels and climate conceals

7. Roofs

8. Steps and steps

9. Finishes for dividers

10. Utility installations

Every one of these segments is a fundamental piece of a building and needs due
thought in plan and development for their useful exhibition. The fundamental
practical prerequisites of these segments talks about in the accompanying passages.

1. Establishments:
The establishment is the most basic piece of any construction and the greater part of
the disappointment is likely because of flawed establishments as opposed to some
other reason. The reason for establishment is to send the expected burdens wellbeing
to the dirt

Fundamental prerequisites:

1. To convey the all out load going ahead the design over an enormous bearing
territory to keep it from any development.

2. To burden the bearing surface or region at a uniform rate to forestall any

inconsistent or relative settlement.

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 3. To forestall the horizontal development of the design

4. To secure a level or firm normal bed, whereupon to lay the courses of

masonry and furthermore support the design.

5. To increment the reasonableness of the design all in all, to keep it from

toppling or sliding against like breeze, downpour, ice and so on

2. Plinth:
This is the part of construction between the outside of the encompassing ground and
surface of the floor, quickly over the ground. According to Byelaws, the plinth ought
not be under 45cm. The essential prerequisites of plinth region

1) To communicate the heap of the super-design to the establishment

2) To go about as a holding divider in order to keep the filing segment beneath

the raised floor or the building

3) To shield the building from sodden or dampness infiltration into it

4) It improves the structural appearance of the building

3. Dividers and wharfs in super construction:

The essential capacity of dividers is to encase or fluid space. A heap bearing divider
in the super construction ought to fulfill the accompanying prerequisites.

Qualities, steadiness, climate opposition, imperviousness to fire, heat protection,

sound protection, protection and security.

4. Ground storm cellar and upper floors:

The primary capacity of a story is to offer help from tenants, furniture and hardware
of a building and the capacity of giving various floors is to destitute the building into
various levels to make more convenience inside the restricted space. The floor ought
to fulfill the accompanying useful prerequisites.

1. Strength and dependability

2. Durability and moistness

3. Heal protection

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 4. Sound protection and imperviousness to fire

5.Doors and windows:

The primary capacity of entryways in a building is to serve us an interfacing join
between inner parts and furthermore to permit the free development outside the
building. Windows are by and large accommodated the appropriate ventilation and
lighting of a building. Coming up next are the practical prerequisites

1. Weather opposition

2. Sound and warm protection

3. Damp anticipation and end sealing

4. Fire obstruction and sturdiness

5. Privacy and security

6.Sills. Lintels and climate conceals:

Window Sills are given between the lower part of window casing and divider
underneath, to shield the highest point of divider from mileage. The real edge of the
entryway or window isn't sufficiently able to help the heaviness of the divider over
the sufficiently able to help the heaviness of the divider over the openings and a
different underlying component has, hence to be presented. This is known as lintel
and is like a shaft. Climate conceals on ehhajjas are by and large joined with lintels of
windows to shield from the climate components like sun, downpour, ice and so on

7.Roofs:
A rooftop is the highest piece of the building whose fundamental capacity is to
encase the space and to shield something very similar from the impacts of climate
components like downpour, sun, wind, heat, snow and so forth A decent rooftop is
similarly just about as fundamental as a protected establishment. The useful
prerequisites of the rooftop are as per the following.

I. Strength and soundness solid and stable enough to take up expected burdens
II. Weather opposition – protection from wind, downpour, sun, snow and so
forth
III. Heat protection - ought to give sufficient protection against heat
IV. Sound protection – ought to give satisfactory deque of protection against
sound from outer sources.
V. Fire opposition – Should offer the sufficient deque of imperviousness to fire.

81
VI. Day lighting – The furnishes sunshine in buildings with huge floor regions
i.e., mechanical buildings through windows in the rooftop.

8.Steps and Stairs:

A step is a primary comprising a number of steps driving starting with one story
then onto the next. The principle elements of steps are

I. To give methods for correspondence between the different floors for regular
use

II. To escape from upper floors on account of fire

To play out these capacities, the steps ought to fulfill the accompanying necessities
indesign and development.

a. Strength and dependability Strong and stable enough to convey the expected
burdens.

b. Fire opposition The steps ought to be made of the fire opposing material and
they give safe ways to get out in case of fire.

c. Sound Insulation: If it is important to protect the steps from the sound either
through the appropriate plan and utilization of protecting materials or
isolating step structure from the building structure.

d. Weather opposition The steps, whenever presented to outdoors, should offer

adequate protection from climate components like downpour, heat and so
forth

e. Comfort and convenience: appropriate plan and legitimate area of steps in a

building offer a few advantages like solace and productivity in vertical
development, characteristic light and ventilation; wellbeing in crisis and so
forth

9.Finishes for dividers:

The completions of a few types, for example, pointing, putting, painting, types, for
example, pointing, putting, painting, distempering, improving shading washing and
so on applied on the dividers. The primary capacity of these completions are

a. Protect structure from the sun, downpour, snow and so on

82
 b. Provide a valid, even and smooth completed surface and furthermore to
improve the aesthetic appearance of the design.

c. Rectify rather cover, somewhat, poor people or imperfect workmanship

d. Cover up the shaky and permeable materials utilized in the development

10.Utility Fixtures:
These are the underlying things of an unfaltering nature, which add extensively to
the utility of a building and consequently termed as utility installations. The most
widely recognized of such inherent installations are: pantries, racks, smokeless
chulhas and so on These highlights are for the most part given in the breaks to
putting away significant articles, garments and so on The breaks in divider structure
decrease its solidarity, so they are kept away from in the cutting edge development
of houses.

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 Chapter – 10 Foundations
Each design comprises two sections. (1) Foundation and (2) Super design. The most
reduced misleadingly arranged pieces of the construction which are in direct contact
with the ground and which communicate the heaps of the design to the ground are
known as Foundation or Substructure. The strong ground on which the foundation
rests is known as the "foundation bed" or foundation soil and it eventually bears the
heap and associates with the foundations of buildings.

10.1 Objects of foundations:

Foundations are accommodated the accompanying purposes

1) To disseminate the complete burden going ahead the construction of the huge
region.

2) To help the construction

3) To give sufficient dependability to the designs against different conveying

powers like breeze, downpour and so on

4) To set up a level surface for cementing and workmanship work.

The overall investigation of the site of work fills in as a useful way to decide the sort
of foundation to be received for the proposed work and moreover, it helps in getting
the information w.r.to the accompanying things.

a. Behavior of ground because of varieties inside and out of water table

b. Disposal of tempest water at site

c. Nature of soil by visual assessment

d. Movement of ground because of any explanation and so forth

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10.2 Bearing limit:
The capacity of the foundation material, climate soil or rock to convey stacks
securely. Techniques for decide the bearing limit of soil: The bearing limit of soil is
controlled by any of the accompanying strategies

(i) Method of stacking

(ii) Method of dropping a weight

I. Technique for stacking System to do the test:

1. A square pit of required size is exhumed upto multiple times the side of the
steel plate to be utilized. At the focal point of the pit, square opening is
burrow, which is the same proportion to that of broadness to profundity of
pit.

2. The lower part of the opening is made level

3. The steel plate is set up flat broke and the afterward stage is set up as
demonstrated in fig 10.1.

Fig 10.1 Method of stacking

4. The measure of introductory burden is concluded by the kind of the dirt to be

tried

85
5. A level is planted to take note of the setting of the steel plate w.r.to the lasting
benchmark.

6. The burden is to be kept on stage till the settlement of the ground stops or
stops

7. The burden is expanded by a reasonable sum, typically 0.5 tons and the
methodology is proceeded

8. The chronicle of results is done in the accompanying proforma.

9. The settlement of the ground will be decently extended to the heap upto a
specific cutoff, when the bearing force of soil surpassed, the settlement will be
out of the extent.

10. The bearing limit and safe bearing limit of soil are determined by utilizing the
accompanying

86
Note:

1) This technique can likewise be utilized for affirming the known bearing force
of a dirt

2) The stacking should applied without stun

3) Dial checks or divert meters to record the settlement rather than level and
staff for the precision upto 0.02mm

4) The zero redresses ought to be deducted from the noticed settlement to get
real settlements zero rectification is the settlement because of change of soil
particles under the activity of stacking

5) The bearing limit of sandy soil and gravelly soil is influenced to the degree of
half by the presence of a water table. Water ought to be siphoned out prior to
putting the steel plate

6) The outcomes obtained by this strategy are genuinely exact and dependable.

II. Strategy for dropping a weight:

In this strategy, a substance of realized weight is dropped from a referred to tallness

as demonstrated in 10.2. The profundity of impression made by the load on the dirt
is noted. At that point the bearing limit of the dirt is worked out as follows.

87
 Fig 10.2 Method of Dropping Weight

where
R – Resistance of soil
A – cross segment space of the substance
h - Height
w - weight of substance

∴ Safe bearing limit of soil per unit are

= R/A x f
Where
f – factor of wellbeing

The outcomes obtained by this strategy are surmised and subsequently, this
technique is utilized for minor designing constructions or at places where first
technique would be impractical.

10.3 Types of soils – Bearing Capacity:

Ultimately the heap of the construction is going ahead the dirt and consequently, it is
of most extreme significance to know the strength and conduct of the dirt. The term
bearing force or bearing limit of soil is utilized to show the greatest burden per unit

88
territory, which the dirts oppose securely without displacement. Partitioning a
definitive bearing limit of a dirt by a factor of wellbeing, the protected bearing limit
of a dirt is gotten. Max. a safe bearing limit of various types of soils is given in table
10.1.

10.4 Types of foundations:

Contingent on their tendency and profundity, foundations have been sorted as

follows

(i) Open foundations or shallow foundations

(ii) Deep foundations

I. Open foundations or shallow foundations:

This is the most normal kind of foundation and can be exposed utilizing removal by
permitting characteristic slants on all sides. This kind of foundation is practicable for
a profundity of about 5m and is typically helpful over the water table. The base of
the design is expanded or spread to offer individual help. Since the spread
foundations are built in open unearthings, thus they are named as open foundations.

89
This sort of foundation is given to construction of moderate stature based on
adequately firm dry ground. The different types of spread footings are:

1. Wall balance
2. Isolated balance
3. Combined balance
4. Inverted curve balance
5. Continuous balance
6. Cantilever balance
7. Grillage balance

1. Divider Footing: These footings can be either straightforward or ventured. The

base course of these footings can be concrete or altogether of one material
straightforward balance are utilized for light designs. They have just a single
projection past the width of the divider. The base width of the concrete base course
ought to be equivalent to twice the width of divider. The profundity of concrete bed
is at least twice the projection as demonstrated in fig 10.3. The profundity of concrete
bed is determined by p

H - Minimum profundity of balance in meter

p - Safe bearing limit of soil in kg/m2
w - Unit wt. Of soil in kg/m3
φ - Angle of rest of the dirt

The profundity of balance is by and large restricted to 0.9m the width of balance
ought to be determined by separating the all out load in kg/m run by the passable
bearing limit of soil in kg/m2.

90
 Fig 10.3

2. Isolated Footings: These are utilized to help individual segments. They can be of
ventured type or have projections in the concrete base. In the event of substantial
stacked sections steel reinforcement is furnished in the two ways in concrete with
15cm balances as demonstrated in the fig10.4.

Fig 10.4 Types of Isolated Footings

91
3. Combined Footing: A consolidated balance upholds at least two sections in
succession A Combined balance might be rectangular or trapezoidal developed with
supported concrete. The area of focus of gravity of segment burdens and centroid of
the balance ought to concur. The consolidated balance is as demonstrated in fig10.5.

Fig 10.3

4. Inverted Arch Footing: This kind of development is utilized on delicate soils to

diminish the profundity of foundation loads over an opening that are sent from
supporting dividers through rearranged curves to the dirt. In this kind the end
sections should be adequately steady to oppose the outward pressing factor brought
about by curve activities.
The upset curve balance is as demonstrated in fig10.6.

Fig 10.6 Inverted Footing

5. Continuous Footing: In this kind of balance a solitary persistent R.C section is

created as the foundation of a few or more segments in succession. This sort of

92
balance is appropriate at areas obligated to quake exercises. This likewise forestalls
differential settlement in the construction. To have better dependability a more
profound shaft is built in the middle of the sections as demonstrated in fig10.7.

Fig 10.7 Continuous Footing

6. Strap or cantilever balance: Strap balance comprises at least two individual

footings associated by a shaft called tie or cantilever balance or siphon handle
foundation. This sort of foundation might be utilized where the distance between the
sections is extraordinary to such an extent that joined trapezoidal balance turns out
to be very tight with high twisting minutes tie or cantilever balance is as
demonstrated in fig 10.8.

Fig 10.8 Strap or cantilever balance

7. Grillage balance : This kind of balance is utilized to communicate weighty

burdens from steel segments to foundation soils having low bearing force. This kind
of foundation stays away from profound removal and gives vital territory at the base
to decrease the power of pressing factor of the foundation soil isn't hardened and
there is a lot of water with spring, the sides are ensured by sharing.

The grillage balance is a s appeared in fig 10.9.

93
 Fig 10.9 Grillage Footing

8. Raft Foundation: A pontoon or tangle is a consolidated balance that covers the

whole territory underneath a construction and supports every one of the segments.
At the point when the admissible soil pressure is low or the construction loads are
substantial the utilization of spread footings would cover more than one portion of
the space and it could be demonstrated more conservative to utilize pontoon
foundation. There are additionally utilized where the dirt mass contains
compressible focal points so the differential settlement would be hard to control
typically when the hard soil isn't free inside 1.5 to 2.5m, a pontoon foundation is
received. The pontoon is made out of built up. Concrete pillar with moderately slim
section under fig 10.10 shows various types of pontoon.

Fig 10.10 Different types of Raft Foundations

94
II Deep foundations:

These foundations help loads from a construction through powerless compressible

soil or fills onto the more grounded and less compressible soils or shakes at
profundity. These foundations are in everyday use as storm cellars, lightness rofts,
eaissions, chambers, shafts and heaps.

a) Basements: There are developments set up in an open uncovering. They are

honor piece structures intended to give working or extra room subterranean
level. The underlying model is administered by their utilitarian necessities.

b) Buoyancy pontoons: They are honor foundations intended to furnish a light

base underneath with the net stacking on the dirt diminish to the ideal low
power.

c) Coissions: They are honor foundations intended to be developed on or close

to the surface and afterward sunk as single units to their necessary level.

d) Cylinders: They are little single cell coissions

e) Shaft foundations: They are built inside profound unearthing upheld by

fixing developed set up in this way loaded up with concrete.

f) Pile foundations: Pile foundation is a development for the foundation upheld

on heaps. A heap is a component of development made out of timber,
concrete, or steel or a mix of them. Heap foundation might be characterized as
a segment support kind of a foundation, which might be projected in-situ or
Pre-projected. This sort of development is received when the free soil reaches
out to an incredible profundity. The heap of the construction is sent by the
heaps to the hard layer beneath or it is opposed by the rubbing created on the
sides of lines.

(I) Classification dependent on the capacity

a) Bearing heaps Penetrate through delicate soil and their base lay on a hard
layer

b) Friction heaps The frictional obstruction is equivalent to stack going ahead the
heaps as demonstrated in the fig 10.11.

95
 Fig 10.11 Friction document and Bearing Pile

c) Screw heaps Used for seriously ground sand, blended rock ground and so
forth as demonstrated in fig 10.12.

Fig 10.12 Different types of screw heaps

d) Uplift heaps when the design is exposed to elevated pressure.

e) Butter heap – To oppose huge flat or slanted powers

f) Sheet heap utilized as mass heads or an impenetrable cutoff

(ii) Classification dependent on materials and structure

a) Cement concrete heaps Posses superb compressive strength

1) Precast

96
 2) Cast-in-site
a) Under reamed heaps
b) Bored compaction heaps as demonstrated in fig 10.13.

Fig 10.13. Pre-projected concrete Pile

b) Timber heaps Small bearing limit, not appropriate for hard soil and practical

c) Steel heaps With stand sway stresses and oppose parallel powers

d) Sand heaps Not appropriate for free or wet soils or where there is a threat of
scour. Simple to develop and regardless of water table.

e) Composite heaps blend of two unique materials are utilized to frame composite
documents and reasonably where the upper piece of heap to project over the water
table.

Practical and simple to build as demonstrated in fig 10.14.

97
 Fig 10.14 Under-reamed Piles

10.5 Requirements of a decent foundation:

Following are the three fundamental prerequisites to be satisfied by a foundation to

be palatable

1) Location : The foundation ought to be found that it can oppose any

unforeseen future impact which may unfavorably influence its exhibition.
This perspective requires cautious designing judgment.

2) Stability: The foundation design ought to be steady or protected against any

conceivable disappointment

3) Settlement: The foundation design ought not settle or redirect so much in

order to weaken its convenience.

10.6 Causes of disappointment of good foundation:

The various reasons for foundation disappointment are given beneath

1. Non uniform settlement of subsoil and workmanship

2. Horizontal development of the dirt contiguous design

3. Alternate growing and shrinkage in wet and dry patterns of the period

98
4. Lateral pressing factor because of sidelong development of earth tending to
over turn the construction

5. Action of enduring organizations like sun, wind or downpour

6. Lateral break of the dirt underneath the foundation of the design

7. Roots trees and bushes which infiltrate the foundation.

99
 Chapter – 11 Masonry
Workmanship is characterized as the specialty of development in which building
units, like dirt bricks, sand-lime, bricks, stones, Pre-projected honor solid squares,
solid pieces, glass bricks, blend of a portion of these building units and so forth are
orchestrated efficiently and reinforced together to shape a homogeneous mass in
such a way that they can with viewpoint to different loads and send then through
the mass as a matter of course or breaking down.

Workmanship can be characterized into the accompanying classes.

1. Stone workmanship

2. Brick workmanship

3. Hollow square solid workmanship

4. Reinforced stone work

5. Composite stone work

These can be further sub-separated into fluctuates types relying on workmanship

and sort of materials utilized.

Meanings of terms:

1. Course: A course is a level layer of bricks stones

2. Bed: the outside of a stone opposite to the line of pressing factor of (lower
surface of bricks or stones in each course)

3. Back: The internal surface of the divider is not uncovered. The material
framing back is known as sponsorship

4. Face: The outside of the divider presented to climate is known as face. The
material utilized in the looking of divider is known as confronting'

5. Hearting: It is the inside part of a divider among confronting and support

6. Head: It is a brick or stone, which lies with its most noteworthy length at right
points to the substance of the work.

100
7. Stretcher: It is a brick or a stone which lies with its block side corresponding
to the essence of the work

8. Bond: The technique for masterminding bricks with the goal that the
individual units are integrated

9. Spalls: The chips of stones utilized for filling the interstices in stone
workmanship

10. Quoins: The stones utilized for the sides of dividers of design

11. Bat: It is a segment of a brick cut across the width.

12. Closer: It is the segment of a brick cut in such a way that its one gloomy look
stays whole

13. Queen nearer: it is the segment of a brick got by cutting a brick lengthwise
into two bits

14. King nearer: It is the segment of brick obtained by removing the three-sided
piece between the focal point of one end and the focal point of one side.

15. Bevelled nearer: It is the segment of a brick wherein the entire length of the
brick is inclined for keeping up half width toward one side and full width at
the other

16. Frog: It is a space or sadness on the top essence of a brick made with the
object of framing a key for the mortar.

17. Sill: It is a flat stone, cement or wood, utilized to shed off downpour water
from the substance of divider promptly beneath the window opening

18. Corbel: It is the augmentation of at least one course of stone or brick from the
essence of a divider to fill in as a help for divider plates

19. Templates: Pieces of stones set under the finish of a pillar to convey load over
a more prominent region.

20. Coping: It is the course positioned upon the uncovered top of an outside
divider to forestall the drainage of water

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 21. Buttress: It is an inclining or ventured brick work projection from a tall
divider proposed to reinforce the divider against the push of a rooftop as
demonstrated in fig 11.1

Fig 11.1 Definition of terms

11.1 Stone workmanship:

The development of stones fortified along with mortar is named as stone work
where the stones are accessible in a bounty in nature, on slicing and dressing to the
appropriate shape, they give an affordable material to the development of different
building segments like dividers, segments, footings, curves, lintels, radiates and so
on Employments of stone brick work:

Stone brick work development is utilized in

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(i) Building foundations, dams, monumental structures
(ii) Building dividers, docks, segments, columns, beacons and compositional works.
(iii) Arches, arches, lintels and pillars
(iv) Roofs, flems, clearing occupations
(v) Railway, bullest, chalkboards and electrical switch sheets

11.1.1 Selection of stone for stone workmanship:

The determination of stones for stone brick work relies on

a. Availability
b. Ease of working
c. Appearance
d. Strength and security
e. Polishing qualities
f. Economy
g. Durability

The table 11.1 given comprehensively diagrams the various kinds of stones utilized
for various purposes

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11.2 Tools needed for stone workmanship development:

Fig 11.2 Tools for Stone Masonry

a) Trowel : This is utilized to lift and spread mortar

b) Square: This is made of level steel having each arm about 0.5m long

c) Plumb rule and bounce: This is utilized to check the vertically of dividers

d) Spirit level: this is utilized to chick the horizontality of dividers

e) Line and pin: This is utilized to keep up the arrangement of the work in
progress

f) Bevel: The instrument used to fix points

g) Pick hatchet: This is utilized for dressing of unpleasant stone and split the
stones in the quarry

h) Crowbar: This is utilized to make stones in inquiry

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 i) Chisels: They are utilized to dress stones

j) Spall hammer: This is substantial sledge utilized for harsh dressing of stones

k) Mallet: The wooden mallet utilized for driving of lush headed etches

l) Iron hammer: This is utilized for cutting of stones

m) Scabbling hammer: This is utilized to break little projections of stones

n) Pitching instrument: This is utilized to make the stones of required size

o) Gauge: this is utilized to dress stones for spring course, comice, adapting and
so forth

p) Claw device: This is utilized for dressing the outside of stones

q) Nicker: This is utilized to draw fine etch lines on the stone surface

r) Jumper: They are utilized for drilling openings

s) Wedge and quills: They are utilized for cutting the stones after they have been
exhausted with a jumper.

t) Gad: A little steel wedge utilized for parting of stones

u) Drag: This is utilized to level a stone surface

v) Punch: This is utilized to dress generally the stones

w) Handsaw: This is utilized to cut delicate stones

x) Cross-cut saw: This is utilized to cut hard stones

y) Frame saw: This is utilized to cut enormous squares of stones.

11.3 Types of Stone Masonry:

In light of the game plan of the stone in the development and level of refinement in
the surface completion, the stone brick work can be characterized comprehensively
in the accompanying two classifications

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 1. Rubble stone work

2. Ashlar stone work

General standards in the stone workmanship development

1. The stones to be utilized for stone workmanship ought to be hard, intense and
sturdy.

2. The pressing factor following up on stones ought to be vertical

3. The stones ought to be completely dressed according to the prerequisites

4. The heads and bond stones ought not be of a hand weight shape.

5. In request to acquire uniform circulation of burden, under the closures of

grinders, rooftop supports and so forth enormous level stones ought to be
utilized

6. The beds of the stones and plan of the course ought to be at right points to the
slant on account of inclining holding divider

7. Wood confining ought to be filled to dividers having fine dressed stone work
to secure it during additional development

8. The mortar to be utilized ought to be acceptable quality and in the

predetermined contetenances.

9. The guidance work of stone workmanship ought to be raised consistently.

10. The plumb weave ought to be utilized to check the vertically of raised divider

11. The stone workmanship area ought to consistently be intended to take

pressure and not the pliable burdens

12. The workmanship work ought to be appropriately relieved after the finishing
of work for a time of 2 to 3 weeks

13. As per as conceivable broken stones or little stones chips ought not utilized

14. Double platform ought to be utilized for working at more elevated level

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 15. The stone work hearting ought to be appropriately loaded with mortar and
chips if important to keep away from honors

16. The appropriately wetted stones ought to be utilized to keep away from
mortar dampness being sucked

1) Rubble brick work: In this class, the stones utilized are either stripped down or
generally dressed having more extensive joints. This can be additionally partitioned
as uncoursed, flowed, irregular, dry, polygonal and bint.

(i) Uncoursed rubble brick work: This is the least expensive, harshest and most
unfortunate type of stone workmanship. The stones utilized in this kind of brick
work especially shift in their shape and size and are straightforwardly gotten from
quarry. Uncoursed rubble brick work can be isolated into the accompanying.

a) Uncoursed arbitrary rubble

b) Uncoursed squared rubble

a)Uncoursed arbitrary rubble stone work: The frail corners and edges are
eliminated with bricklayer's mallet. By and large, greater stone squares are utilized at
quoins and supports to build the strength of brick work.

Fig 11.3 Uncoursed arbitrary rubble stone work

b)Uncoursed squared rubble: In this kind the stone squares are generally made
square with a hammer. For the most part the confronting stones are given mallet
dressed completion. Enormous stones are utilized as quoins. Beyond what many
would consider possible the utilization of chips in sheet material is stayed away
from as demonstrated in 11.4.

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 Fig 11.4 Uncoursed squared rubble workmanship

(ii)Coursed irregular rubble: This kind of workmanship is normally utilized in the

development of low tallness dividers of public buildings, private buildings,
projection and docks of conventional extensions. The stones of 5 to 20cm size are
utilized in each course as demonstrated in fig 11.5.

Fig 11.5 Coursed Random Rubble

(iii)Coursed squared rubble: This sort of workmanship consists of mallet squared

stones looking with reinforced support of uncoursed irregular rubble workmanship.
The stones utilized in each course are of equivalent stature. The support and
confronting development, ought to be conveyed all the while. To stay away from
thick mortar joints, little chips might be utilized as demonstrated in the fig 11.6.

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 Fig 11.6 Coursed Squared Rubble Masonry

(iv) Built to customary course: In this sort of stone workmanship the uniform tallness
stones are utilized in flat layers at the very least 13cm in stature. For the most part,
the stone beds are pounded or etch dressed to a profundity of at least 10cm from the
face. The stones are orchestrated in such a way so the vertical joints of two
continuous revile do not concur with one another as demonstrated in fig 11.7.

Fig 11.7 Built to ordinary courses

(v) Polygonal rubble brick work: In this sort of workmanship the stones are generally
dressed to an unpredictable polygonal shape. The stones ought to be so orchestrated
as to keep away from long vertical joints in face work and to break joints however
much as could reasonably be expected. Little stone chips ought not be utilized to
help the stones on the looking as demonstrated in fig 11.8.

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 Fig. 11.8 Polygonal rubble brick work

(vi) Plint rubble brick work: This kind of workmanship is utilized in the spaces
where the stone is accessible in bounty. The rock stones fluctuating in thickness from
8 to 15cm and long from 15 to 30cm are masterminded in the looking as flowed or
uncoursed workmanship as demonstrated in fig 11.9.

Fig 11.9 Plint Rubble Masonry

(vii) Dry rubble brick work: This kind of workmanship is utilized in the
development of holding dividers pitching earthen dams and channel inclines as
irregular rubble stone work with no mortar. The honor spaces left around stones
ought to be firmly loaded with more modest stone pieces as demonstrated in fig
11.10.

Fig 11.10 Dry Rubble Masonry

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2. Ashlar Masonry: This kind of workmanship is worked from precisely dressed
stones with uniform and fine joints of about 3mm thickness by masterminding the
stone squares in different examples. The sponsorship of ashlar stone work dividers
might be worked on ashlar workmanship or rubble brick work. The size of stones
squares ought to be in relation to divider thickness. The different kinds of brick work
can be grouped under the accompanying classifications as demonstrated in fig 11.11
to fig 11.13 .

(i) Ashlar fine

(ii) Ashlar harsh

(iii) Ashlar rock or quarry confronted

(iv) Ashlar confronting

(v)Ashlar chamfered

(vi) Ashlar block in course

Fig 11.11 Ashlar Fine Masonry

Fig 11.12 Ashlar chamfered Masonry

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 Fig 11.13 Ashlar Facing

11.5 Brick workmanship:

Brick workmanship is a bound together mass acquired by a precise game plan of

laying bricks and holding along with mortar. Brick is a building unit of hard
inorganic earth material of size which can be conveniently dealt with. The brick
stone work is utilized in establishments, dividers, sections, braces, holding structures
window sells, pillars, corbels, copings fancy brickwork, round brickwork, chimneys,
flumes, tall smokestacks, hole dividers, edges, ducts, steps, floors, curves and so
forth The strength of brick workmanship works relies on the nature of bricks and
kind of mortar utilized.

By and large mortars are following sorts utilized for brick workmanship

(i) Mud mortar

(ii) Cement mortar

(iii) Cement lime mortar

(iv) Lime surkhi mortar

General standards in brick workmanship development:

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 1. A great brick workmanship ought to use bricks, which are sound, hard, all
around consumed and intense with uniform tone, shape and size.

2. The bricks ought to be minimal, homogeneous, free structure openings,

breaks, imperfections, air-air pockets and stone protuberances and absorbed
water for at least two hours before use

3. In the brickwork, the bricks ought to be laid on their beds with the frogs
pointing upwards

4. The brick courses ought to be laid really even and ought to have genuinely
vertical joints

5. As far as conceivable the utilization of brick – bats ought to be debilitate

6. As far as conceivable the brick divider ought to be raised consistently under

1.5m in day with legitimate bond.

7. When the mortar is green the face joints ought to be racked to a profundity of
12 to 19mm to have an appropriate key for putting or pointing.

8. In request to guarantee persistent connection between the old and the new,
the divider ought to be halted with a toothed end.

9. Finished brickwork ought to be relieved for a time of 2 to 3 weeks for lime

mortar and 1 to about fourteen days for concrete mortar

10. In request to carry out the brickwork at a more elevated level, a solitary
framework is utilized.

11.6 Types of brick bonds:

Holding is a cycle of orchestrating bricks and mortars to integrate them in a mass of

brickwork. It ought to have at least vertical joints in any piece of the work.

Attributes of brick bond or rules for holding:

1. The brick stone work ought to have bricks of uniform shape and size

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 2. For agreeable servitude the lap ought to be one-fourth of the brick along the
length of the divider and half brick across thickness of the divider

3. The brick bats use ought to be debilitate

4. The vertical joints in the substitute courses ought to harmonizes with the
middle line of the cot

5. The substitute courses the middle line of header ought to match with the
middle line of cot, in course beneath or above it.

6. The cot ought to be utilized uniquely in the confronting while at the same
time hearting ought to be done in the headers as it were

Groupings of bonds: The bonds can be delegated follows:

(i) Stretcher bond

(ii) Header bond
(iii) English bond
(iv) Double Flemish bond
(v) Single Flemish bond
(vi) Garden divider bond
(vii) Facing bond
(viii) Dutch bond
(ix) Raking bond
(x) Zigzag bond
(xi) English cross bond
(xii) Bonds in segments
(xiii) Brick anxious bond or officer course
(xiv) Bonds at intersection and squint intersection

Cot bond: In this kind of bond every one of the bricks are laid with their lengths
toward the divider. This example is utilized uniquely for a divider having thickness
of 9cm just as demonstrated in fig 11.14.

Fig 11.14 Stretcher Bond

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Header bond: In this sort of bond every one of the bricks are laid with their finishes
towards the substance of the divider. This game plan is reasonable for one brickwall
of bended divider and footings for better burden circulation as demonstrated in fig
11.15.

Fig 11.15 Header Bond

English bond: In this kind of bond substitute course of headers and cots are laid. It is
important to put the sovereign nearer in the heading course for breaking the joints
vertically. The diverse english bonds are as demonstrated in fig 11.16 and 11.17.

Fig 11.16 English Bond

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 Fig 11.17 Alternate plans for different divider thickness in English Bond

Twofold Flemish bond: In this kind, substitute heads and cots are laid in each course.
The confronting and support are of similar appearance brickbats and sovereign
closers are utilized. The twofold Flemish bond is as demonstrated in fig 11.18.

116
 Fig 11.18 Double Flemish Bond

Single Flemish bond: This sort of bond involves twofold Flemish bond confronting
and English bond moving in each course. This sort of development part of the way
has the strength of English bond, and presence of Flemish bond. As this sort of bond
requires least thickness of 1 ½ bricks so it can't be utilized for dividers having
thickness under 1½ bricks. The fig 11.19 shows the single Flemish bond.

Fig 11.19 Single Flemish Bond

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Nursery divider bond: This sort of bond is utilized for the development of nursery
dividers, compound dividers, limit dividers and so on This divider bond can be both
English just as Flemish as demonstrated in the fig 11.20 and 11.21.

Fig 11.20 English Garden Wall Bond

Fig 11.21 Flemish Garden Wall Bond

Facing bond: In this kind of bond bricks of various thickness are utilized in the
confronting and support of the divider. For this situation, a header course is set after
a few cot courses. In this sort of bond, the distance between the progressive heading
courses is equivalent to the normal difference of thickness of sponsorship and
confronting bricks.

Dutch bond: This is the changed type of English bond. The edges of the divider
furnished with dutch bond are very solid. The substitute courses in this sort of bond
are headers and cots. In cot course ¾ bat is utilized as quoin. A header is set close to
the ¾ bat in each other cot course as demonstrated in the fig 11.22.

Fig 11.22 Dutch Bond

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Raking bond: In this sort of bond substitute courses are put in various ways to get
most extreme strength in the divider. The racking courses are laid to a certain span
along the tallness of the divider in thick divider having a number of headers more
than the no. of cots between the confronting and support. Along these lines the
raking course redresses the imperfection of low longitudinal, solidness in thick
dividers. This is of two sorts : Herring bone bond (put at 450 both way) b. Corner to
corner bond as demonstrated in fig 11.23.

Fig 11.23 Herring Bone Bond

Crisscross bond: This sort of bond is a lot like a herring bone bond. The lone contrast
is that bricks are laid in criss cross manner and utilized for clearing the brick floor as
demonstrated in fig 11.24

Fig 11.24 Zigzag Bond

English cross bond: This kind of bond is tastefully more stable and gangs more
prominent strength than English bond. In this bond each other cot course has a
header set close to the quolin cot and rest of the subtleties are like English bond as
demonstrated in fig 11.25

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 Fig 11.25 English Cross Bond

Brick anxious bond or warrior course: In this kind of bond, the bricks are laid
nervous. The bricks are set as headers and cots in substitute courses in such a way
that headers are put on bed and the cots are set an edge framing a ceaseless hole.
This bond is powerless in strength however conservative.

fig 11.26 Bonds in segments

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Bonds in sections: Generally English bonds or twofold Flemish bonds are utilized for
segment development. In the event of round or octagonal development shaped
bricks are utilized. The different courses of action of bricks in various sections shapes
are as demonstrated in fig 11.26.

Fig 11.27 Columns in Double Flemish bond

Bonds at intersection: When two dividers meet or converge one another, the
gathering point is known as intersection

(I) For tee intersection English or twofold Flemish is utilized as demonstrated in fig
11.28.

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 Fig 11.28 Bonds in Tee-Junction

(ii) For cross intersections – English bond is utilized as demonstrated in fig. 11.29

Fig 11.29 Cross Junctions in english bond

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 Chapter – 12 Floors

To sub-split the part between the plinth level or cellar level and rooftop level, strong
developments are Carried out. These developments are known as floors and
uncovered top surface of floors are named as floorings. Ground floors or storm cellar
floors, which straightforwardly lay on the ground, don't need the arrangement of a
floor. However, they are furnished with reasonable kind of flooring.

12.1 Types of Floors:

Floors are characterized into two classes

1. Timber Floors
2. Composite Floors

1. Lumber Floors: On this floor, just wood is utilized as a material.

Lumber floors are additionally isolated into four sorts.

a. Basement or Ground floor of lumber

b. Single Joist lumber pillar
c. Double Joist lumber pillar
d. Framed triple joist lumber floor.

Highlights of Timber Floors:

(I) Floor Boards: These sheets are given at the highest point of crossing over joists
and they structure the wearing surface of the floor. The width fluctuates from
100mm to 200mm and thickness shifts from 20mm to 40mm. the thickness might be
changed when a floor subject to hefty traffic from 60 to 80mm. The floor sheets are
joined and augmented by any reasonable joint as demonstrated in the figure.12.1

Fig 12.1 Pugging

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(ii) Floor Ceilings: To make the underside of the floor level and to improve the
appearance all in all, roofs might be given lay on spanning joists or covers. The roofs
may consist of mortar sheets or sheets of asbestos concrete or some appropriate
material. To make roofs solid and sturdy, roof joists might be given at right points to
the crossing over joists or the covers.

(i) Pugging: In request to make the wood floor sound confirmation, pugging might
be turned. Pugging mortar is a combination of cleaved straw and mortar. Protecting
sheets supporting on filets are given and blesses space between the floorboards and
the protecting barricades is loaded up with the pugging mortar.

(ii) Trimming: When openings are to be given in wooden floors, obviously spanning
joists won't lay on the dividers. In such cases, the way toward managing is required.
Managing joists support a couple of trimmer joists to which managed joists are fixed.
The managing joists and trimmer joists have somewhat more noteworthy areas than
spanning joists Fig. 12.2 shows a wooden floor with a step well.

(iii) Use of steel areas: Binders and supports of wooden floor can be supplanted by
gentle moved steel joists. The solitary insurance to be taken for this situation is
encase the R.S.J. by concrete in order to forestall rusting of R.S.J. The utilization of
steel segment makes the floor light and practical.

a) Basement or ground floor of wood:

In the assembly room, to complete movies or shows lumber floors are built on
the ground floor. Sleeper dividers, which might be of one-half brick or one
brick thickness, are developed at focus to focus distance of 1.20m to 1.80m.
Divider plates are given along the divider just as along the sleeper dividers
and they decrease the ranges of the building joists and fill in as end points for
the spanning joists. On divider plates rest the closures of crossing over joists,
which are typically given at a middle to focus distance of around 30 cm. At
last, floor barricades are given to complete the floor. The subtleties are as
demonstrated in fig 12.2.

Fig 12.2. Storm cellar or ground floor of wood

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 b) Single Joist lumber floor:
These floors consist of a single joist, which are put underneath the
floorboards. The joists are generally positioned at a middle to focus distance
of 30cm to 45cm. The joists are upheld on divider plates at their closures. A
space of about 50mm is saved for the dissemination of air as demonstrated in
fig 12.3. Single joist wood floor can be received for a most extreme range of
about 3.6m. At the point when the range of joist surpasses 2.4m, it gets
important to reinforce the joist by giving bearing bone swaggering. In this
course of action, slanted lumber pieces are solidly fixed between the joists and
the finishes of these swaggers are nailed to the joist. Toward the end, wedges
are given between the divider and the joists.

Fig 12.3 Details of single joist wood floor

c) Double joist timber floors:

In this kind of floors, halfway backings known as fasteners, are
accommodated connecting joists. Covers are for the most part positioned at a
middle to focus distance of 1.80m to 2.40m as demonstrated in fig 12.4. The
finishes of fasteners lay on wooden or stone squares. Twofold joist wood
floors are more grounded than the single joist timber floors. They forestall the
entry of sound in a better manner and they are reasonable for ranges of 3.60 to
7.50m. This kind of floor has the following disadvantages.

(i) The weight of the floor is tossed on a couple of focuses in a divider.

(ii) Depth of floor is expanded by the utilization of fasteners and as needs be, the
tallness of the room is diminished.

125
 Fig 12.4

d) Framed or triple joist wood floor:

In this sort of floor, moderate backings, known as braces, accommodate the
covers. Consequently, this sort of floor comprises supports, covers, connecting
joists and floor sheets as demonstrated in fig 12.5.

Fig 12.5 Details of outlined wood floors

126
 Supports are for the most part positioned at a middle to focus distance of 3
meters. Folios are amazed and associated with supports by tusk and join
joints. Then again, the finishes of folios are upheld on the iron stirrups, which
are fixed to the braces. The closures of supports lay on dividers on stone or
solid formats. This sort of wood floor is appropriate for ranges more
prominent than 7.50.

II Composite Floors:

Floors made out of more than one material are known as composite floors and they
found to have the accompanying advantages.

(i) Resist fire and sound in preferable manner over wood floors

(ii) Better sterile in light of the fact that can be handily cleaned (iii) Adopted for
more prominent ranges.

Coming up next are the kinds of composite floors

(a) Double banner stone floors

(b) Filler Joists floors

(c) Jack curve floor

(d) R.C.C. floors

(e) Hollow square and rib floors

a) Double flagstone floors:

In this sort of floor, flagstones are utilized in two layers as demonstrated in fig 12.6.
On the off chance that length is about 4m, just moved steel joists are given and range
surpasses 4m, a structure consisting of moved steel shafts and joists is framed. Steel
radiates are set a good way off of about 3m focus to focus and joists are set at right
points to radiate. Flagstones of about 40mm thickness and of appropriate width are
fixed on the lower ribs and upper ribs. The joints of the top layer of flagstones are
done in a superior manner to give a pleasant appearance. Filling of chosen earth or
cement is done in the space between the two layers of the flagstones.

127
 Fig 12.6 Double Flagstone floor

b) Filler Joist floors:

In this sort of floor, little segments of moved steel joists are put in solid, these joists
may either lay on divider or on steel pillar as shown fig 12.7. The joists go about as a
built-up and are dispersed at middle to focus distance of 60cm to 90cm. The cement
ought to encompass the moved steel/joists and shafts.

Fig 12.7 Filler Joist Floor

c) Jack curve floors:

In this kind of floor, brick curves or concrete solid curves are developed and these
curves lay on the lower ribs of gentle steel joists. The joists thus lay either on a
divider or on a shaft. The joists are put a ways off of about 80cm to 120cm focus to
focus. The ascent of the curve ought to be 10cm to 20cm. Also, the base profundity of
cement at the crown ought to be 15cm. The lone disadvantage of this floor is that it
doesn't give a plain roof surface as demonstrated in fig 12.8. (a and b)

Fig 12.8 (a) Brick Jack curve floor

128
 Fig 12.8 (b) Concrete jack floor

d) R.C.C Floor:

In this kind ofloorrs, stfloorrs and cement are utilized to frame a floor. This kind of
floor is broadly utilized in current development. The chunk and pillar are planned
according to stacking going ahead of the floor and legitimate support is put at an
appropriate spot. If there should be an occurrence of R.C.C. section thickness differs
from 80mm to 150mm and the principle support is for the most part as gentle steel
bars of breadth changing from 9mm to 12mm as demonstrated in fig. 12.9.

Fig 12.9 R.C.C. Floor

The built-up cement might be projected in-situ or pre-projected, the previous being
normal. R.C.C. floors are less expensive, tough, simple to develop, and flame
resistant. Notwithstanding, they are probably going to communicate sound.

129
Regardless R.C.C. floors are quick supplanting different sorts of floors.

e) Hollow Block and Rib Floors:

In this sort of floor, honor squares of earth or cement are utilized to decrease the
absolute load of the floor. In one structure, the squares are put 10cm separated and in
this space, gentle steel bars are set as demonstrated in 0. A least front of 80mm is
kept at the top. Appropriate flooring at the top and fixing finish is given. The
squares are given an unpleasant or furrowed surface so they can grow sufficient
bonds with the solid. This kind of floor is efficient, flame resistant, sound
confirmation, and light in weight. On the off chance that it is appropriately planned,
this kind of floor can even be utilized to convey weighty burdens.

Fig 12.10 Hollow Block and Rib floor

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