The Tutor on the Go – Agriculture Studies

Agriculture
Agriculture is the growing of crops and the rearing of animals to satisfy human
needs and wants. We grow crops like maize, sorghum, nuts cotton, sunflower etc to
feed ourselves and for raw materials for our industries.

Importance of Agriculture
 Export of produce generates foreign currency
 Provides raw materials for industries
 Provides food
 Raises living standards where produce generates money
 Creates employment on farms and in downstream industries
 Promotes infrastructural development as roads, buildings, communication
infrastructure is developed to cater for farming areas.

Farming as a System

A system in geography refers to interrelated parts making a whole. Each part has a
role to play. A system has four main parts namely inputs, throughputs (or
processes), outputs and feedback.

Inputs can be divided into two groups.

1. Physical inputs are naturally occurring things such as water, raw materials
and the land.
2. Human or Cultural Inputs are things like money, labour, and skills.

Processes or Throughputs are the actions within the farm that allow the inputs to
turn into outputs. Processes could include things such as milking, harvesting and
shearing.

Outputs can be negative or positive, although they are usually the latter.

1. Negative outputs include waste products and soil erosion.

2. The positive outputs are the finished products, such as meat, milk and eggs,
and the money gained from the sale of those products.

Feedback is what is put back into the system. The main two examples of this are
money, from the sale of the outputs, and knowledge, gained from the whole
process. This knowledge could then be used to make the product better or improve
the efficiency of the processes.

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 The Tutor on the Go – Agriculture Studies

An Example: A maize farm

 Inputs : seeds, fertilizers, tractors, labour, water or rain, capital
 Processes : ploughing, harvesting, weeding, spraying, ridging, irrigation
 Outputs : maize crop, money, organic matter, animal feeds, erosion, water
pollution
Factors Affecting Agriculture
Capital: Money is vitally important when setting up a farm, or trying to run one.
Availability and cost of loans will affect agriculture.

Choice: the farmer may have a number of choices over which type of farming he is
going to follow. Normally this is determined by the climate, soils and the relief.
However farmers increasingly have to turn to farming crops or animals that will
bring them the most money, rather than which ones may be best suited to the
area.

Climate: One of the most important factors in deciding what type of farming might
occur in a certain area. The important considerations for farmers are the hours of
sunshine, the average temperature and the amount of rainfall.

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 The Tutor on the Go – Agriculture Studies

Labour: Every farm needs workers, and so farms need these sources of labour..
However, with farming becoming increasingly mechanised the numbers of people
working on farms has diminished.

Market: The market is very important for a farmer. He must know that he is going
to be able to sell his produce at a good price, in order to make a profit. Quotas and
subsidies have been brought in to try to help farmers as the prices of their
produce have fallen over the last twenty years. Farmers increasingly have to
decide exactly what they are going to grow by the price that they will get for their
produce.

Politics: Government and International farming policies have had a huge impact on
many farms around the world. In Europe the Common Agricultural Policy and EU
regulations have meant that farmers are protected and that their produce will be
bought. However they have also meant some farmers have had to completely
change what they are growing to suit the new regulations.

Relief: The relief of the land is a very important factor in determining the type of
agricultural activity that can take place on it. Flat, sheltered areas are usually best
for crops as it is easy to use machinery and there will be the best climatic
conditions for crop growth. Steep slopes are more likely to be used for sheep and
cattle farming,

Soils: Thick, well-irrigated, often alluvial (deposited by a river) soil is usually the
best for crop farming. In Britain the best soil for arable farming can be found in
Norfolk and other Eastern areas of the country. In hilly areas the soil tends to be
thinner and less fertile, meaning it is more suitable for pasture farming.

Pests and diseases: certain areas have certain pests and diseases which may
discourage certain kinds of farming. E.g. tsetse fly will discourage cattle ranching.

Classifications of farming Types

1. Farming can either be arable farming or pastoral farming. Arable farming is
the growing of crops and usually occupies better quality land which is more
flat and fertile. Pastoral farming or livestock rearing is carried out on less
fertile land since animals are more tolerant to difficult conditions than
plants. Mixed farming involves both plants and animals on the same farm.
2. Another classification is shifting versus sedentary agriculture. Shifting
cultivation involves the movement from one area of land to another after the
soils are exhausted. Shifting pastoralists (nomadic pastoralists) move in

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 The Tutor on the Go – Agriculture Studies

search of new pastures. Shifting agriculture supports very low population

densities. Sedentary farmers use crop rotation, fertilizers and selective
seeds on the same piece of land year in year out.
3. Agriculture can also be classified as either subsistence or commercial.
Subsistence farmers produce food for family consumption while commercial
agriculture produces food for the markets. An example of commercial
agriculture is monoculture where one crop or animal is produced in large
quantities for sale.
a. Advantages of Monoculture
i. It makes operations cheaper and more efficient because of
economies of scale
b. Disadvantages
i. Monoculture is vulnerable to the dangers of diseases, bad
weather and fluctuating prices of produce.
4. Another classification is when agriculture is classified as either Intensive or
extensive farming. Intensive farming increases productivity by using large
amounts of inputs (capital, machines, seeds, chemicals e.t.c) per piece of
land. It is found in areas where the population density is high and land is
scarce. Extensive agriculture uses fewer inputs per area of land.

The role of science in Agriculture

Scientists are involved in every aspect of farm production. The main areas of their
involvement are
1. Climate
a. Forecasting the weather
b. Seeding clouds in order to increase rainfall
2. Chemicals
a. Developing fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides and medicines for
treating animal diseases.
3. Farm buildings
a. To create ideal conditions for storing crops and keeping animals.
4. Machinery
a. Developing new machinery for different farm activities like
harvesting, milking and programs which help keep records.
5. Farm products
a. Developing new varieties and breeds of animals in order to establish
better attributes like drought resistance, disease resistance,
increased yields etc

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 The Tutor on the Go – Agriculture Studies

b. Experimenting with new techniques to create plants with desired

characteristics e.g. cloning, GMOs
6. Water
a. Improving soil drainage by laying drainage pipes, contour ploughing,
terracing etc for retaining moisture
b. Developing the most suitable methods for particular conditions to
ensure the right amount of water at the right time
c. Testing and drilling for underground water. These scientists are
known as hydrologists.

Land Clearance and Preparation

 Different methods of land preparation can be used to prepare land for
farming
 The agricultural system practiced by the farmer will influence the method
used to clear and prepare the land for farming.
 Commercial farmers use mechanical methods involving the use of tractors
and bulldozers while peasant farmers use manual methods using simple
implements like hoes, axes and ox drawn ploughs etc.
 Methods used are influenced by
o The size of the land to be cleared
o The capital available to hire or purchase equipment
o The availability of the equipment like tractors, bulldozers and their
parts
o The stage of technological development of the country

Farming Types

Hunting and gathering

 This was the early form of agriculture. Man would go hunting and women
gathering wild fruits.
 No crops were grown or animals kept

Shifting Cultivation
 Refers to the growing of crops while moving from one place to another.
 Change of location was necessitated by the fact that the soil would have lost
fertility.

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 The Tutor on the Go – Agriculture Studies

 It is practiced in tropical areas in the Congo Basin and the Amazon basin is
South America.
Factors influencing shifting cultivation
1. Found in areas where population densities are very low
2. Practiced in areas where there are large forests
Characteristics
 Clearing by cutting the vegetation using axes, machetes and hoes from a
selected piece of land.
 Pilling up the vegetation and leaving it to dry. This is done during the dry
season.
 Burning the dry vegetation piles and spreading the ash over the field just
before the rainy season.
 Planting using simple tools soon after the first rains.
 Yields decline with continued use of the piece of land and farmers abandon
the land and a new one is sought.
 Different kinds of crops are grown on the piece of land (mixed cropping0

Inputs: axes, seeds, hoes, labour, abundant lands/forests, ashes (fertilizers)

Processes: slashing trees, ploughing, burning, weeding, shifting places and
harvesting.
Outputs: Crops, weak soils, erosion and ashes

Advantages of shifting cultivation

1. A wider choice of land because of low population densities
2. Yields are higher in the earlier years of farming
3. Ash is used for manure and it is cheap
4. The cleared piece of land can be used years later when it has recovered.
Disadvantages
1. Destroys natural habitats for other living organisms
2. Can lead to soil erosion and land degradation
3. It leads to deforestation
4. Leads to the development of poor soils over time as it disturbs the nutrient
cycle.
5. Contributing to global warming as it destroys forests which could have
reduced amounts of carbon dioxide in the air.

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 The Tutor on the Go – Agriculture Studies

Nomadic Pastoralism
 It refers to the movement of farmers with their livestock in search of
water and pastures.
 This farming system is practiced in the semi arid and arid regions of Kenya
(the Massai), in Somalia, in the sahel regions of west Africa and in the Funj
region of Sudan.
Nomadic Pastoralism in Sudan
 There are several pastoral groups found in the Funj region in Sudan.
 The Rufaa Al Hoi keep cattle, goats, sheep and a few camels to carry their
belongings as they move around.
 They cover distances over 400Km north and south in a year in their pastoral
movements
 Movements are determined by the availability of water and by the necessity
to avoid tsetse flies and mosquitoes in the wet regions.
 They spend the dry seasons in the south with their main camps on the banks
of the Khor Yabus which is perennial.
 In the late dry season the cattle are taken further south by the man and
older boys as they follow the water and pastures.
 With the onset of the rains, they move back north to their main camps. The
herds and the whole camp then continue the long journey northwards in
family groups. They do this to avoid tsetse and mosquitos during the wet
season.
 They continue northwards until they reach Jebelein where they stay until
October when the south ward journey begins. They now go south in search of
water until they reach their main camps

Problems faced by pastoralists

1. There is completion for grazing land from other groups which leads to family
and ethnic feuds.
2. There are conflicts with the local sedentary farmers who must defend their
crops from their herds.
3. Increasing population densities which affect the system as it supports a low
population density.
4. Competing land uses which are fast taking away land designated as pasture
by these groups.
Reasons for the disappearance of Nomadism in Africa
1. Increased population which eventually forces people to be sedentary
farmers

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 The Tutor on the Go – Agriculture Studies

2. Improved education levels which have seen the boys moving into other
carreers.
3. Emergence of country borders, and governments which are increasingly
controlling movements.
4. The growth of urbanisation which has seen more and more people move into
towns.

Settled/Sedentary farming

The growing of crops or rearing of animals in one place. Communal farming in

Zimbabwe is an example of settled farming.

Advantages of settled farming

1. Requires lesser labour and effort as there are no forests to be cleared

2. Use of manure from cattle as they are located in one place at night.
3. Limited deforestation
4. Encourages cooperation with neibhours as long term relationships develop.
Disadvantages
1. The land looses fertility over time and yields drop
2. The use of fertilizers affects the acidity of the soil which will need to be
corrected regularly.
3. Can cause soil erosion and land degradation
4. Continued increase in population leads to falling plot sizes and declining living
standards.
5. At a communal level it uses less capital, no mechanization and therefore produces
less yields.

What can be done to improve settled farming in communal areas.

1. Supply inputs for free or at subsidized prices
2. Educate people about good farming methods
3. Provide loans to support farming activities
4. Resettlement of people from heavily populated areas to less populated areas
5. Research into new farming methods, practices, breeds and varieties.

Factors leading to settled farming

1. Limited land for farming which forces people to settle in one place.
2. Rapid population growth which leads to higher population densities
3. Technological advancements and the use of fertilizers to boost soil fertility

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 The Tutor on the Go – Agriculture Studies

4. Improvements in education and knowledge

5. The rise of environmentalism and the protection of forests.
6. Rising costs and risks associated with continued movements.

Advantages of mixed farming

1. The diversity of plants and animals enables the farmers to make maximum use of
the land.
2. Some crops help restore the fertility of the soil which maintains the fertility of
the soil over time. E.g. leguminous crops
3. Many crops will form a continuous ground cover helping to reduce soil erosion
4. The variety of crops assures the farmer of a harvest even if some of the crops are
affected by bad weather.
5. Some practices used in some mixed farming like burning helps to kill insects and
weeds.
Disadvantages
1. Costs are generally higher because each crop is planted in smaller quantities and
there are no economies of scale.
2. Efficiencies decline as a lot of different processes have to be done and a lot of
time is lost while moving from one crop to the next.

Commercial Farming
Involves the growing of crops and rearing of animals as a business. In Zimbabwe these
farms are found in areas with favorable climates and good soils. They are large and employ
a lot of people.

Importance of commercial farming/Advantages

1. They employ a large number of people
2. Export of produce earns the country foreign currency
3. Provides raw materials for other industries
4. Provides a markert for other industries like chemical manufactures and machinery
5. Promote the development of infrastructure such as roads, rail, electricity,
communication etc as these are developed to support these areas.
6. Ensures food security
Disadvantages
1. Requires a lot of capital so not easy to start
2. Requires vast lands
3. Offers low wages as major aim is to maximize profit
4. Takes land away from communal farmers which increases pressure in these areas
5. Mostly run by institutional companies which remit profits to their mother countries

Inputs Processes Outputs

Tractors Spraying Large produce of crops

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 The Tutor on the Go – Agriculture Studies

Harrows,planters,discs Planting Good breeds of animals

Chemicals Harvesting Quality milk
Treated seeds, brreding Storage Beef
animals
Labour Weeding Profits
Combine harvesters Milking Manure
Land Feeding

Specialized Commercial Farming

Cattle Ranching in Zimbabwe
Ranching involves the production of beef.

Extensive Beef Production

 Cattle are grazed on large farms
 This is practiced in the dry areas of region 5 where the rainfall levels are not
suitable for arable farming.
 Rainfall is less than 700mm per year and pastures are poor and it is difficult to
grow supplementary feeds hence the large farms.
 The carrying capacity in the region is low so fewer animals are kept on a given piece
of land
 Ranches are usually owned by large corporation like Lemco and CSC.
 Cattle are usually sold in Feb and Mar when they are three and a half years old.
 Breeds kept include Tuli, Mashona, Ngoni, Africander and Brahman.

Intensive Beef Production

 Carried in the wet regions of North east, central and earstern areas of Zimbabwe.
(regions 2&3)
Reasons
1. Natural pasture is plentiful
2. A lot of supplementary feeds can be grown e.g cultivated pasture, maize and cotton
residues.
The beef is produced for both the local and external markets. Before the advent of
sanctions, Zimbabwean beef was sold to European coutries such as Belgium, Portugal,
France, Germany, Italy, Denmark, United kingdom etc.

Problems faced by cattle ranchers

1. Drought – the shortage of rainfall in some seasons affects the amount of pastures
available and reduces the carrying capacity of the land. This forces farmers to sale
their animals and some even die.

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 The Tutor on the Go – Agriculture Studies

2. Diseases – outbreaks of diseases affects productivity on farms. In some cases the

affected animals have to be destroyed e.g foot and mouth. Buying countries also put
embargoes on countries where there are disease outbreaks which affect markets.
3. Lack of capital or very high costs of capital
4. Stock theft has become a serious problem for cattle ranchers in Zimbabwe.
5. Fluctuating market prices for beef on the international markets which makes
planning difficult.

Solutions to these problems

1. Drought related problems can be mitigated by;
a. Construction of dams to ensure that water is always available to grow
supplementary feeds in bad seasons.
b. Drilling of deep boreholes in areas with abundant supplies of underground
water.
c. Provision of supplementary feeds to animals either transported from
drought free areas or stocked during the good seasons.
d. Briefly relocating animals to better watered areas of the country.
e. Establishment of feedlots for the more healthier animals.
f. Selling the animals during the drought season
2. Solutions related to diseases include;
a. Regular dipping to remove external parasites such as ticks which cause
diseases.
b. Vaccinating cattle to prevent internal parasites.
c. Culling – killing infected animals to stop the spread or separating the sick
animals until they are well.
d. Enforcing laws which restrict the uncontrolled movement of cattle from one
area to another without clearance from veterinary officers.
3. Dealing with stock theft may include;
a. Seeking police clearances for all livestock sales and transportation of
animals from one area to another.
b. Insisting on recordkeeping of all sources of meat sold in our retail points

Ways of improving the quality of Cattle on a ranch

1. Pasture management by paddocking
2. Regular vaccinating to prevent diseases.
3. Keeps stocks of adequate feeds were animals are fed in pens using stock feeds.
4. Controlled cattle breeding in order to produce breeds which produce more meat as
well as being resistant to diseases. i.e cross breeding indigenous and exotic breeds.

Outputs from cattle ranches

Beef, Hides and manure

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 The Tutor on the Go – Agriculture Studies

Sample Question
a. State the problems that cattle ranchers in Africa face. Suggest solutions to these
problems
b. Why is cattle ranching in areas around Bulawayo extensive while that in areas
around Harare is intensive.
Market Gardening
This is the production of vegetables, flowers and fruits that is also known as horticulture.
It is an example of intensive farming

Features of Market Gardening

 Farms are small and are located where there are good communication links with
customers
 Land is very intensively farmed and irrigation is often used.
 Vegetables may be grown in fields or green houses
 The farms are labour intensive
 Capital input is heavy and they make use of selected seeds, insecticides, nurseries
and greenhouses.
Factors influencing the development of market gardening in Zimbabwe
1. Technological development which has made it possible to vary climate within green
houses which has made it possible to grow crops from these climatic regions locally.
2. The growth of towns has provided a ready market for the produce of market
gardens. These farms are usually located near towns.
3. Improvements in transport infrastructure have made it possible to locate further
from towns as transportation is now faster.
4. Developments in refrigerated transportation and air transport have made it
possible to transport produce over long distances. Products in Zimbabwe were
marketed in Europe.
5. Rising standards of living in the country which have provided a growing market for
the produce of market gardens.

Dairy Farming
 A specialized type of farming whereby the farmer rears cows for milk production
and other related products e.g. cheese, cream, butter etc.
 They are located in cool humid areas where a rich pasture grow best and near towns
since milk is a perishable commodity and needs to be sent to the market every day.
The towns are also a source of other inputs like medines, supplimentay feeds etc
and farms must be close to reduce transportation costs of these inputs.
 Also located in areas free from diseases e.g. tsetse free areas
 In Zimbabwe, the main breeds are the Jersey and the Friesland which produce a lot
of milk. The cows are milked twice a day and milk is sent to the market every day.
 On small scale farms the milking is done by hand while on larger commercial farms it
is done by machines.

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 The Tutor on the Go – Agriculture Studies

 The cows are mated either artificially or through selective breeding to promote
those animals which produce a lot of milk.
 Besides pastures in the field, the cows are also fed special dairy feeds which
promote milk production and resistance to diseases.
 Routine processes carried out on a farm include milking, dosing, feeding,
vaccinations and dipping. The pastures are usually improved using fertilizers and
irrigation.
 In Zimbabwe dairy farms are confined to areas with moderate to high rainfall. This
includes the eastern highlands, mashonaland and in the midlands province. They are
mostly located closer to towns where there are specialized storage facilities.

Dairy Farming in Bulawayo

Location of Farms

Key
1. 0 to 16km – 13 farms
2. 16 to 32 km – 35 farms
3. 32 to 48 km – 32 farms
4. Above 48km – 6 farms

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The number of dairy farms decreases as one moves beyond 48km from Bulawayo. The
number of units between 16-32km exceed the number inside 16km where the land costs
more and is mostly used for market gardening and large residential plots.

Distance is the main factor affecting the distribution of dairy farms. A poor road system
will limit the number of dairy farms further from time. Where there is a good road
network, milk is transported over long distances and farms are further from town.
At least 635mm of rainfall per year is necessary for successful dairy farming. Where the
rainfall is inadequate, artificial pastures can be grown using irrigation and supplementary
feeds used.
Advantages of Dairy farming
1. Creates employment
2. Generates foreign currency from export of produce
3. Provides raw materials for milk related products like ice creams, youghuts etc and
hides for the leather industry.
4. Provides food
5. Promotes development of infrastructure
6. Can use dry areas which are unproductive to crops.
Disadvantages
1. Requires vast lands for pastures
2. Milk is perishable and therefore difficult and expensive to transport.
3. It needs a lot of capital to start
4. Affected by diseases like anthrax, foot and mouth etc.
5. Requires modern machinery like milking plants which are expensive and difficult to
get parts.
6. Cannot be established too far from the market

Way to improve dairy farming

1. Providing loans to farmers as capital and working capital at affordable interest
rates.
2. Eradication of diseases in dairy farming areas through vaccination, restricting
movement.
3. Developing and bringing in new and better breeds of cattle.
4. Developing and bringing in new technologies and machinery
5. Developing skilled labour through training
6. Developing marketing boards and policies which support dairy farming.

Expected questions
1. Describe and explain the distribution of dairy farms in Bulawayo
2. What measures could be taken to make dairy farming more productive
3. What problems are likely to be faced in implementing the measures above

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Irrigation farming
This is the movement of regular amounts of water from lakes, dams, rivers, wells or
boreholes to cultivated land for various reasons.

Reasons why crops are irrigated

1. To supplement rainfall in areas where amount received is not enough for crops
2. To ensure a reliable supply of water in areas were rainfall is unreliable e.g. to
reduce the effects of mid season droughts.
3. To allow double cropping were some plants are planted during the dry season.
4. To improve yields by maintaining optimum amounts of water at all times for crops.

Methods of Irrigation
1. Flood irrigation – canal or furrow irrigation where water is guided into fields
through furrows or canals fed by a main canal from a river or dam. Temporary dams
block the feeder canal which forces the water to overflow the furrow and flow into
the field. Gently sloping land is ideal as water flows under the pull of gravity. This
method has the risk of overwatering some sections of the field and causes erosion.
2. Basin Irrigation – the land is terraced into level sections divided by earth walls.
Water from a pipe is supplied to these basins which are opened at intervals to allow
other basins to be watered. The method is used to water fruit trees were basins
are created around trees in the terraces. The method is cheap and water is evenly
distributed around the field. However a lot of work is needed to prepare the
terraces and basins.
3. Overhead irrigation – this is used when the land is too steep or the soil too
permeable for flood irrigation to work properly. Water is pumped under pressure
from pipes across the field and sprayed in the field through sprinklers. Water is
evenly distributed but the equipment is expensive to buy, install and maintain. It
also encourages fungal diseases as it moistens the leaves.

Advantages of Irrigation.
1. Crops can be cultivated during the dry season
2. Water is evenly distributed especially with overhead irrigation
3. It creates employment as more people are needed where irrigation farming is done
4. Reduces soil erosion if properly done e.g drip irrigation
Disadvantages
1. Expensive to buy, install and maintain especially overhead and drip irrigation
2. It needs a lot of labour
3. Leaches the soil
4. Causes diseases especially overhead which promotes fungal diseases.

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Plantation Agriculture
 This is the large scale production of one or a few specialized crops on specialized
1000Ha or above farms.
 They are usually owned by transnational companies or government organisations
because of the huge capital required.
 The money is invested in machinery, chemicals, fertilizers and employee wages.
 The crops grown may take about 6-10yrs before being productive e.g tea, rubber,
and forestry.
 The practice of monoculture encourages pests and diseases and to the built up and
loss of soil fertility.
 The crops are usually processed on the plantations e.g Sugar cane in Zimbabwe.
 The crops are usually more than sufficient for the domestic market and the surplus
is exported earning the country foreign currency.

Case Study: South East lowveld of Zimbabwe (Irrigation and Plantation Agriculture)
 The lowveld lies in the SE of the country which experiences high temperatures and
receives very low rainfall(less than 600mm). This area is sparsely populated as the
high temps encourage diseases transmitted by tsetse fly which discouraged
ranching, the only form of farming which was done in the past.
 In 1936, a rancher built a dam on Mutirikwi and started growing wheat, maize and
beans. In 1938, sugar cane was introduced. He set up a sugar mill and with the
coming of WWII, the prices of sugar rose sparking interest in the government.
 In 1945, the government took over sugar production but invited sugar producers
from south Africa and in 1954, the Triangle Estate was established quickly followed
by Hippo Valley Estate in 1956.
 The Save Limpopo Authority was set up to oversee the development of water
resources in the area
Why develop the South east lowveld
1. Several rivers flow from high rainfall areas through this area. Examples include
Runde, Tokwe, Mutirikwi etc
2. Fertile soils from basaltic rocks with high potash and phosphorous content
3. Gently sloping flat land
4. High temperatures all year round which promote plant growth.

Three more estates were later opened, that is, Mkwasine, Middle Gobi and Chisumbanje.

The Hippo Valley Estates

Sugarcane is produced on the 54,200 ha farm under flood irrigation with water from Lake
Mutirikwi,, Bangala and Manjirenji dams which are 40 -50km away. Cane cuttings are
dipped into fungicides and then planted into furrows which are later ferilised. The cane
matures in 14 months then the fields are burnt and later chopped.

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Processing of sugar
 The bulk sugar produced is sent in bulk containers to refineries where it is
processed into white sugar.
 Molasses is sent to the alchahol processing plant where it is used to produce
ethanol, industrial alchahol and ordinary alchahol sent to Afdis to produce spirits.
 Carbon dioxide is also produced during the fermentation of molasses and is used in
the production of carbonated soft drinks.
 Some of the molasses is sold raw to be used in the preparation of silage.

The Gezira Irrigation Scheme in Sudan

Location
 It is found between the Blue Nile and the White Nile. The Sennar Dam built on the
White Nile provides the water for irrigation.
Advantages of location/reasons of locating there
1. The land is gently sloping making both irrigation and drainage easy and cheap
2. The land is well above the water table so water logging is not a problem
3. The soils in the area are fertile
4. The clay content of the soil is high so the water canal used to move water do not
need water proof lining
5. The climate is ideal for cotton growing
6. There was a ready supply of tenants/labour from people who lived in the
surrounding areas.
7. It was not expensive to clear the bush/forest because of the area’s aridity.
8. The little rainfall reduces the chance of pests and diseases

Organisation of the Scheme

1. Government – it provides the land and is responsible for the irrigation.
2. Tenants/Farmers – these work on the land and produce crops. The farmers receive
cash for their crops. The farmers duties include;
a. Planting, weeding, harvesting, clearing, making irrigation canals, harvesting,
etc
3. The Sudan Gezira Board –
a. Organizes and controls the supply of water
b. Organizes the layout of the land and crop rotation
c. processes and sells the crops,
d. supplies seeds, fertilizers,
e. supplies field advisors and inspectors,
f. looks after the light railway system in the area and machinery used.
g. It also distributes the profits to tenants.

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 The Tutor on the Go – Agriculture Studies

The crops grown are cotton, wheat and groundnuts. The irrigation method is canal
irrigation as the water flows along the main canal into smaller canals which go to fields.
The Gezira scheme is very important to the Sudanese economy as it produces 70% of the
country’s cotton, 80% of the wheat crop and 30% of beans. It generates 50% of the
country’s revenue and it employs thousands of people.

Effects of Farming on the Environment

Agricultural activities have negative effects on the environment. These effects include;
1. Soil erosion – poor farming practices such as stream bank cultivation, slope
cultivation, monoculture and overgrazing all lead to soil rosion which makes the land
useless for agriculture. Eroded soil also silts rivers reducing the amount of water
available for other purposes in these rivers.
2. Agro chemicals cause serious health problems directly through poisoning of
necessary bacteria in the soil affecting decomposition of humus. They also poison
water bodies when these are washed into rivers posing a danger o aquatic life.
3. Fertlisers have residual chemicals which affect the pH of the soil which eventually
reduces yields and makes farming expensive. (need for lime). These chemicals also
poison underground and surface water storage.
4. Irrigation usually results is soil salinity especially in arid and semi arid regions were
evaporation is high. This eventually makes the land useless for arable farming.
5. Farming encroaches on natural habitats and eventually destroys them. The building
of dams also destroys natural habitats as vast areas are covered by water.
Restricted flow of water downstream may also destroy any wetlands which may
have been downstream.

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