Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 377–388

On thermal energy storage systems and applications in buildings

Ibrahim Dincer*
Department of Mechanical Engineering KFUPM, Box 127, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
Received 10 August 2001; accepted 2 September 2001

Abstract

This paper deals with the methods and applications of describing and assessing thermal energy storage (TES) systems in buildings.
Various technical aspects and criteria for thermal energy storage systems and applications are discussed and energy saving techniques and
environmental impacts of these systems are highlighted with illustrative examples. An energy and exergy analysis of thermal energy storage
systems and their sub-processes is presented for system design and optimization. An illustrative example is also given to demonstrate how
exergy analysis provides a more realistic and meaningful assessment than the conventional energy analysis of the efficiency and
performance of a thermal energy storage system. # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Buildings; Energy; Environmental impact; Exergy; Thermal energy storage

1. Introduction should allow minimum thermal energy losses, leading to

energy savings, while permitting the highest possible extrac-
Thermal energy storage (TES) is considered one of most tion efficiency of the stored thermal energy.
important advanced energy technologies and recently, There are mainly three types of TES systems, i.e. sensible
increasing attention has been paid to the utilization of this (e.g. water and rock), latent (e.g. water/ice and salt hydrates)
essential technique for thermal applications ranging from and thermochemical (e.g. inorganic substances). The selec-
heating to cooling, particularly in buildings. tion of TES is mainly dependent on the storage period
Economies in the design and operation of energy conver- required, i.e. diurnal or seasonal, economic viability, oper-
sion systems often result if some provision is made for the ating conditions, etc. In practice, many research and devel-
storage of thermal energy. Such provisions must be included opment activities related to energy have been concentrated
in an energy conversion system when the supply of and on the efficient energy use and energy savings, leading to
demand for thermal energy do not coincide in time. The energy-conservation. In this regard, TES appears to be one
surveys conducted by several researchers (e.g. [1]) have of the most attractive thermal applications and exergy as the
revealed that there is a wide range of practical opportunities best tool in analyzing their performances [2,3].
for employing TES systems in industrial applications. In this In sensible TES system, energy is stored by changing the
regard, TES systems have a considerable high potential for temperature of the storage medium (e.g. water, oil, bricks,
more effective use of thermal energy equipment and for sand, soil or rock beds) and a TES system consists of a
facilitating large-scale energy substitutions from the point of storage medium, a container and input/output devices. The
the economic perspective. amount of energy stored by a TES device is proportional to
In general, a coordinated set of actions has to be taken in the difference between the storage input and output tem-
several sectors of the energy system for the maximum peratures, the mass of the storage medium, and the medium’s
potential benefits of storage to be realized. TES appears heat capacity. Each medium has its own advantages and
to be the only solution to correcting the mismatch between disadvantages. TES systems are available for both short
the supply and demand of energy. It can contribute signifi- and long-term storage (e.g. rock and earth beds, and water
cantly to meet society’s needs for more efficient, environ- tanks for short time (daily) and rock and earth beds, large
mentally benign energy use. TES is a key component of any water or oil tanks, solar ponds and aquifers for long-term
successful thermal system in buildings and a good TES storage (monthly or annual). TES systems combined with
solar heating, hot water and cooling applications in buildings
*
Tel.: þ966-3-860-4497; fax: þ966-3-860-2949. have attracted interest in recent years. A number of studies
E-mail address: [email protected] (I. Dincer). have been carried out in many countries, particularly in the

0378-7788/02/$ – see front matter # 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 7 7 8 8 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 1 2 6 - 8
378 I. Dincer / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 377–388

Nomenclature Table 1
Thermal capacities of some common SES materials at 20 8Ca
A exergy transfer associated with Q Material Density Specific Volumetric thermal
DB accumulation of exergy in TES (kg/m3) heat (J/kg K) capacity (106 J/m3 K)
DE accumulation of energy in TES Clay 1458 879 1.28
I irreversibility in TES Brick 1800 837 1.51
Q heat transfer Sandstone 2200 712 1.57
T temperature (8C or K) Wood 700 2390 1.67
Concrete 2000 880 1.76
T0 absolute temperature of the surroundings (K)
Glass 2710 837 2.27
Aluminum 2710 896 2.43
Greek letters Iron 7900 452 3.57
Z energy efficiency Steel 7840 465 3.68
c exergy efficiency Gravely earth 2050 1840 3.77
Magnetite 5177 752 3.89
Water 988 4182 4.17
Subscripts and superscripts a
c charging Source: [13,14].
d discharging
f final
l input loss such as solar energy or waste heat from power generation
j 1, 2, 3 plants and industrial thermal processes for short- and long-
r rejection (loss) term storage purposes in buildings. For short-term TES,
R reference environment there are a number of storage media considered in practice
1 charging period (e.g. water, oil, molten salts, molten metals, bricks, sand
2 storing period and soil). Large aquifers, rock beds, solar ponds and large
3 discharging period tanks are used for long-term (e.g. annual) storage. Some
commonly used TES materials and their properties are
summarized in Table 1.
USA, Canada, Europe, Scandinavia and Japan. These stu- The material must be inexpensive and have a good
dies address technical issues arising from new TES concepts thermal capacity factor. Another important parameter in
and improvements required in the performance of existing TES is the rate at which heat can be released and extracted.
TES systems and also investigate the design of compact TES This leads to the ability of a material to store heat which is a
systems and the use of TES in solar applications. Research function of thermal diffusivity. For this reason, iron shot is
on TES has been broad based and productive, and directed an excellent thermal storage medium, having both high heat
towards the resolution of specific TES issues and new TES capacity and high thermal conductance. For high-tempera-
materials. ture TES (up to several hundred degree centigrade) iron or
The main goal of this study is to provide useful informa- iron oxide is as good as water per unit volume of storage.
tion and some examples on TES systems and applications, The cost is moderate for either pellets of the oxide or metal
energy and exergy analysis techniques, and to discuss energy balls. Since iron and its oxide have equal performance, the
saving and emission reduction possibilities along with illus- slow oxidization of the metal in a high-temperature liquid or
trative examples. air system would not degrade performance.
Water as a heat storage medium has excellent specific heat
and is both cheap and chemically stable. If it is employed
2. TES systems above 100 8C, the system has to be pressurized, which adds
tremendously to costs; for such a case the limitation of
Sensible TES involves a material that undergoes no water is its critical point, namely 374 8C. In addition, there
change in phase over the temperature domain to be encoun- are a number of heat resistant oils in the market (e.g.
tered in the storage process. The basic equation for the Terminol) which can be readily used without pressurization
amount of heat stored in a mass of material is given by at temperatures in a broad range from 10 to 320 8C.
However, while the average specific heat of water is
Q ¼ mcp DT or Q ¼ rcp V DT
4.19 kJ/kg K, most of such oils have specific heats only
where cp is the specific heat of the material, DT the tem- about 2.3 kJ/kg K [4]. Another disadvantage of these oils is
perature rise, V the total volume of the material in the tank the liability to high-temperature cracking, polymerization
and r the density of the material. and the formation of volatile products. There are also some
The ability of storing sensible heat in a given tank (or other substances such as molten salts and molten metals.
container) depends on the value of the material rcp. Water Molten salts can also be employed for high-temperature
has the highest value. TES is mainly used for low-grade heat storage with an average specific heat of 1.5 kJ/kg K [4]
 I. Dincer / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 377–388 379

which have some disadvantages, such as solidification air-conditioning throughout the day. Electricity costs are not
temperatures of a minimum of 150 8C and corrosion effect. only reduced, but also the efficiency of the chiller is
Molten metals (e.g. liquid sodium) can be used in the increased because of the lower night-time ambient tempera-
unpressurized state at temperatures of up to 760 8C with tures, and the peak electricity demand is reduced for elec-
an average specific heat of 1.3 kJ/kg K [4], implying some trical supply utilities.
disadvantages, e.g. handling problems. There is a growing interest in the use of diurnal or daily
Rock is another good TES material from the standpoint of TES for electrical load management in both new and exist-
cost, but its thermal capacity is only half that of water. The ing buildings. TES technologies allow electricity consump-
past studies showed that the rock storage bin is practical, and tion costs to be reduced by shifting electrical heating and
its main advantage is that it can easily be used for heat cooling demands to periods when electricity prices are
storage at above 100 8C. Therefore, rocks are preferred over lower, for instance during the night. Load-shifting can
water for solar systems. However, air/rock solar systems can also reduce demand charges, which can represent a signifi-
make provision for partial heat storage in water for domestic cant proportion of total electricity costs for commercial
hot water use. An amount of heat stored in rocks, compared buildings.
with an equivalent amount of heat stored in water, occupies
approximately three times as much space. This apparent
disadvantage is quickly overcome as soon as we compare 3. TES for cooling capacity (CTES)
costs. Anyone who has built a swimming pool knows first
hand how expensive water containment can be. Addition of In a TES for cooling capacity, ‘‘cold’’ is stored in a
the higher cost and maintenance of a liquid collector and the thermal storage mass. As shown in Fig. 1, the storage can
economics quickly favor the use of air collectors with rock be incorporated in an air-conditioning or cooling system in a
storage for domestic heating applications. Combining water building. In most conventional cooling systems, there are
with air/rock systems has become a standard form of solar two major components [6]:
system application [5]. The objective is to provide a portion
 A chiller—to cool a fluid such as water.
of energy needs for domestic hot water without a significant
 A distribution system—to transport the cold fluid from the
reduction in the solar energy supply for space heating needs.
chiller to where it cools air for the building occupants.
Essentially, this hybrid system is composed of a standard air
rock solar system with the addition of counter-flow heat In conventional systems, the chiller operates only when
exchanger and a small water store. Conventional air/rock the building occupants require cold-air. In a cooling system
solar systems for space heating see service during the incorporating TES, the chiller also operates at times other
heating season only. Consequently, payback time is length- than when the cooling is needed.
ened because the solar system is inoperative for approxi- During the past two decades, TES technology, especially
mately 6 months of the year. Adding hot water capability to cold storage, has matured and is now accepted by many as a
the basic air/rock system increases the capital cost by a very proven energy-conservation technology. However, the pre-
small fraction. In this respect, for a relatively slight addi- dicted payback period of a potential cold storage installation
tional investment, the solar thermal system will provide is often not sufficiently attractive to give it priority over other
100% of the domestic hot water during summer and pro- energy efficient technologies. This determination often is
portionally less as the seasons change to and from winter. made because full advantage is not made of the many
Another example of a TES application is the use of potential benefits of cold storage or because the cold storage
thermal storage to take advantage of off-peak electricity sizing is not optimized. Some recommendations for opti-
tariffs. Chiller units can be run at night when the cost of mizing the payback period of CTES systems follow:
electricity is relatively low. These units are used to cool For new facilities, cold storage should be integrated
down a thermal storage, which then provides cooling for carefully into the overall building and its energy systems

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of two building CTES systems: (a) with no storage and (b) with storage.
380 I. Dincer / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 377–388

so that full advantage is taken the potential benefits of CTES, conventional air-conditioning equipment. Special ice-
including making equipment or standard chillers modified for
low-temperature service are used. The low chilled-
 reduced pipe and pump sizes for chilled water distribu-
water-supply temperatures available from ice storage
tion,
allow the use of cool-air distribution, the benefits of
 reduced duct and fan sizes for low-temperature air dis-
which include the ability to use smaller fans and ducts
tribution and
and the introduction of less humid air into occupied
 correspondingly reduced operating costs.
spaces. With ice as the storage medium, there are several
Smaller chiller and electrical systems lead to initial cost technologies available for charging and discharging the
advantages. The sizing of the cold storage system should be storage: Ice-harvesting systems feature an evaporator
optimized, as opposed to the typical process of considering surface on which ice is formed and periodically released
full-storage and one or two levels of partial-storage versus a into a storage tank that is partially filled with water.
conventional system. A practical method to assist in deter- External melt ice-on-coil systems use submerged pipes
mining the optimum system size should be developed. Also, through which a refrigerant or secondary coolant is
the value should be accounted for of the gain in usable circulated. Ice accumulates on the outside of the pipes.
building space due to less space being required for mechan- Storage is discharged by circulating the warm return water
ical system components when CTES is used. over the pipes, melting the ice from the outside. Internal
For existing facilities, potential advantages of cold TES melt ice-on-coil systems also feature submerged pipes on
which should be evaluated include which ice is formed. Storage is discharged by circulating
warm coolant through the pipes, melting the ice from the
 modifying the existing chillers to make ice versus the
inside. The cold coolant is then pumped through the
purchase of a new machine,
building cooling system or used to cool a secondary
 using spare chiller capacity by adding a cold TES system,
coolant that circulates through the building’s cooling
 using cold storage to increase cooling capacity in situa- system. Encapsulated ice systems use water inside sub-
tions where chiller and electrical service capacity are fully merged plastic containers that freeze and thaw as cold or
utilized
warm coolant is circulated through the storage tank
 sizing the cold storage system optimally as opposed to
holding the containers. Ice slurry systems store water
taking the best of only a few options and
or water/glycol solutions in a slurry state (a partially
 using available low-temperature air and water to advan-
frozen mixture of liquid and ice crystals that looks like
tage through ‘‘free cooling’’ where practical.
slush). To meet a cooling demand, the slurry may be
pumped directly to the load or to a heat exchanger cooling
3.1. CTES storage media selection and characteristics
a secondary fluid that circulates through the building
chilled water system. Internal melt ice-on-coil systems
The storage medium determines a large the storage tank
are the most commonly used type of ice storage technol-
will be and the size and configuration of the HVAC system
ogy in commercial applications. External melt and ice-
and components. The main options include chilled water,
harvesting systems are more common in industrial appli-
ice and eutectic salts. Ice systems offer the densest storage
cations, although they can also be applied in commercial
capacity but have the most complex charge and discharge
buildings and district cooling systems. Encapsulated ice
equipment. Water systems offer the lowest storage density,
systems are also suitable for many commercial applica-
and are the least complex. Eutectic salts have intermediate
tions. Ice slurry systems have not been widely used in
characteristics. Some details on each storage medium
commercial applications.
follow:
 Eutectic salts: Eutectic salts can use existing chillers but
 Chilled water: Chilled water systems require the largest usually operate at warmer temperatures than ice or
storage tanks, but can easily interface with existing chiller chilled-water systems. Eutectic salts use a combination
systems. Chilled water CTES use the sensible heat capa- of inorganic salts, water and other elements to create a
city of water to store cooling capacity. They operate at mixture that freezes at a desired temperature. The
temperature ranges (3.3–5.5 8C) compatible with standard material is encapsulated in plastic containers that are
chiller systems and are most economical for systems stacked in a storage tank through which water is circu-
greater than 2000 tonnehours in capacity. lated. The most commonly used mixture for thermal
 Ice: Ice systems use smaller tanks and offer the potential storage freezes at 8.3 8C, which allows the use of
for the use of low-temperature air systems, but require standard chilling equipment to charge storage, but leads
more complex chiller systems. Ice CTES systems use the to higher discharge temperatures. These temperatures, in
latent heat of fusion of water (335 kJ/kg) to store cooling turn, limit the operating strategies that may be applied.
capacity. To store energy at the temperature of ice requires For example, eutectic salts may only be used in full-
refrigeration equipment that provides charging fluids storage operation if dehumidification requirements
at temperatures below the normal operating range of are low.
 I. Dincer / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 377–388 381

4. Benefits of TES 5.1. Full-storage CTES

Although TES is used in a wide variety of applications, A full-storage strategy shifts the entire peak cooling load
but all are designed to operate on a cyclical basis (usually to off-peak hours (Fig. 2a). The system is typically designed
daily, occasionally seasonally). The systems achieve bene- to operate on the hottest anticipated days at full capacity
fits by fulfilling one or more of the following purposes [6]: during all non-peak hours in order to charge storage. This
strategy is most attractive when peak demand charges are
 Increase generation capacity: Demand for heating, cool-
high or the peak-period is short.
ing, or power is seldom constant over time, and the excess
Full-storage (load-shifting) designs are those that use
generation available during low-demand periods can be
storage to fully de-couple the operation of the heating or
used to charge a TES in order to increase the effective
cooling generating equipment from the peak heating or cool-
generation capacity during high-demand periods. This
ing load. The peak heating or cooling load is met through the
process allows a smaller production unit to be installed
use (i.e. discharging) of storage while the heating or cooling
(or to add capacity without purchasing additional units)
generating equipment is idle. Full-storage systems are likely
and results in a higher load factor for the units.
to be economically advantageous only under one or more of
 Enable better operation of co-generation plants: Com-
the following conditions:
bined heat and power, or co-generation, plants are gen-
erally operated to meet the demands of the connected  Spikes in the peak load curve are of short duration.
thermal load, which often results in excess electric gen-  Time-of-use energy rates are based on short-duration
eration during periods of low electric use. By incorporat- peak-periods.
ing TES, the plant need not be operated to follow a load.  There are short overlaps between peak loads and peak
Rather it can be dispatched in more advantageous ways energy periods.
(within some constraints).  Large cash incentives are offered for using TES.
 Shift energy purchases to low cost periods: This is the  High peak demand charges apply.
demand-side application of the first purpose listed, and
For example, a school or a business whose electrical
allows energy consumers subject to time-of-day pricing to
demand drops dramatically after 5:00 p.m. in an electric
shift energy purchases from high- to low-cost periods.
utility territory where peak energy and demand charges
 Increase system reliability: Any form of energy storage,
apply between 1:00 and 9:00 p.m. usually can economically
from the constant power supply of a small personal
apply a full CTES. Cooling during the 4 h period lap
computer to a large pumped storage project, normally
between 1:00 and 5:00 p.m. can be full shifted, i.e. can
increases system reliability.
be met with a relatively small and cost-effective CTES
 Integration with other functions: In applications where
system and without over-sizing the chiller equipment.
on-site water storage is needed for fire protection, it may
be feasible to incorporate thermal storage into a common
5.2. Partial-storage CTES
storage tank. Likewise, apparatus designed to solve
power–quality problems may be adaptable to energy
In a partial-storage method, the chiller operates to meet
storage purposes as well.
part of the peak-period cooling load and the rest is met by
drawing from storage. The chiller is sized at a smaller
5. Operational strategies for CTES capacity than the design load. Partial-storage systems
may operate as load-leveling or demand-limiting operations.
Several strategies are available for charging and dischar- In a load-leveling system (Fig. 2b), the chiller is sized to run
ging a storage to meet cooling demand during peak hours. at its full capacity for 24 h on the hottest days. The strategy is
The strategies are full-storage and partial-storage. most effective where the peak cooling load is much higher

Fig. 2. Operating strategies. (a) full-storage; (b) partial-storage load-leveling and (c) partial-storage demand-limiting.
382 I. Dincer / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 377–388

than the average load. In a demand-limiting system, the  A determination of changes in energy consumption and
chiller runs at reduced capacity during peak hours and is cost.
often controlled to limit the facility’s peak demand charge  A description and justification of the assumptions used for
(Fig. 2c). Demand savings and equipment costs are higher annual energy demand and use estimates.
than they would be for a load-leveling system and lower than
for a full-storage system.
Partial-storage is more often the most economic option
7. Crucial aspects of TES systems
and therefore, represents the majority of thermal storage
installations. Although partial-storage does not shift as much
There are numerous criteria to evaluate TES systems and
load (on a design-day) as a full-storage systems, partial-
applications such as technical, sizing, economic, energy
storage systems can have lower initial costs, particularly if
saving and environmental. Each of these items should be
the design incorporates smaller equipment by using low-
considered carefully for a successful TES implementation.
temperature water and cold-air distribution systems.
For many applications, a form of partial-storage known
7.1. Technical criteria for TES
as load-leveling can be used with minimum capital cost.
A load-leveling system is designed with the heating or
Independent technical criteria for storage systems are dif-
cooling equipment sized to operate continuously at or near
ficult to establish since they usually are case specific and are
its full capacity to meet design-day loads. Thus, equipment
closely related to and generally affected by the economics of
having minimum capacity (and cost) can be used. During
the resultant systems. Nevertheless, certain technical criteria
operation at less than peak design loads, partial-storage
are desirable, although appropriate trade-offs must be made
designs can function as full-storage systems. For example,
with such other criteria as
a system designed as a load-leveling partial-storage for
space heating at winter design temperatures may function  storage capacity,
as a full-storage (with a full demand shift) on mild spring  lifetime,
or autumn days.  size,
 cost,
6. Design considerations for CTES  efficiency,
 safety,
CTES can take many forms to suit a variety of appli-  installation and
cations. This section addresses several groups of CTES  environmental standards.
applications: off-peak air-conditioning, industrial/process
cooling, off-peak heating and other applications. Before proceeding with a project, a TES designer possess
Selecting a storage and its characteristics usually requires or obtain technical information on TES such as the types of
a detailed feasibility study. The analysis is involved, and storage available, the amount of storage required, the effect
best accomplished following an established procedure. Data of storage on system performance, reliability and cost, and
needed for feasibility analysis can include (i) an hour-by- the storage systems or designs available.
hour 24 h building-load profile for the design-day and (ii) a TES is difficult to employ at sites that have severe space
description of a baseline non-storage system, including restrictions. Also, TES tanks often have significant first
chiller capacity, operating conditions and efficiency. The capital costs. Financial analysis for TES-based projects
description of a CTES often stipulates the following: can be complex, although most consulting energy engineers
are now capable of performing financial calculations and
 The sizing basis (full-storage, load-leveling or demand- evaluating TES benefits.
limiting).
 The sizing calculations showing chiller capacity and sto- 7.2. Sizing criteria for TES
rage capacity, and considering required supply temperature.
 The design operating profile, showing load, chiller output A need exists for improved TES-sizing techniques as
and amount of heat added to or taken from storage for analyses of projects reveal both undersized and oversized
each hour of the design-day. systems. Under-sizing can result in poor levels of indoor
 The chiller operating conditions while charging the sto- comfort, while over-sizing results not only in higher than
rage and if applicable, when meeting the load directly. necessary initial costs but also in the potential wasting of
 The chiller efficiency under each operating condition. electricity if more energy is stored than is required. Another
 A description of the system control strategy, for the requirement for successful TES that affects sizing is proper
design-day and part-load operation. installation and control. Using state-of-the-art equipment,
properly designed and controlled storage systems often do
An operating-cost analysis includes:
not use more energy than conventional heating and cooling
 An evaluation of demand savings. equipment.
 I. Dincer / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 377–388 383

Performance data describing the use of TES for heating based on the first law and takes into account the quality of
and cooling by shifting peak loads to off-peak-periods are the energy transferred. Energy savings from TESs can be
limited, although the potential for such technologies is achieved in several ways [7]:
substantial. The initial costs of such systems can be lower
 The consumption of purchased energy can be reduced by
than those for other systems. To yield the benefits, new
storing waste or surplus thermal energy available at
construction techniques are required together with the use of
certain times for use at other times. For example, solar
more sophisticated thermal-design calculations that are as
energy can be stored during the day for heating at night.
yet, unfamiliar to many builders and designers.
 The demand of purchased electrical energy can be
reduced by storing electrically produced thermal energy
7.3. Economics of TES systems
during off-peak-periods to meet the thermal loads that
occur during high-demand periods. For example, an
The economic justification for TES systems assumes that
electric chiller can be used to charge a chilled water
the annual income needed to cover capital and operating
TES at night for reducing the electrical demand peaks
costs should be less than that required for primary generating
usually experienced during the day.
equipment supplying the same service loads and periods.
 The purchase of additional equipment for heating, cooling
TES is mainly installed to lower initial costs and operating
or air-conditioning applications can be deferred and the
costs. Lower initial costs are usually obtained when the load
equipment sizing in new facilities can be reduced. The
to meet is of short-duration and there is a long time gap
equipment can be operated when thermal loads are low to
before the load returns. Secondary capital costs may also be
charge TES systems. Energy can be withdrawn from
lower for TES. For example, the electrical service entrance
storage to help meet the maximum thermal loads that
size can sometimes be reduced because energy demand is
exceed equipment capacity.
lower. To complete the economic analysis, the initial costs
must be determined. Equipment costs should be obtained
from each of the manufacturers under the consideration and 7.5. Environmental impacts of TES systems
an estimate of installation cost should be made. The cost
savings along with the net capital costs should be analyzed TES systems can contribute significantly to meeting
using the life cycle cost method or other suitable methods to society’s needs for more efficient, environmentally benign
determine which system is best for the project. energy use in building heating and cooling, space power and
utility applications. [8] suggested that in light of growing
7.4. Energy savings by TES systems environmental concerns TES technology could play a vital
role in the reduction of environmental pollution.
TES is an important element of energy saving programs in The utilization of TES systems simply reduces the energy
industry, in commercial buildings and in solar energy uti- consumption and hence results in two most significant
lization. For many years TES systems have been investi- benefits: (i) conservation of fossil fuels and (ii) reductions
gated, which show that although many technically and in CO2, SO2, NOx and CFC emissions.
economically successful TES systems have been in opera-
tion, no broadly valid basis for comparing the achieved 7.5.1. Illustrative example 1
performance of one storage with that of another operating Here, we present a recent application, in the Netherlands
under different conditions has found general acceptance. to show how TES systems provide energy savings and
The development of such a basis for comparison has been reductions in pollutant emissions (Table 2). In this applica-
received increasing attention, especially using exergy ana- tion, a ground-water aquifer TES system was installed
lysis technique, which is identified as one of the most as an innovative space-conditioning unit in a newly reno-
powerful ways in evaluating the thermal performance of vated office of ANOVA Verzekering Co. An electric heat
TES systems is based primarily on the second law of pump is used to supply a hydronic heating and cooling. With
thermodynamics, as compared to energy analysis which is a subsidy of US$ 212,000 from the Dutch government

Table 2
Energy savings and reductions in emissionsa

Annual consumptions and emissions Conventional system TES system Reduction

Gas (m3) 215800 95500 120300 (56%)

Electricity (kWh) 395550 511500 84000 (21%)
Primary energy (m3) 322000 179000 143000 (44%)
CO2 (kg) 608000 346000 262000 (43%)
Nox, SO2 – – (40%)
a
Source: IEA [15].
384 I. Dincer / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 377–388

representing over 20% of the total installation costs, the Database:

savings in energy costs will pay back the additional invest-
 The utility’s maximum incentive.
ment costs within 6.5 years.
 The facility occupancy hours.
 The facility operating requirements.
 Existing physical constraints.
8. General evaluation of TES systems
 The facility peak-day load or monthly average require-
ments.
Since there are many factors that influence the selec-
 Historic energy consumption rates.
tion, implementation, and operation of a TES system, it is
necessary that comprehensive feasibility study be develo- Analysis:
ped. This study should take into consideration all variables
 The types of TES system.
which impact evaluation of the true cost benefits of a can-
 General implementation logistics for the TES system.
didate TES implementation. However, sometimes it is
 The plant’s yearly energy consumption with or without a
practically impossible to conduct all evaluation tests. In
TES system.
practice, concerned people prefer a checklist on how to
 The TES size utilization factor.
evaluate a TES system. In such cases, at least the following
 The projected operating cost reduction for the TES
significant issues should be clarified and addressed before
system.
its implementation
Conclusion: A financial analysis and a system implemen-
1. Management objectives (short- or long-term). tation recommendation.
2. Environmental impact analysis.
3. Energy saving targets.
4. Economical aims. 9. Energy and exergy analyses
5. Financial parameters of the project.
6. Available utility incentives. Environmental problems associated with energy utiliza-
7. New or existing TES system (of course, existing plant tion span a growing spectrum of environmental quality and
would reduce its implementation cost). natural ecosystem. The second law of thermodynamics is
8. Net heating or cooling storage capacity (especially for considered to be an instrumental in providing insights into
peak-day requirements). environmental impact. In conjunction with this, exergy
9. Utility rate schedules and associated energy charges. appears to be an effective measure of the potential of a
10. Full or partial TES system. substance to impact the environment.
11. TES system options best suited for the specific Exergy is defined as the maximum amount of work
application. which can be produced by a stream of matter, heat or work
12. Anticipated operating strategies for each of the TES as it comes to equilibrium with a reference environment.
options. It is a measure of the potential of a stream to cause change, as
13. Space availability (e.g. tank). a consequence of not being completely stable relative to the
14. Type of the TES (short- or long-term). reference environment. Exergy is not subject to a conserva-
15. Type of the TES system (open or closed). tion law; rather exergy is consumed or destroyed, due to
irreversibilities in any process. For exergy analysis, the state
The implementation logistics for a TES being under
of the reference environment or the reference state, must be
consideration are as follows:
specified completely. This is commonly done by specifying
 New or existing TES system (if existing, the modifica- the temperature, pressure and chemical composition of the
tions to be required; if new, the system capacity). reference environment.
 TES system location. Exergy analysis is a method that uses the conservation of
 Structural and environmental impact. mass and conservation of energy principles together with the
 Heat exchanger requirements. second law of thermodynamics for the design and analysis of
 Piping arrangement. energy systems. The exergy method can be suitable for
 Automatic control requirements. furthering the goal of more efficient energy-resource use,
 Safety arrangement. for it enables the locations, types, and true magnitudes of
 New electrical service requirements. wastes and losses to be determined. Therefore, exergy
analysis can reveal whether or not and by how much it is
For an existing facility, the TES feasibility study should possible to design more efficient energy systems by reducing
also address the following checklist (for a facility under the inefficiencies in existing systems.
design, the requirements are generally the same, except Recently, exergy analysis has been recognized as the more
that the database must first be developed, due to the non- powerful method for performance evaluations and design
existence of the actual operating data). calculations of TES systems rather than energy analysis
 I. Dincer / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 377–388 385

Table 3
Energy and exergy balance and efficiency equations for a TES system

Energy equation Exergy (availability) equation Remark

Qc  (Qd þ Qr) ¼ DE Ac  (Ad þ Ar)  I ¼ DB Energy and exergy balances for an

overall storage process or any sub-
processes (j ¼ 1 for charging, 2 for
X
3 X
3 X
3 X
3 X
3 storing and 3 for discharging periods)
Qr ¼ Qr;j ; DE ¼ DEj I¼ Ij ; Ar ¼ Ar;j ; DBr ¼ DBj
j¼1 j¼1 j¼1 j¼1 j¼1 Individual energy and exergy balances
Qc  Qr,1 ¼ DE1 Ac  Ar,1  I1 ¼ DB1 for charging period
Qr,2 ¼ DE2 Ar,2  I2 ¼ DB2 for storing period
(Qd þ Qr,3) ¼ DE3 (Ad þ Ar,3)  I3 ¼ DB3 for discharging period
DE ¼ Ef  Ei, DEj ¼ Ef,j  Ei,j. where Ei,1 DB ¼ Bf  Bi, DBj ¼ Bf,j  Bi,j. where Energy and exergy balances for initial
¼ Ei, Ei,2 ¼ Ef,1, Ei,3 ¼ Ef,2, Ef,3 ¼ Ef. Bi,1 ¼ Bi, Bi,2 ¼ Bf,1, Bi,3 ¼ Bf,2, Bf,3 ¼ Bf. (i) and final (f) states
ER ¼ E  E0 Energy content for a particular state
with respect to a reference
environment
DE ¼ (Ef  E0)  (Ei  E0) ¼ EfR  EiR
R R
DEj ¼ (Ef,j  E0)  (Ei,j  E0) ¼ Ef;j  Ei;j
Z ¼ Qd/Qc ¼ 1  [(Qr þ DE)/Qc] c ¼ Ad/Ac ¼ 1  [(Ar þ I þ DB)/Ac] Overall energy and exergy efficiencies
Z ¼ (Qd þ DE)/Qc ¼ 1  (Qr/Qc) c ¼ (Ad þ DB)/Ac ¼ 1  [(Ar þ I)/Ac]
Z ¼ Qd/(Qc þ EiR ) ¼ 1  [(Qr þ EfR )/(Qc þ EiR )] c ¼ Ad/(Ac þ Bi) ¼ 1  [(Ar þ I þ Bf)/(Ac þ Bi)]
Z ¼ (Qd þ EfR )/(Qc þ EiR ) ¼ 1  [Qr/(Qc þ EiR )] c ¼ (Ad þ Bf)/(Ac þ Bi) ¼ 1  [(Ar þ I)/(Ac þ Bi)]
Z1 ¼ DE1/Qc ¼ 1  (Qr,1/Qc) c1 ¼ DB1/Ac ¼ 1  [(Ar,1 þ I1)/Ac] Energy and exergy efficiencies for
charging period
R R R
Z1 ¼ Ef;1 /(Qc þ Ei;1 ) ¼ 1  [Qr,1/(Qc þ Ei;1 )] c1 ¼ Bf,1/(Ac þ Bi,1) ¼ 1  [(Ar,1 þ I1)/(Qc þ Bi,1)]
Z2 ¼ (DE1 þ DE2)/DE1 ¼ 1  (Qr,2/DE1) c2 ¼ (DB1 þ DB2)/DB1 ¼ 1  [(Ar,2 þ I2)/DB1] Energy and exergy efficiencies for
storing period
R R R
Z2 ¼ Ef;2 =Ei;2 ¼ 1  (Qr,2/Ei;2 ) c2 ¼ Bf,2/Bi,2 ¼ 1  [(Ar,2 þ I2)/Bi,2]
Z3 ¼ Qd/(DE1 þ DE2) c3 ¼ Ad/(DB1 þ DB2) Energy and exergy efficiencies for
¼ 1  (Qr,3 þ DE)/(DE1 þ DE2) ¼ 1  (Ar,3 þ I3 þ DB)/(DB1 þ DB2) discharging period
Z3 ¼ (Qd þ DE)/(DE1 þ DE2) c3 ¼ (Ad þ DB)/(DB1 þ DB2)
¼ 1  [Qr,3/(DE1 þ DE2)] ¼ 1  [(Ar,3 þ I3)/(DB1 þ DB2)]
R R R
Z3 ¼ Qd/Ei;3 ¼ 1  [(Qr,3 þ Ef;3 )/Ei;3 ] c3 ¼ Ad/Bf,2 ¼ 1  [(Ar,3 þ I3 þ Bf,3)/Bf,2]
R R R
Z3 ¼ (Qd þ Ef;3 )/Ei;3 ¼ 1  (Qr,3/Ei;3 ) c3 ¼ (Ad þ Bf,3)/Bf,2 ¼ 1  [(Ar,3 þ I3)/Bf,2)

[2,3,9–11]. For an overall TES process or any sub-processes energy efficiencies because of the irreversibilities of the
(i.e. charging, storing and discharging), the general energy process destroying some of the input energy. (for details, see
and exergy balances, the individual energy and exergy [2,3,12]).
balances for charging, storing and discharging periods, As presented in Table 3, in a TES system there are three
the overall energy and exergy efficiencies, the individual steps (so-called sub-processes) and these must be taken into
energy and exergy efficiencies for charging, storing and consideration for an exact energy and exergy analysis. An
discharging periods are summarized in Table 3. illustration of these processes for cooling capacity is shown
in Fig. 3. In the analysis, it is usually assumed that there are
no heat losses to the surroundings from the charging or
10. Discussion discharging fluids (all heat removed from the charging fluid
is added to the storage medium and for the discharging
The term efficiency is commonly used in at least two ways period, all heat added to the discharging fluid originates in
such as first law efficiency (i.e. energy efficiency) and the storage medium.). This assumption becomes valid for
second law efficiency (i.e. exergy efficiency). The energy small rates of heat loss from the relevant fluids. Rosen [2]
efficiency merely reflects the standard laws of energy sto- pointed out that in practical systems the flows of the char-
rage, as the ratio of useful energy output to total energy ging and discharging fluids are often steady and have time-
input. However, the exergy efficiency incorporates the dependent thermal properties.
notion of increasing thermodynamic unavailability, as It is important to note that all four energy efficiencies in
reflected by increasing entropy, in a process or sub-process. Table 3 become identical if EiR ¼ EfR ¼ 0, referring to that
That is why the exergy efficiencies are always lower that the these equations can not provide rational measures of the
386 I. Dincer / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 377–388

water from 30 to 75 8C, with the resulting energy efficiency

of the storage cycle as follows:
Qo ¼ mo cp DT ¼ 500  4:186  ð75  30Þ ¼ 94; 185 kJ
Thus, the energy efficiency for TES system Y can be found
as same as the storage X.
Qo 94; 185
ZY ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:90
Qi 104; 650
The value of heat rejection to the surroundings during
storage is
Qr ¼ Qi  Qo ¼ 104; 650  94; 185 ¼ 10; 465 kJ
Fig. 3. The three processes in a general TES system for cooling capacity:
charging (left), storing (middle) and discharging (right). The heat leakage It is useful to mention that the ability of storing sensible heat
into the system Ql is illustrated for the storing process but can occur in all in a given tank (or container) strongly depends at the same
three processes.
time on the value for the material of rcp.
As a result, both storage systems have the same energy
performance of the system. In order to provide rational efficiency when calculated by considering the first law of
measures DE must be less than zero. Similar expression thermodynamics, but storage system Y, which stores the heat
can be written for the exergy efficiencies. for 90 days rather than 1 day, and which returns the heat at
The following illustrative example is simply presented to the much more useful temperature of 75 8C rather than
emphasize the importance of performance analysis, parti- 35 8C, gives a considerable high performance. It is clear
cularly exergy analysis. that a more perceptive measure of comparison than that
provided by the energy efficiency of the storage cycle is
10.1. Illustrative example 2 needed if the true usefulness of a TES is to be assessed and a
rational basis for the optimization of its economic value
(1) Consider two TES systems, X and Y, in surrounding established. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce the
environments with the temperature of 25 8C. Each one exergy efficiency which is a measure of the effectiveness
receives 104,650 kJ of heat from a stream of 500 kg of of the TES system. An efficiency defined simply as the
water, which is cooled from 80 to 30 8C. Therefore, the heat percentage of the total energy stored in a system which can
input to the storage during the charging period for each be recovered ignores the quality (availability) of the recov-
storage unit is ered energy, and so cannot provide a measure of ideal
performance as mentioned earlier. It is obvious that the
Qi ¼ mi cp DT ¼ 500  4:186  ð80  30Þ ¼ 104; 650 kJ exergy efficiency definition provides a better measure.
(2) Consider the aforementioned example of TES systems
10.1.1. For the system X X and Y. For the corresponding cases, an exergy analysis is
After 1 day, the heat of 94,185 kJ is recovered during the conducted below. The exergy efficiencies can easily be
discharging period from the storage system X by a stream of obtained using the equations listed in Table 3. The exergy
4500 kg of water being heated from 30 to 35 8C, i.e. change during the charging period can be obtained as:
  
Qo ¼ mo cp DT ¼ 4500  4:186  ð35  30Þ ¼ 94; 185 kJ T1
Ai ¼ mj cp ðT1  T2 Þ  T0 ln
T2
Therefore, the energy efficiency for TES system X becomes   
353
Qo 94; 185 ¼ 500  4:186  ð353  303Þ  298  ln
ZX ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:90 303
Qi 104; 650 ¼ 9386:88 kJ
The heat rejection to the surroundings during storage is:
Qr ¼ Qi  Qo ¼ 104; 650  94; 185 ¼ 10; 465 kJ 10.1.3. For the system X
The exergy change during the discharging period for the
storage system X can be calculated as follows:
10.1.2. For the system Y
For the storage system Y, the heat recovered during   
T1
discharging, the energy efficiency and the heat rejection Ao ¼ mo cp ðT1  T2 Þ  T0 ln
T2
to the surrounding can be evaluated in a similar way. In this   
308
regard, the storage system Y stores the heat for 90 days, after ¼ 4500  4:186  ð308  303Þ  298  ln
which an energy quantity of 94,185 kJ is recovered during 303
the discharging period by heating a stream of 500 kg of ¼ 2310:18 kJ
 I. Dincer / Energy and Buildings 34 (2002) 377–388 387

Therefore, the exergy efficiency for storage X becomes 11. Conclusions

Ao 2310:18
cX ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:25 The major concluding remarks of this study can be
Ai 9386:88
summarized as follows:
 The selection of the TES systems mainly depends on the
10.1.4. For the system Y
storage period required (e.g. diurnal or seasonal), eco-
As mentioned earlier, heat is recovered from the storage
nomic viability, operating conditions, etc. Several para-
after 90 days by a stream of 500 kg of water entering at
meters influence the viability of any TES, e.g. facility
30 8C and leaving at 75 8C. The exergy change and effi-
thermal loads, thermal and electrical load profiles, avail-
ciency of storage system Y can be obtained as follows:
ability of waste or excess thermal energy, electrical costs
  
T1 and rate structures, type of thermal generating equipment,
Ao ¼ mo cp ðT1  T2 Þ  T0 ln and building type and occupancy.
T2
    TES can play a significant role in meeting society’s needs
348
¼ 500  4:186  ð348  303Þ  298  ln for more efficient, environmentally benign energy use in
303
various sectors and appears to be the only solution to
¼ 7819:52 kJ correct the mismatch between supply and demand of
Ao 7819:52 energy.
cY ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:83  Substantial energy savings can be realized by TES when
Ai 9386:88
implementing the techniques such as using waste energy
As a result, it can be seen in the example that for both storage and surplus heat, reducing electrical demand charges, and
systems the energy efficiencies became the same as 90% avoiding heating, cooling or air-conditioning equipment
despite having two different storage periods. It means that purchases.
the first law of thermodynamics is not sufficient to distin-  Exergy analysis can be considered as an effective method
guish these two separate TES systems running on two using the conservation of mass and conservation of energy
different storage periods. This requirement brings exergy principles together with the second law of thermody-
to forefront as a more capable tool. For this reason, the namics for the design and analysis of energy systems.
distinction can easily be made between two storage systems For optimum design and performance evaluation of TES
(X and Y) by using exergy analysis, resulting in two different systems, both energy and exergy analysis should be
exergy efficiencies as 25% for the system X and 83% for the undertaken accordingly.
system Y. This is due to that that Y has the advantage over  Today, the development of TES systems is considered as
TES system Y, because of the higher temperature, and an advanced energy technology. The use of these systems
therefore greater availability, of its recoverable heat. This has been attracting increasing interest in several thermal
example attains some practical illustrations of the more applications, e.g. active and passive solar heating, water
abstract concepts discussed before and highlights the impor- heating, cooling and air-conditioning. Also, TES is pre-
tance of understanding and considering the exergy, rather sently identified as the most economical storage technol-
than energy in which exergy is more effective and more ogy for building heating, cooling, and air-conditioning
efficient tool for the performance analysis of TES systems. applications.
The results are consistent with conclusions obtained pre-
viously by Rosen et al. [9] and Rosen [2] for energy storage
systems. Acknowledgements
Consequently, some intuitive advantages of exergy ana-
lysis can be listed as follows: The support of KFUPM is gratefully acknowledged.

1. It provides more proper accounting of the loss of

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