1.What is data structure?

A data structure is a way of organizing and storing data in a computer so

that it can be accessed and used efficiently. It defines a set of operations
that can be performed on the data, such as insertion, deletion, and retrieval.
Examples of data structures include arrays, linked lists, and trees.

2.What is abstract data type? Give an example.

An abstract data type (ADT) is a type of data that is defined by its behavior
and operations, rather than its implementation. It specifies a set of
operations that can be performed on the data but does not specify how
those operations are carried out. An example of an ADT is a stack, which
can be implemented using an array or a linked list, but the user of the stack
does not need to know how it is implemented to use its operations.

3. Calculate the Big "oh" for the equation 3n²+4n+10. Show just the
calculation part
To calculate the Big O notation for the equation 3n²+4n+10, we need to find
an upper bound on the growth rate of the function as n approaches infinity.
We can do this by ignoring lower-order terms and constants, and by
considering only the highest-order term in the equation, which is n²:
3n² + 4n + 10 = O(n²)
To prove this, we need to find constants c and n₀ such that
3n² + 4n + 10 ≤ cn² for all n ≥ n₀.
Ignoring the constant and lower-order terms, we can simplify the inequality
to:
n² ≤ cn² for all n ≥ n₀.
This is true if we choose c = 1 and n₀ = 1, since n² ≤ cn² for all n ≥ 1.
Therefore, we can say that the Big O notation for the equation 3n²+4n+10 is
O(n²)

4.Calculate the omega "Q" for the equation 10n +4n²+2

To calculate the omega notation (Ω) for the equation 10n +4n²+2, we need
to find a lower bound on the growth rate of the function as n approaches
infinity. We can do this by ignoring lower-order terms and constants, and by
considering only the highest-order term in the equation, which is n²:
10n + 4n² + 2 = Ω(n²)
To prove this, we need to find constants c and n₀ such that
10n + 4n² + 2 ≥ cn² for all n ≥ n₀.
Ignoring the constant and lower-order terms, we can simplify the inequality
to:
n² ≥ cn² for all n ≥ n₀.
This is true if we choose c = 1 and n₀ = 1, since n² ≥ cn² for all n ≥ 1.
Therefore, we can say that the omega notation for the equation 10n +4n²+2
is Ω(n²).

5.Consider an equation and calculate the Big “0”.

In order to calculate the Big O notation for an equation, we need to
determine the upper bound on the growth rate of the function as n
approaches infinity. This involves finding the highest-order term in the
equation and ignoring lower-order terms and constants.
As an example, let's consider the equation:
f(n) = 4n^3 + 2n^2 + 3n + 1
To find the Big O notation for this equation, we need to focus on the highest-
order term, which is 4n^3. We can ignore the lower-order terms (2n^2, 3n,
and 1) because they become increasingly insignificant as n gets larger. We
can also ignore the constant coefficient (4), since it does not affect the
growth rate of the function.
Therefore, we can say that the Big O notation for the equation f(n) = 4n^3 +
2n^2 + 3n + 1 is O(n^3). This means that the growth rate of the function is
proportional to n^3 or less, as n approaches infinity.

6.What are asymptotic notations? Explain each one with an example

Asymptotic notations are a way of describing the growth rate of functions as
the input size approaches infinity. The three common asymptotic notations
are:
Big O notation (O): It represents the upper bound on the growth rate of a
function, i.e., the worst-case scenario. For example, O(n^2) represents a
function that grows no faster than n^2 as n approaches infinity.
Omega notation (Ω): It represents the lower bound on the growth rate of a
function, i.e., the best-case scenario. For example, Ω(n) represents a
function that grows no slower than n as n approaches infinity.
Theta notation (θ): It represents the tight bound on the growth rate of a
function, i.e., the average-case scenario. For example, θ represents a
function that grows at the same rate as up to a constant factor, as n
approaches infinity.
In summary, these notations help us to describe and compare the growth
rates of different functions, which is useful in analyzing and designing
algorithms.

7.Explain time and space complexity with an example for each.

Time complexity refers to the amount of time taken by an algorithm to solve
a problem as a function of the input size. It represents the number of basic
operations performed by the algorithm. For example, the time complexity of
a bubble sort algorithm on an array of size n is O(n^2), because it performs
n^2 iterations.
Space complexity refers to the amount of memory space used by an
algorithm to solve a problem as a function of the input size. It represents the
amount of memory required to store the data and intermediate results
during the execution of the algorithm. For example, the space complexity of
a merge sort algorithm

8.List and explain the data types in C.

C is a strongly typed language, which means that all variables must be
declared with their respective data types before they can be used. Some of
the basic data types in C include:
Integers (int): This data type is used to represent whole numbers, both
positive and negative. It has a fixed size of 4 bytes and can range from
-2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647.
Floating point numbers (float and double): These data types are used to
represent real numbers, i.e., numbers with decimal points. Float has a size
of 4 bytes and can represent up to 6 decimal digits accurately, while double
has a size of 8 bytes and can represent up to 15 decimal digits accurately.
Characters (char): This data type is used to represent individual characters,
such as letters, digits, or special symbols. It has a size of 1 byte and can
represent up to 256 different characters.
Boolean (bool): This data type is used to represent logical values, i.e., true or
false. It has a size of 1 byte and can take on the values of 0 or 1, where 0
represents false and 1 represents true.
Arrays: An array is a collection of elements of the same data type that are
stored in contiguous memory locations. It can be used to store multiple
values of the same data type.
These data types are used to define variables in C, which are used to store
and manipulate data during program execution.

9.Explain Time-space trade off in algorithms in 4 lines

Time-space tradeoff is a common concept in algorithm design where a

compromise is made between the amount of time an algorithm takes to
execute and the amount of space it requires. An algorithm can be optimized
for time or space, but not both. For example, a hash table uses more space
to achieve faster lookup times, while a linear search uses less space but is
slower. Therefore, the choice of an algorithm often involves considering the
tradeoff between time and space, depending on the requirements of the
specific problem being solved.

10.What is an algorithm? Explain the characteristics of an algorithm. in 4

points

An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or

accomplishing a task. It is a well-defined computational procedure that
takes some input and produces an output. The following are the
characteristics of an algorithm:
Well-defined: An algorithm must be precisely defined and unambiguous.
Each step must be clear and unambiguous so that it can be executed by a
computer.
Finiteness: An algorithm must terminate after a finite number of steps. If the
algorithm does not terminate, it is said to be in an infinite loop.
Input and output: An algorithm must have input and output. The input must
be well-defined and should produce the output in a finite number of steps.
Effectiveness: An algorithm must be effective, which means that it must be
able to solve the problem it was designed for. It must be able to solve the
problem within the specified time and space constraints.
In summary, an algorithm is a set of instructions for solving a problem, and it
must have well-defined steps, finite termination, input and output, and be
effective in solving the problem.

11.What is a singly linked list?

A singly linked list is a data structure that consists of a sequence of nodes,

each of which contains a value and a pointer to the next node in the
sequence. It only allows traversal in a single direction, i.e., forward from the
head to the tail. Singly linked lists are commonly used to implement stacks,
queues, and other abstract data types.

12.What is an array? Write the syntax to declare an array of size 10

An array is a collection of elements of the same data type that are stored in
contiguous memory locations. Each element in the array is accessed using
an index that starts at 0 for the first element and increases by 1 for each
subsequent element. The syntax to declare an array of size 10 in C
programming language is:
data_type array_name[10];

For example, to declare an array of integers of size 10, the syntax would be:
int my_array[10];

This creates an array of 10 integers, where the first element is at index 0 and
the last element is at index 9.

13.What is two dimensional and multidimensional arrays

A two-dimensional array is an array that has two indices, typically used to

represent a matrix or a grid. It is an array of arrays where each row is an
array of the same data type.
A multidimensional array is an array that has more than two indices, typically
used to represent higher dimensional data structures such as a cube or a
hypercube. It is an extension of the two-dimensional array where each
element in the array is an array of the same data type with its own indices.

14.What is sparse matrix. Give an example of lower and upper triangular

matrix

A sparse matrix is a matrix where most of the elements are zero. It is often
represented using a compressed data structure that only stores the
non-zero elements and their indices.
A lower triangular matrix is a square matrix where all the elements above the
diagonal are zero. For example, the following is a 3x3 lower triangular matrix:

[1 0 0
450
7 8 9]
An upper triangular matrix is a square matrix where all the elements below
the diagonal are zero. For example, the following is a 3x3 upper triangular
matrix:

[1 2 3
056
0 0 9]

15.List any two advantages of linked list over arrays.

Two advantages of linked lists over arrays are:

Dynamic size: Linked lists can easily grow or shrink in size during runtime,
whereas the size of arrays is fixed and cannot be changed once it is
declared.
Easy insertion and deletion: Insertion and deletion of elements are easier
and more efficient in linked lists than in arrays, since they involve only
changing the pointers, while in arrays, all elements after the insertion or
deletion point have to be shifted, resulting in a higher time complexity.

16.Write an algorithm to create a singly linked list.

Here is an algorithm to create a singly linked list:

Initialize a pointer variable called "head" to NULL.
Create a new node by allocating memory dynamically.
Assign the value to the new node.
Set the "next" pointer of the new node to NULL.
If the "head" is NULL, set the "head" to the new node and exit.
Traverse the linked list until the last node is reached.
Set the "next" pointer of the last node to the new node.

17.Write an algorithm to delete an element from a singly linked list:

1. First element
2. Last element
Here are the algorithms to delete an element from a singly linked list:
Delete the first element:
1. If the head is NULL, return.
2. Create a pointer variable "temp" and set it to head.
3. Set the head-to-head->next.
4. Free the memory allocated to "temp".

Delete the last element.

1. If the head is NULL, return.
2. If the head->next is NULL, set head to NULL and free the memory
allocated to the node.
3. Traverse the linked list until the second last node is reached.
4. Create a pointer variable "temp" and set it to the last node.
5. Set the next pointer of the second last node to NULL.
6. Free the memory allocated to "temp".

18.Write an algorithm to create doubly linked list

Here is the algorithm to create a doubly linked list:
Initialize two pointer variables "head" and "tail" to NULL.
Create a new node by allocating memory dynamically.
Assign the value to the new node.
Set the "prev" and "next" pointers of the new node to NULL.
If the "head" is NULL, set the "head" and "tail" to the new node and exit.
Set the "next" pointer of the tail to the new node and the "prev" pointer of
the new node to the tail.
Set the tail to the new node.

19.Write an algorithm to traverse singly linked list

Here is the algorithm to traverse a singly linked list:
Initialize a pointer variable called "current" to the head of the linked list.
Traverse the linked list until the end is reached.
Process the current node.
Move the "current" pointer to the next node.
Repeat steps 3-4 until the end of the linked list is reached.

20.Explain the following with an example:

i. Doubly linked list ii. Row major and column major arrays.
. Doubly linked list: A doubly linked list is a type of linked list in which each
node has two pointers - one to the previous node and one to the next node.
This allows for traversal of the list in both directions. Here is an example of a
doubly linked list:
NULL <--> Node1 <--> Node2 <--> Node3 <--> NULL

ii. Row major and column major arrays: Row major and column major are
two ways of storing multi-dimensional arrays in memory. In a row major
array, the elements of a row are stored contiguously in memory. In a column
major array, the elements of a column are stored contiguously in memory.
For example, consider a 2-dimensional array A with dimensions 3 x 4:
A = [[1, 2, 3, 4],
[5, 6, 7, 8],
[ 9, 10, 11, 12]]

In row major order, the elements of the array are stored in the following
sequence: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. In column major order, the
elements of the array are stored in the following sequence: 1, 5, 9, 2, 6, 10, 3,
7, 11, 4, 8, 12. The choice of row major or column major order can have an
impact on performance depending on the access pattern of the array.