Anatomy and Physiology with looking at the exterior of the body to

visualize structures deeper inside the

Pathophysiology body

Anatomy (Structure) Anatomical Imaging

 scientific discipline that investigates  uses radiographs (x-rays), ultrasound,
the body’s structures—for example, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),
the shape and size of bones and other technologies to create
 to dissect or cut part and separate the pictures of internal structures
parts of the body for study  allows medical personnel to look
 examines the relationship between the inside the body with amazing
structure of a body part and its accuracy and without the trauma and
function risk of exploratory surgery
X-ray (1895: Wilhelm Roentgen)
DIFFERENT LEVELS OF  2D Image
ANATOMY  extremely shortwave electromagnetic
 Developmental Anatomy radiation
studies the structural changes that  moves through the body, exposing a
occur between conception and photographic plate to form a
adulthood radiograph
o Embryology – changes from  Bones and radiopaque dyes absorb the
conception to the end of the rays and create underexposed areas
eighth week of development that appear white on the photographic
o Cytology – examines structural film.
features of cells Ultrasound (1950: WW2 Sonar Technology)
o Histology – examines tissues,  2nd oldest image technique
which composed of cells and  Uses high-frequency sound wave
the materials surrounding  sound waves strike internal organs
them. and bounce back to the receiver on
 Gross Anatomy the skin -- became possible to analyze
structures can be examined without the reflected sound waves by a
microscope computer
can be approached systematically or  Sonogram- computer analyzes
regionally pattern of reflected sound waves
o System – group of structures Computer Tomography (CT) scans (1972)
that have one or more common  originally called Computerized Axial
functions Tomographic (CAT) scans
(Cardiovascular, Nervous,  produces low intensity x-ray tube
Respiratory, Skeletal,  tube is rotated through a 360-degree
Muscular) arc around the patient, and the images
o Systemic Anatomy – body are fed into a computer.
studied system by system  Able to produce 3D image
o Regional Anatomy- body Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)
studied area by area ( head,  3-D radiographic image of an organ
abdomen , or arm, all systems  Radiopaque dye
are studied simultaneously) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
 Surface Anatomy
  directs radio waves at a person lying Pathology
inside a large electromagnetic field.  medical science dealing with all
aspects of disease
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)  with an emphasis on the cause and
 identifies the metabolic states of development of abnormal conditions
various tissues  as well as the structural and functional
 useful in analyzing the brain changes resulting from disease

Anatomical Anomalies Exercise Physiology - focuses on the

Are physical characteristics that differ changes in function and structure caused by
from the normal pattern exercise

Structural and Functional

Physiology (Function) Organization of the Human Body
 scientific investigation of the
processes or functions of living things SIX LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
 often examines systems rather than
regions because a particular function Chemical Level – level interaction of atoms
can involve portions of a system in involves how atoms, such as hydrogen and
more than one region. carbon, interact and combine into molecules
Importance: a molecule’s structure
determines its function

 major goal: Cell Level - basic structural and functional

o understand and predict the units of all living organisms
body’s responses to stimuli Organelles
o understand how the body o smaller structure inside the cells
maintains conditions within a o carry out particular functions, such as
narrow range of values in a digestion and movement, for the cell
constantly changing
environment Tissue Level – a group of similar cells and
the materials surrounding them
LEVELS OF PHYSIOLOGY the characteristics of the cells and
Cell Physiology surrounding materials determine the
 examines the processes occurring in functions
cells such as energy production from
food
Systemic Physiology 4 Basic Tissue Types:
 considers the functions of organ -Epithelial
systems -Connective
-Muscle
TYPES OF SYSTEMIC -Nervous
PHYSIOLOGY
Organ Level - composed of two or more
Cardiovascular Physiology - focuses on
tissue types that perform one or more
the heart and blood vessels common functions
Neurophysiology - focuses on the  Example Organs: urinary bladder,
function of the nervous system heart, stomach, and lung
Organ System Level - group of organs that Endocrine System A major regulatory
together perform a common function or set system that influences metabolism, growth,
of functions and are therefore viewed as a reproduction, and many other functions.
unit. Consists of glands, such as the pituitary, that
secrete hormones.
11 Major Organ Systems:
1) integumentary 2) skeletal 3) muscular 4) Cardiovascular System Transports
nervous nutrients, waste products, gases, and
5) endocrine 6) cardiovascular 7) lymphatic hormones throughout the body; plays a role
8) respiratory 9) digestive 10) in the immune response and the regulation
urinary 11) reproductive of body temperature. Consists of the heart,
blood vessels, and blood.
Organism Level - any living thing
considered as a whole—whether composed Lymphatic System Removes foreign
of one cell, such as a bacterium, or of substances from the blood and lymph,
trillions of cells, such as a human combats disease, maintains tissue fluid
balance, and absorbs dietary fats from the
digestive tract. Consists of the lymphatic
vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic
organs.

Respiratory System Exchanges oxygen and

carbon dioxide between the blood and air
and regulates blood pH. Consists of the
lungs and respiratory passages.

Organ Systems Digestive System Performs the mechanical

Integumentary System Provides protection, and chemical processes of digestion,
regulates temperature, prevents water loss, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of
and helps produce vitamin D. Consists of wastes. Consists of the mouth, esophagus,
skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands. stomach, intestines, and accessory organs.

Skeletal System Provides protection and Urinary System Removes waste products
support, allows body movements, produces from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion
blood cells, and stores minerals and adipose. balance, and water balance. Consists of the
Consists of bones, associated cartilages,
kidneys, urinary bladder, and ducts that
ligaments, and joints
carry urine.
Muscular System Produces body
Female Reproductive System Produces
movements, maintains posture, and produces
body heat. Consists of muscles attached to oocytes and is the site of fertilization and
the skeleton by tendons fetal development; produces milk for the
newborn; produces hormones that influence
Nervous System A major regulatory system sexual function and behaviors. Consists of
that detects sensations and controls the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina,
movements, physiological processes, and mammary glands, and associated structures.
intellectual functions. Consists of the brain,
spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors.
Male Reproductive System Produces and
transfers sperm cells to the female and Set point: the ideal normal value of variable
produces hormones that influence sexual (7.35-7.45)
functions and behaviors. Consists of the
testes, accessory structures, ducts, and penis.

MECHANISMS BY WHICH
6 Characteristics Of Life HOMEOSTASIS IS MAINTAINED
Organization – condition in which there are
specific relationships and functions Negative Feedback (to decrease)
- specific interrelationships among the parts -regulates most systems in the body
of an organism and how those parts interact -counteracts a change in the variable (e.g.,
to perform specific functions body temperature) to help maintain
homeostasis
Metabolism – all chemical reactions of the
body Components
- ability to use energy and to perform vital  Receptor – monitors the value of
function some variable
 Control Center – establishes the set
Responsiveness – ability to sense changes point for the variable
in internal or external environment and  Effector – can change/adjust the value
adjust to those changes of the variable

Growth – increase in size and/or number of Stimulus – deviation from the set point;
cells, which produces an overall enlargement detected by the receptor
of all or part of an organism
Positive Feedback (to increase)
Development – changes in an organism - The response is to make the deviation
over time greater
Differentiation: change from general - Unusual in normal, healthy
to specific individuals, leads away from
Morphogenesis: change in shape of homeostasis and can result in death
tissues, organs
Examples of Positive Feedback
Reproduction - new cells or new organisms Normal Positive Feedback: childbirth
Harmful Positive Feedback: after
hemorrhage, blood pressure drops and the
Homeostasis heart’s ability to pump blood decreases
-maintenance of relatively constant internal
environment within the body
- existence and maintenance of a relatively
constant environment within the body
-maintenance of a variable around an ideal
normal value, or set point

Values of variables ( conditions) fluctuate

around the set point to establish a normal
range of values.
d
 one reaction is then used in another
reaction.
2. Synthesis of Molecules
The different cells of the body
synthesize, or produce, various types of
molecules, including proteins, nucleic
acids, and lipids. The structural and
Cell Biology (Chapter 3) functional characteristics of cells are
determined by the types of molecules
 Cell they produce.
basic unit of living things 3. Communication
Cells communicate with each other by
using chemical and electrical signals
 Plasma Membrane/ Cell Membrane
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
F: forms the outer boundary of the
Most cells contain a complete copy of all
cell, through which the cell interacts
the genetic information (DNA molecules)
with its external environment
of the individual. This genetic
 Nucleus
information ultimately determines the
Largest membrane of the cell
structural and functional characteristics
Located at the central
of the cell. As a person grows, cells
F: Directs cell activities, most of
divide to produce new cells, each
which take place in the Cytoplasm
containing the same genetic information.
 Cytoplasm
Specialized cells called gametes are
Located between the plasma
responsible for transmitting genetic
membrane and nucleus
information to the next generation.
Gel-like fluid cell inside
F: to support and suspend organelles
How We See Cells
and cellular molecules
:cell expansion, growth and
2 TYPES OF MICROSCOPE
replication
1. Light Microscope
 Organelles
use natural light to produce image
Perform specific functions
limited by the wavelength of
F:maintains homeostasis in a cell
light(o.1µm- size of small bacterium)
used to examine biopsy specimens
CHARACTERISTIC FUNCTIONS
2. Electron Microscope
OF THE CELL
use beams of electrons to produce an
1. Cell Metabolism and Energy Use
image
Cell metabolism involves all chemical
used to see objects smaller than a cell
reactions that occur within a cell. These
has a limit of resolution of
metabolic reactions often involve energy
approximately 0.1nm (size of
transfers, meaning the energy released by
molecules)
 2 TYPES OF ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE
1. Transmission Electron Microscope
2. Scanning Electron Microscope

ANAPHY LAB (10/13/21)

Movement of joints…
Anatomical directions up to tissues (60
points-34 questions)
Chapter 8.2 synovial movements
Self study: integumentary and skeletal
system
Practice Atlas