GENERAL BIOLOGY MACROMOLECULES

ELEMENTS  Made up of hundreds or thousands of atoms.

 Individual units are called monomers
❖ simplest form of substances found in the body
 Biological polymers are chains of repeating units
such as C, H, O, and N
of monomers linked together.
❖ Oxygen makes up the 61-65% of the mass of
the human body.

COMPOUNDS

❖ substances that makes up of two or more

elements that are chemically joined together

4 TYPES MACROMOLECULES

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS  Proteins

 Most abundant organic compound found in any
❖ any of a large class of chemical compounds in
living organism
which one or more atoms of carbon are covalently
 Came from the Gk. word PROTEOS meaning “first
linked to atoms of other elements, most
place”
commonly hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen.
 Constructed from animo acids as its monomer
❖ Examples are Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins  Important in the structure of the cells
and Nucleic Acid.  Serves as gene activators, membrane receptors,
transporters, and clotting factors.

INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

❖ any substance in which two or more chemical 7 major classes of protein

elements (usually other than carbon) are 1. Structural - includes spider silk, human hair, &
combined, nearly always in definite proportions. fibers that make up tendons & ligament

❖ Examples are Acids, Bases, Water and Salt. 2. Contractile - provide muscular movement
3. Storage - ovalbumin (egg white) -
4. Defensive - antibodies
CARBON - Helps in cellular respiration by which 5. Transport - hemoglobin (iron containing protein in
body releases energy stored in glucose. blood)
6. Signal - hormones coordinating body activity.
7. Enzymes - serves as a chemical catalyst (changes
NITROGEN - the key element for proteins, the rate of a chemical reaction without being
nucleic acids, and other organic molecules changed)
4 STRUCTURES OF PROTEIN ❖ Serves as messengers for social transmissions

❖ Carrier of atoms and small molecules within cells

1. PRIMARY STRUCTURE ❖ Aid the body’s defense as antibodies

❖ Shows sequence of amino acids forming

Polypeptide Chains.
 Carbohydrates
❖ Attached together by covalent or peptide  Refers to a class of molecules ranging from small
bonds. sugar subunits to large polypeptides.
 Organic compounds that serve as the main source
of energy in all living organisms
2. SECONDARY STRUCTURE  Contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen molecules

❖ refers to regular, local structure of the

protein backbone, stabilized by intramolecular
and sometimes intermolecular hydrogen bonding
of amide groups.

3. TERTIARY STRUCTURE

❖ the overall three-dimensional arrangement of

its polypeptide chain in space. It is generally
stabilized by outside polar hydrophilic hydrogen  MONOSACCHARIDES
and ionic bond interactions, and internal
hydrophobic interactions between nonpolar amino ❖ Simple sugars with one sugar unit.
acid side chains. ❖ Building blocks for more complex forms of sugar.
Example: Glucose

4. QUARTERNARY STRUCTURE ❖ Highly soluble in water and can pass freely through
membranes.
❖ the association of several protein chains or
subunits into a closely packed arrangement.

❖ The most complex structure of Protein.  DISACCHARIDES (C12H22O11)

❖ Complex sugars made up of two molecules

chemically joined together.
ROLES OF PROTEINS

❖ Maintains source of nitrogen

❖ Source of Amino Acids

❖ Maintains fluid balance in the blood and other

tissues
 POLYSACCHARIDES (C6H10O5)  UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
 Liquid state at room temperature and mostly
❖ Complex sugars made up of chains and/or
found on plants
branches of monosaccharides.
 Healthier than Saturated Fatty Acids
❖ Act as a storage and a structural molecule that  Nucleic Acids
protects and supports plant cells.

❖ Cellulase is needed by the organism to digest OTHER EXAMPLES OF LIPIDS

cellulose
 WAXES
❖ Chitin is a structural polysaccharide found in
❖ Solid at room temperature because they have
the outer coverings of crustaceans and insects
melting points.
for protection and support.

2. TRIGLYCERIDES
 Lipids ❖ Functions for long term energy storage.
❖ Gk. word lipos which means “fat”.

❖ Mainly consists of carbon, hydrogen and

oxygen.

❖ Main function is to store and produce energy.

❖ Composed of one molecule of glycerol and

three fatty acids molecules.

 SATURATED FATTY ACIDS 3. PHOSPHOLIPIDS

 Solid at room temperature and mostly found
on animals ❖ major membrane lipids that consist of lipid
 Rich sources of dietary saturated fatty acids bilayers. This basic cellular structure acts as a
include butter fat, meat barrier to protect the cell against various
 fat, and tropical oils (palm oil, coconut oil, and environmental insults and more importantly, enables
palm kernel oil). multiple cellular processes to occur in subcellular
compartments.
  Serves as a pattern for duplicating the sequence
of bases

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

 A nucleic acid is present in all living cells that has

structural similarities to DNA.
 Essential for protein synthesis, mostly often
4. SPHINGOLIPIDS
single-stranded.
❖ specifically found in the brain, lung, and  Has a backbone made of alternating phosphate
groups and the sugar ribose, rather than the
nerve tissues that are essential in terms of signal
deoxyribose found in DNA.
transmission, and cell recognition.

FUNCTION AND HEALTH EFFECTS OF

LIPIDS

 Lipids are insoluble molecules and therefore

make good energy storage molecules.
 They are also used for insulation and
protection of organs, in steroid hormones and
in cell membranes.
 Omega-3 poly-unsaturated fatty acids reduce
the risk of heart disease.

 Role of nucleic acid

 NUCLEIC ACID
 Store information that is used by the cells to
maintain, repair, and reproduce cells
 Cellular processes and metabolic process
 Carry genetic information which is read in cells to
make the RNA and proteins by which living things
function.
 The well-known structure of the DNA double helix
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) allows this information to be copied and passed on
to the next generation.
 Molecule inside cells that contains the genetic
information responsible for the development
and function of an organism.
 Molecules allow this information to be passed
from one generation to the next.
ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP) 3. Photophosphorylation
 Low energy electrons are raised to a higher
 The source of energy for use and storage at
energy level by light, passed down to the electron
the cellular level.
transport chain, then to a final electron acceptor.
 Can be used to store energy for future
 The energy released during electron movement
reactions or be withdrawn to pay for reactions
down the electron transport chain is harnessed to
when energy is required by the cell. Animals
make ATP by chemiosmosis.
store the energy obtained from the
breakdown of food as ATP. Likewise, plants
capture and store the energy they derive
from light during photosynthesis in ATP
molecules.
 Both breathing and maintaining your heartbeat
require ATP. In addition, ATP helps to
synthesize fats, and nerve impulses, as well as
move certain molecules into or out of cells.

MECHANISM OF ATP GENERATION  MACROMOLECULES

Also called BIOMOLECULES chemical compounds

1. Substrate-level Phosphorylation - Any found in living organisms which include chemicals that
enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a are composed of mainly carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
donor molecule (the substrate) to ADP to form nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus.
ATP
Why Macromolecules are Important?

 It maintains all the homeostasis in every living

organism.
 Provide structural support
 A source of stored fuel
2. Oxidative Phosphorylation
 The ability to store and retrieve genetic
 High-energy electrons are obtained by the
information, and
oxidation of organic compounds, passed down
 The ability to speed biochemical reactions.
the electron transport chain, then to a final
electron acceptor. ACIDS
 The energy released during electron  Inorganic Compounds
movement down the electron transport chain  Taste sour, change color of certain indicators,
is harnessed to make ATP by chemiosmosis.  React with some metals, and bases, and promote
chemical reactions
 RED= Acidic
 PH SCALE

 Used to describe the acidity, and basicity of a

solution.
 0 (zero) scale is considered as the most acidic.
 pH 7 is neutral

SALT

 Inorganic molecules that can conduct electricity

within the body.
 BASE only when it contains a weak acid conjugate
BASES base.

 Inorganic compounds that accept hydrogen

ions CARBON DIOXIDE
 It has a bitter taste, and is slippery
 inorganic molecule is essential for plants to
perform photosynthesis.

CALCIUM

 Found in bones and teeth

SULFUR

 allows cells to use to oxygen

 PROTEIN
 Helps form muscles in our body
 Needed for the body to function properly. They
are the basis of body structures, such as skin and
hair, and of other substances such as enzymes,
cytokines, and antibodies.

STRUCTURAL PROTEIN

 Mostly found in the hair of mammals, which is also

a fiber that makes up the tendons, and ligaments.

DEFENSIVE PROTEIN

 Includes the antibodies that promotes protection

against foreign bodies.
AMINO ACIDS INDUCED FIT

 The building block of proteins  Always reshapes the active site.

 make proteins to help the body: Break down  A substrate binds to an active site and both
food. Grow. Repair body tissue. change shape slightly, creating an ideal fit for
catalysis.
CARBOHYDRATES  Enzymes promote chemical reactions by bringing
 Organic compound that serves as the main substrates together in an optimal orientation, thus
source of energy of all organisms (Sugar and creating an ideal chemical environment for the
Starches) reaction to occur.
 Banana is food rich in carbohydrates which is
a good source of energy for intense activities.
 Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
 Trans- Fat NOT a good type of unsaturated
fatty acids

ENZYMES

 Can affect the catalyst of the chemical

reaction when catalyst decreases the
activation energy of any chemical reaction for
high chances to have a product.
 LIPIDS
LACTOSE  Responsible for insulation, and long-term energy
storage
 Lactose intolerance (SOYA MILK)
 Examples of lipids include fats, oils, waxes, certain
 Galactose and glucose as components
vitamins (such as A, D, E and K), hormones and
 a sugar found in milk and milk products
most of the cell membrane that is not made up of
LOCK AND KEY protein.
 Model for enzyme-substrate interaction
 NUCLEIC ACID
suggesting that the enzyme and the substrate  Essential in protein synthesis in the body
possess specific complementary  Responsible for maintaining and reproducing the
geometric shapes that fit exactly into one cells that make up the body

another.

 Has a specific complementary shape of

enzyme substrate.
WATER

 Inorganic molecules can be used for the

transfer and distribution of nutrients, gases,
and collection of waste products all over the
body
 Helps in preventing dehydration
 Helps organism from freezing at low
temperatures
 Has the ability to dissolve many substances
including essential molecules in the body

 CELLULAR RESPIRATION

AUTOTORPH

 Organism that can produce its own food using

light, water, carbon dioxide, or other
chemicals. Because autotrophs produce their
own food, they are sometimes called
producers. Examples: Bacteria, Algae, Plankton

HETEROTORPHS

 Organism that eats other plants or animals for

energy and nutrients. The term stems from
the Greek words hetero for “other” and
trophe for “nourishment.” They are in the
third level of the food chain Example: Dogs,
Cats, Human

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE

 Energy from photosynthesis

 Used by all microorganisms during cellular
respiration as a chemical source of energy
 Transport substances across the membrane
 Composed of phosphate groups, ribose and
adenine
 The bond that holds the phosphate group are
broke by HYDROLYSIS
EARTH SCIENCE  TWO GROUPS OF MINERALS
1. Metallic Mineral Resources -
 MODULE 5
hard, ductile, malleable pure substances that are
melted to obtain new products. Usually associated
with igneous rocks.
 EARTH’S RESOURCES
 Earth's resources are critical to the progress Ex. Gold, iron, silver, copper, lead, zinc, nickel and
aluminum.
of human civilization
 Food supplies the energy to the living things. CLASSIFICATION
 When the energy ceases to flow, organisms
 Ferrous minerals - minerals that contain iron
stop function
 Nonferrous minerals - do not contain iron ex.
 With the advent of industrialization, humans
Gold, silver, copper and lead
became increasingly dependent on technology

 Non-Metallic Mineral Resources –

 EARTH’S MATERIALS can be easily disintegrated or broken into pieces.

Associated with sedimentary rocks.
MINERALS Ex. Coal, clay, salt and marble
 Naturally occurring inorganic solids.
 Have CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURES.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 Have definite composition
 Building blocks of rocks Minerals can be classified by its Physical properties
 Naturally occurring inorganic solid by:
 If the minerals found in these rocks are
 COLOR - Used to identify minerals easily.
enriched
Considered the least reliable means in identifying
 With one or more valuable or useful materials,
minerals.
they are referred to as Mineral Resource.
AUGITE - brown, green, black or purple

Mineral Characteristics shared by all minerals:] BIOTITE - brown, green, black

1. Natural CALCITE -pearlescent and pale colors

2. Inorganic
3. Crystalline - Atoms are arranged in an
orderly pattern  STREAK - Color of mineral in powder form.
4. Definite chemical composition Pulverized is tedious and make minerals loose its
Chemical formula SiO2 is Quart integrity
5. Solid - Not a gas, not a liquid
 HARDNESS - Refers to the measure of the
mineral’s resistance to scratching. MOHS
SCALE is used. The harder the mineral the
stronger is its resistance to scratching.

 CLEAVAGE AND FRACTURE - Used to

describe how minerals break into pieces.  CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
 Cleavage: if a mineral breaks or splits apart
with smooth surfaces in certain directions. Minerals can be classfied by its chemical
 Fracture: if a mineral breaks with a rough or properties by: first used in 1848 by James Dana
jagged surface (1813-1895)

SILICATE CLAS - Largest and most abundant group.

 CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE – Crystal Al, Mg, Fe, Ca EXAMPLES: Feldspar, Quartz,
Lattice. Tells how a minerals’ crystals are Pyroxene, Mica, Garnet, Olivine and Amphibole.
arranged.
CARBONATE CLASS - Mostly found deposited in
 HAND LENS - used in checking for crystalline
marine environment. Formed from shells of dead
structure.
plankton and other marine organisms. Includes nitrate
 CRYSTAL SOLID- form a regular repeating
and borate materials
three- dimensional crystal lattice.
 AMORPHOUS SOLID- form aggregates that SULPHATE CLASS - Forms in areas with high
have no particular order or arrangement. evaporation rates and where salty water slowly
evaporate
 TRANSPARENCY OR DIAPHANEITY -
EXAMPLES - anhydrite, celestine, barite, and
Indicates the extent of light that can pass
gypsum. - may also include chromate, molybdate,
through the mineral. The degree of
selenite, sulphite, tellurate and tungsten.
transparency may depend on the thickness of
the mineral. HALIDE CLASS - Contains natural salts and includes
 MAGNETISM - The ability of a mineral to fluorite, halite, sylvite and sal ammoniac components.
attract or repel other minerals. Usually form in lakes, ponds and other landlocked
 TENACITY - Level of resistance or reaction seas. Have relatively low hardness, may be
of minerals to stress. Can tell if mineral is transparent, have a good cleavage, have low specific
brittle, malleable, elastic, etc., gravity and are poor conductors of heat and
 LUSTER - Reaction of mineral to light. electricity.
Determines how brilliant or dull the mineral is.
OXIDE CLASS - Diverse class. Important as they
 ODOR - Distinct smell of a mineral
carry histories of changes in Earth’s magnetic field.
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY - Measure of the
They are formed as precipitates close to Earth’s
density of a mineral. Determines how heavy
surface or as oxidation products of minerals during
the mineral is by its weight to water. Used
the process of weathering.
when the mineral has the same size and same
color.
SULPHIDE CLASS - Has important metals which  Derive from igneous or sedimentary rocks that
are considered economically significant. Found in were exposed to high pressure, high temperatures
electric wires, industrial materials and other or both
things needed in construction.  Undergo physical and chemical changes.

PHOSPHATE CLASS - Contains minerals with

phosphorus. Considered as an important biological
mineral found in the teeth and bones

 MODULE 6
NATIVE ELEMENT CLASS - Contains metals
and intermetallic elements, (gold, silver, copper).
 HUMAN PRACTICES AND TECHNOLOGY
Semimetals, non-metals (antimony, bismuth,
 EARLY 18TH CENTURY
graphite, sulphur). Natural alloys, and
constituents of a few rare meteorites. INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

 began in England
 invention of machines that replaced human or
 ROCKS
animal labor in factories
 Natural substances consisting of aggregate
 for faster rate and better quality
minerals clumped together with other earth
materials through natural processes.
 Products of natural cyclic processes. MACHINES - Device, having a unique purpose, that
augments or replaces human or animal effort for the
 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS accomplishment of physical tasks.

IGNEOUS ROCKS

 Latin word “ignis” means fire.  MINING FOR MINERAL EXTRACTION

 Crystallized magma or molten volcanic MINING - process of extracting useful materials
materials from the earth. Some examples of substances that
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS are mined include coal, gold, or iron ore. Iron ore is
the material from which the metal iron is produced.
 Root word sediments “remaining particles”.
 Formed from the deposition of different GLOBAL NEED - Philippines has a rich mineral
materials on earth surface. deposit.
 Come from pre-existing rocks or pieces of 3rd=Gold 4th=Copper 5th=Nickel
dead organisms. 6th= Chromite Deposits.
 Have distinct layering or bedding on the
surface.
 DEMAND OF MINERALS ARE BASED ON 3
THINGS:
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
1. The use of minerals
 Meta means “change” and morph means “form”
2. The number of individuals that consumes it

3. The standard of living maintained by the  TWO MINING TECHNIQUES

population
1. SURFACE MINING - technique of extracting ore
Example: STRONTIUM (Sr) has no specific use or minerals near Earth’s surface.
until 1960’s when it was discovered to be an
a. OPEN-PIT MINING
effective material for preventing radiation from
 Ore and minerals are extracted from an open pit
leaking out the television picture tubes.
or burrow
 Cuts called BENCHES are made to collect the
MOST IMPORTANT METALS IN OUR minerals
MODERN CIVILIZATIONS
b. STRIP MINING
Fe – Iron Cu -Copper  Very near to the land surface but maybe covered
with the layers of the earth, rocks or vegetation.
 Process of removing a thin strip of overburden
 APPLIED TECHNOLOGY
(earth or soil) above a desired deposit, dumping
MINERALS the removed overburden behind the deposit,
extracting the desired deposit.
 Deposits found by geologist by mapping the
earth's surface for clues of valuable
c. MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL MINING
materials.
 Mining practice where the tops of mountains are
 Measured by Gravity, magnetism and
removed, exposing the seams of coal.
radioactivity to analyze the composition in the
 Uses explosives to remove overburden off the top
immediate area.
of mountains
 CORE DRILLING is done to obtain samples for
chemical analysis.
d. HIGHWALL MINING
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS - done to determine the  Method for mining horizontal seams unmanned
grade of mineral, which will be used as the basic driver stands in the pit floor
for economic production  Makes long parallel rectangular drives
 Done by a string of unmanned conveyors that
The grade of minerals is reflecting its
transport the mined coal out of the mine shaft
Economic Value.
2. UNDERGROUND MINING - a kind of mining
technique is used to dig tunnels or shafts at greater
depths to reach hard minerals deposits like ore that
may contain gold, silver, and copper.

 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

 SOIL EROSION
 DUST  Generating electricity requires a turbine and a
 DESTRUCTION OF HABITATS generator
 CONTAMINATION OF SOIL, SURFACE  Generator works to maintain a steady flow of
WATER AND GROUNDWATER BY CHEMICALS electrons from the movement of the turbines
 LOSS OF VALUABLE LAND
Dry Steam Power Plant

 No furnace is needed because source is already

hot.
 Pipes are drilled underground to collect
geothermal liquid.

 ENERGY PRODUCTION
1. GLOBAL NEED
 Highly industrialized countries consume much OTHER ALTERNATIVE SOURCE OF ENERGY
more electrical energy than other countries
● Wind Farms
 World’s major sources of energy today are
fossil fuels ● HYDROPOWER (Dams, Falls, Coastal Areas)
 Philippines ranked 33rd in the world
● Solar Power
2. APPLIED TECHNOLOGY

COAL - this source of energy was formed from

plant remains buried under layers of sediments  ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
pressed between the soil and rock layers and  Extracting of fossil fuels is as destructive as
altered by the effects of pressure and heat over mining minerals.
millions of years.  Emission of carbon dioxide.

OIL - it is considered to be more useful than

coal, and more concentrated, which makes it
easier to extract with less damage to the
environment.

NATURAL GAS - chiefly methane. It is found in

shale rocks that can be recovered through the
process of fracking.

FRACKING OR HYDRAULIC FRACTURING is a

method where a high-pressure fluid is injected
straight into the rock in order to release natural
gas inside it.

3.APPLIED TECHNOLOGY

ENERGY PRODUCTION
 WATER TREATMENT
1. GLOBAL NEED
 Areas where there is little supply of water, 1. GLOBAL NEED
the market price for freshwater increases
 Land fit for agriculture is not evenly distributed
 Higher demand for water is mainly due to
all over the world.
increase in population
 Soil constraint due to erosion, contamination, slope
 70% Agricultural, 19% Industrial, 11%
or depth.
Municipal

2. APPLIED TECHNOLOGY 2. APPLIED TECHNOLOGY

 Advance method of farming use tractors to till
the land.
 Machines used for farming.

3. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
 Excessive tillage result in loss of organic matter.
 Use of pesticide.
 Commercially produced or synthetic fertilizer
pollutes water cause eutrophication.

3. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

● Exploitation

● Over Abstraction

● Over Withdrawal

 ARABLE LAND FOR CROP PRODUCTION

 −80 ○ π −80 ○ π
∙ =
1 180 ○ 180 ○

−4 π
¿
9

PRE- CALCULUS
Converting Radians to Degrees
 UNIT CIRCLE
180 ○
θ∙
π

Circle of Radius = 1 −80 ○ π −80 ○ π

∙ =
1 180 ○ 180 ○
Centered at (0,0)
5π
Ex. =150 ○
2
Equation: x + y 2
= 6
5 π 180○ 900 π
∙ =
6 π 6π

¿ 150 ○

 An angle is said to be in the

standard position if its vertex is at the
origin of the rectangular

 ANGLES IN UNIT CIRCLE

Converting Degrees to Radians

π
θ∙
180 ○

Ex. -80 degrees

 coordinate system and its initial side
coincides with the positive x-axis.  Given an angle θ expressed in degrees, all
angles of the form θ + 360k °, where k is
any integer, are coterminal with θ.
 A reference angle is the acute angle
 Two angles in the standard position
formed by the terminal side of a given
that have the same terminal side are
angle in the standard position and the x-
called coterminal angles.
axis.

“Circular Functions of Any Angle on the

Unit Circle”

 A circular function can be defined in terms

of an arc coordinates of the terminal point
of the arc on the unit circle
 Let θ be an angle in the standard
position and let the point (x,y) be a
point on the terminal side of θ. Then,

 The sine, cosine, and tangent functions

are known as the basic circular
functions. The cosecant, secant, and
cotangent are called the reciprocal
functions because they are simply the
reciprocal of the basic circular
functions.

 FUNDAMENTAL OF
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
 An Identity is an equation that is
true for all valid replacements of the - Pythagorean Identities
variable.

 Conditional Equation is a statement

that is true on condition that the
variable is replaced with the correct
value.

 A Trigonometric Identity is an identity

that involves trigonometric functions of
one or more variables.

- Reciprocal Identities

GENERAL MATHEMATICS
- Quotient Identities
L1: SIMPLE INTEREST

 INTEREST
- The amount of money charged for
borrowing or using money.
 SIMPLE INTEREST (I) Compounding Periods n
- One type of fee paid for the use of Annually 1
money. Semi-annually 2
- Money paid only on the principal. Quarterly 4
FORMULA: I = Prt Monthly 12

(Total Amount = Principal + Simple Interest)

L3: SIMPLE ANNUITY
 RATE OF INTEREST (r)
 ANNUITY
- The percent charged or earned.
 PRINCIPAL (P) - Fixed amount of money to be paid to
someone at regular intervals, subject to a
- The amount of money borrowed or
fixed compound simple interest rate.
invested.
- People pay by installments.
 TIME (t)
 ANNUITY CERTAIN
- In years that the money is borrowed or
- Payable for a definite duration. Begins and
invested.
ends on a definite or fixed date.
 Annual: Yearly
 ANNUITY UNCERTAIN
 Semi-annual: every 6 months
 Quarterly: every 3 months - Annuity payable for an indefinite
 Monthly: every month duration; dependent on some certain
event.
L2: COMPOUND INTEREST  SIMPLE ANNUITY
- When your principle (P) and any earned - Interest conversion or compounding
interest both earn interest. period is equal or the same as the
payment interval.
 GENERAL ANNUITY
- Interest conversion or compounding
period is unequal or not the same as the
payment interval.

 ORDINARY ANNUITY
r) nt
FORMULA:
A = P (1 + -annuity in which the periodic payment
n
is made at the end of each payment
Where: interval.
 ANNUITY DUE
 A = Total Amount
- an annuity in which the periodic
 P = Principle
payment is made at the beginning of
 r = Rate
each payment interval.
 n = Number of Compounding Period
 t = Time in Years
  DEFFERED ANNUITY  COMMISSION
- the periodic payment is not made at the - payment to an agent or sales person
beginning nor at the end of each payment based on the value or quantity of goods
interval, but some later date. bought and sold; broker’s or brokerage
 GENERAL ORDINARY ANNUITY fee. A commission is found by finding the
- first payment is made at the end of percentage of a sale.
every payment interval.  LOAN
 GENERAL ANNUITY DUE - is an arrangement in which a lender gives
- first payment is made at the beginning of money (Principal) to a borrower in
every payment interval. exchange for the future repayment if the
 PERPETUTIES principal along with the interest or other
- a series of periodic payments which are finance charges.
to run infinitely or forever. 2 cases:
1. Deposit money in savings account.
FORMULA:
r Kt
(1+ 2. Borrowing money to buy a house
) −1
Future Value = P [ K
r ] - amount of stockholders’ share of the
K
company’s earning or profit.
- FORMULA:
r −Kt (dividend per share) (par value) (# of shares)
1− (1+ )
 DIVIDEND PER SHARE
Present Value = P [ r
K
] - ratio of the dividends to the number of
K shares.
- total dividend
FORMULA: total share
Where:

 P = Periodic Payment
 r = Rate
 t = Time
2 TYPES OF STOCKS
 K = Frequency Conversion
 PREFFERED STOCKS
Annually 1 - type of stocks for which stockholders get
Semi-annually 2 first choice in distributed profits.
Quarterly 4  COMMON STOCKS
Monthly 12 - the ordinary stock of a corporation, paying
no specified rate or amount of dividen

L4: STOCKS AND BONDS

 STOCKS
- Shares in the ownership of the
company.

 STOCKHOLDER/SHAREHOLDER
- A person who owns a share
or stocks in the company.
 DIVIDEND
  BONDS
 STOCK MARKET - a form of long-term investment issued by a
- a place where stocks can be bought or sold. corporation or government where the
The stocks market in the Philippines is purchaser becomes a creditor of the
governed by the Philippines Stock company.
Exchange (PSE). - Bond is very much like a “LOAN” –
 CERTIFICATE NUMBER “DEBT”
- An accession umber to keep track of the  BOND HOLDER
number of the certificates. - the one who holds a corporation or
 MARKET VALUE/MARKET PRICE government bond.
- the current price of a stock at which it can  When the company is selling a bond, it is
be sold. really selling an IOU (I Owe You), which is
- FORMULA: # of shares × selling price promise to payback the buyer his money,
 STOCK YIELD RATIO/CURRENT STOCK YIELD plus interest at a particular time.
- ratio of the annual dividend per share and THE FOLLOWING SHOULD BE
the market value per share. Also called
CONSIDERED WHEN BUYING
current stock yield.
BONDS:
- dividend per share
FORMULA: market value
1. The price of the bond.
 PAR VALUE/FACE VALUE OF THE BOND OR 2. The interest rates.
STOCK
3. Whether the bonds can or cannot be
- the per share amount as stated on the
resold.
company certificate. Unlike market value, it
4. The earnings record of the issuer.
is determined by the company and remains
stable over time. 5. The credit history of the issuer.
 NO-PAR STOCK 6. The business conditions.
- Stock issued without a stated value on the
NOTE: Riskier businesses offer higher
certificate.
rates of interest to convince investors to
 INITIAL PUBLIC OFFERING (IPO)
- Stock sold before it is available on a stock buy their bonds.
exchange. These are ratings for bonds which are based
OTHER FORMULAS: on a company’s past performance and
whether analysts predict the company will
TOTAL COST OF STOCKS
do well or poorly. Bonds are rated as:
= market price + commission
 Aaa or AAA for the best and safest bonds
NET PROCEEDS = market price − expenses  Bbb or BBB for riskier bonds
 Ccc or CCC for very risky bonds
annual dividend
RATE OF INCOME =  Bonds rated D are considered
total cost of stocks worthless
 2 KINDS OF VALUES

 PAR VALUE  BOND INCOME

- the same as its face value. The amount - The interest given by the corporation as a
printed on the face of the bond which the government unit who issued the bond
borrower promises to pay the bond holder serves as the income from the bond. The
on the due date. interest of the bond is based on the par
 MARKET VALUE value. Because the par value serves as the
principal, the interest formula can be
- the price at which the bond is being sold.
calculated as:
If the market value is greater than the par
value, then the bond is selling at a FORMULA:
PREMIUM. On the other hand, if the
market value is less than the par value, INTEREST = par value × rate × time
then the bond is selling at a DISCOUNT.
 STOCK CERTIFICATE
- Paper issued to a stockholder which
shows in its face the number of shares it
represents.
- Example:

Certificate Number # of shares Par Value

Stockholder
Corporation issuing
the certificate

Signatories of
Corporation
ORAL COMMUNICATION feelings.

L1-6: COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES

1. NOMINATION  Be polite even if you are

 A speaker carries out nomination to trying to take the floor
collaboratively and productively from another speaker.
establish a topic. Basically, when you  Don’t hog the conversation and
employ this strategy, you try to open a talk incessantly without letting
topic with the people you are talking other party air out their own
to. ideas.
 When beginning a topic in a  To acknowledge others, employ
conversation, you may start off some visual signals (nod, a look,
with news inquiries and or a step back), and some
announcements as they promise spoken cues such as “What do
extended talk. you think?” or “You wanted to
 Keep the conversational environment say something?”
open for opinions until the prior topic 
shuts down easily and initiates a 4. TOPIC CONTROL
smooth end.  Covers how procedural formality or
2. RESTRICTION informality affects the
 Refers to any limitation you may have development of topic in
as a speaker. When communicating in conversations.
the classroom, in a meeting, or while  For example:
hanging out with friends, you are  In meetings, you may only
typically given specific instructions have a turn to speak after a
that you must follow. These chairperson directs you to
instructions confine you as a speaker do so.
and limit what you can say.  In casual conversation with
 Remember to always be on point and friends, you may take the
avoid sideswiping from the topic conversational floor anytime.
during the conversation to avoid  It is achieved cooperatively. This
communication breakdown. means that when a topic is
3. TURN-TAKING initiated, it should be collectively
 Pertains to the process by which developed by avoiding
people decide who takes the unnecessary interruptions and
conversational floor. There is a code topic shifts.
of behavior behind establishing and  You can make yourself actively
sustaining a productive conversation, involved by using minimal
but the primary idea is to give all responses and asking questions to
communicators a chance to speak. clarify information briefly like
 Remember to keep your words  , “Yes”
relevant and reasonably short  “Okay”
enough to express your views or  “Go on”
 “You are excited,
aren’t you?”
 “It was unexpected,
wasn’t it?”
5.TOPIC SHIFTING concluding cues.
 Involves moving from one topic to  Share what you learned
another. In other words, it is where from the conversation.
one part of a conversation ends and  Soliciting agreement from
where another begins. the other participants
 When shifting to another topic: usually completes the
 You have to be discussion of the topic
very intuitive. meaningfully.
 Make sure that the previous
L7: TYPES OF SPEECHES
topic was nurtured enough
to generate adequate views. 3 Main Types of Speeches
 Use effective
conversational transitions: 1. INFORMATIVE SPEECH
“By the way”, “In addition to  To inform those in attendance by
what you’ve said”, “Which providing them with information.
reminds me of”
THIS COULD BE SPEECHES ABOUT:
6.REPAIR
 Refers to how speakers address the  EVENTS: happenings or
problems in speaking, listening, and occurrences, both past and
comprehending that they may present.
encounter in a conversation.  OBJECTS: things that are
 For example: everybody seems to talk recognized though sight,
at the same time, give way and hearing, taste, or touch.
appreciate other’s initiative to set the  CONCEPTS: ideas,
conversation back to its topic. philosophies, hypotheses, and
 Repair is the self-righting mechanism arguments.
in any social interaction (Schegloff et  PROCESSES: how something is
al, 1977). If there is a problem in made, done, or works.
understanding the conversation, 2. PERSUASIVE SPEECH
speakers will always try to address  Usually challenges and audience’s
and correct it. beliefs and/or tries to move those in
7.TERMINATION attendance to change existing
 Refers to the conversation viewpoints or at least recognize the
participant’s close-initiating validity of opposing viewpoints.
expressions that end a topic in a  3 Main Types
conversation. Most of the time, the  Questions of FACT
topic initiator takes responsibility
 Questions of VALUE
to signal the end of the discussion
 Questions of POLICY
as well.

 To end a topic:
 Try to signal the
end through
PERSUASIVE SPEECH 2. ANALYZING THE AUDIENCE
 Usually challenges and audience’s  Get or guess the demographic
beliefs and/or tries to move those data of the audience: age,
in attendance to change existing gender, occupation, ethnic bg,
viewpoints or at least recognize economic and social status.
the validity of opposing viewpoints.  Know the groups which your
 3 Main Types audience belongs as these
 Questions of FACT groups holds certain beliefs
 Questions of VALUE and values.
 Questions of POLICY  Find out how your audience
feels about the topic of your
3. SPEECHES FOR SPECIAL speech and what they already
OCCASSIONS know about it.
 There are myriad special occasions  Know how they feel about you
in life, such as, birthdays, as the speaker and what they
anniversaries, graduations, already know about you.
weddings, funerals, and so on…
 Important points to keep in mind in 3. SOURCING THE INFORMATION
doing this speech:  Any reading materials
 Must fit the occasion. (newspaper, magazines, books,
 Must meet the allotted time. journals, google) and the best
 Speakers should be neither resource which is the people.
too brief nor too
longwinded. 4. OUTLINING AND ORGANIZING
 Intended remarks must be THE SPEECH CONTENT
accurate.  Sort the infos into categories:
statistics, testimonies and
L8: PRINCIPLE OF SPEECH WRITING
opinions, historical facts, etc.
1. CHOOSING THE TOPIC  Organize the speech itself by
 Timely making an outline of it.
 Interesting to the speaking and TYPES OF OUTLINES:
to the listener
 Controversial  Chronological Outline: a
 Must be the level of knowledge historical/time approach like
of both the Speaker and the from the past to the present.
Audience. Ex. Development of Ilocos Region from
 The speaker must be mindful Martial Law to the Present
of the culture of the speaker  Spatial/Geographical Outline:
and audience, ages, gender, going from one place to
social status, and religious another, from one direction
affiliation. to another.
Ex. The Heritage Churches of Pampanga shaky and nervous.
 Cause and Effect: 4.FACIAL EXPRESSIONS, GESTURES,
involves discussion of AND MOVEMENTS
both cause and effect of  FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
an issue. - Builds connection with your
Ex. The Fish Kill in Laguna de Bay audience
 Problem-Solution Outline: - Shows sincerity and credibility
explains a problem and to the message
suggests a possible - Conveys the feelings of the
solution. Ex. Cleaning up speaker
Manila Bay  GESTURES
 Topical Outline: divides Helps you:
the topic into subtopics - Emphasize a point
based on importance or - Express emotions
interest value or simply - Release tensions
because the topic requires - Engage your audience
it; for topics that do not
 MOVEMENTS
fall under any of the
- Adds drama to your speech
previously mentioned
-Breaks monotony at where
outlines.
you are placed
Ex. Social Media Have Made Us Anti-Social
 AUDIENCE RAPPORT
L9: PRINCIPLE OF SPEECH DELIVERY - Establishing a connection with
the listeners
1. ARTICULATION
 Pronouncing the words and
speaking with clear diction that
effectively transmits the message
of the Speaker.
 Correct way of saying the word,
whether they are familiar.
2. MODULATION
 The capability to adjust or
manipulate the resonance
and timbre of the vocal tone.
3. STAGE PRESENCE
 The ability to “own” the stage.
 The speaker being able to fill
the space and project his/her
personality to the audience.
 The opposite of this is STAGE
FRIGHT – considered as the
topmost fear in the world of
public speaking; making one feel
L10: TYPES OF SPEECHES ACCORDING - It places so much pressure on the
TO THE MANNER OF DELIVERY speaker
- Delivery often sounds wooden
 READING FROM THE MANUSCRIPT
and mechanical
- MANUSCRIPT: a written or type
text or speech prepared ahead TIPS IN MEMORIZED SPEECH
of time.
- Most often used in conferences  Keep the speech short
and meetings where proceedings  People memorize speech because
will appear in the official record. they have to give it over and over but
- By reading from the manuscript, still need to modify to suit their
the speaker is sure not to forget audience
or leave any part of the speech  It is still important to include
out. proper inflection and expression
when delivering speech
TIPS IN PREPARING A MANUSCRIPT
(4Ps)

 PLAN
- plan the topic
- know the purpose
 PREPARE
-
prepare speech including the
manuscript and any visual
aids
 PRACTICE
- Practice delivering the
speech focus on voice quality,
eye contact body movement
 PRESENT
-
In presenting the speech, relax
try to be natural. Do not
forget what you have practiced
 MEMORIZED SPEECH
- The speaker commits their
speech to memory
- Often used in formal events
- The speech is written and then
memorized word for word
- Not often used anymore not
recommended for beginners