MUSIC LISTENING HABITS AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING

IN YOUNG ADULTS

A THESIS

Presented to the School of Social Work

California State University, Long Beach

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Social Work

Committee Members:

Brain Lam, Ph.D. (Chair)

Ruth M Chambers, Ph.D.
Yolanda Green, Ph.D.

College Designee:

Nancy Meyer-Adams, Ph.D.

By Laura Jones Torgeson

B.S., 2017, Utah State University

May 2021
 ABSTRACT

Music listening is an activity that nearly every young adult engages in. Research on the

psychological effects of music listening show varying results. This study’s purpose was to

explore possible relationships between young adults’ listening habits and psychological well-

being. A survey, completed by 192 young adults between the ages of 18 and 25, was used to

identify the participants’ music listening habits, level of psychological well-being, and

demographic information. A series of statistical analyses were conducted to determine

relationships between several music factors, demographic factors, and psychological well-being.

The results of these analyses show that there is a statistically significant positive relationship

between young adults’ music listening habits and their psychological well-being. More than any

other factor measured, how an individual engaged in music listening determined their level of

psychological well-being. In addition, the lyric content of music had a significant relationship to

higher or lower psychological well-being. These results suggest that music listening habits and

the lyric content of music may have an impact on young adults’ psychological well-being.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... iv

1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE .............................................................................................. 4

3. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 20

4. RESULTS .......................................................................................................................... 24

5. DISCUSSION.................................................................................................................... 31

APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................... 37

A. STUDY INSTRUMENT ................................................................................................... 38

B. INFORMED CONSENT FORM ...................................................................................... 50

C. LETTER OF APPROVAL FROM INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD ..................... 52

D. RECRUITMENT MESSAGES ......................................................................................... 55

REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 57

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 LIST OF TABLES

1. Sample Demographics ....................................................................................................... 24

2. Scales ................................................................................................................................. 25

3. Healthy Music Listening Habits and Psychological Well-Being ...................................... 26

4. Music Genre and Psychological Well-Being .................................................................... 27

5. Music Volume and Psychological Well-Being ................................................................. 28

6. Lyric Content and Psychological Well-Being ................................................................... 28

7. Gender Differences and Music Listening Habits .............................................................. 29

8. Ethnic Differences and Music Listening Habits ................................................................ 29

9. Musician Status Differences and Music Listening Habits ................................................ 30

10. Level of Education Differences and Music Listening Habits............................................ 30

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Although music is widely used as a method to bring about positive change, there are

instances where music may be contraindicated (Silverman et al., 2020). Kennaway (2015)

suggests that harm can in fact be caused by music, and ultimately lead to physical and mental

illness. In contrast, proponents of music use cite research that indicates music as effective in

reducing depression and anxiety (Carlson et al., 2015).

In particular, music has been suggested as a method for regulating emotions. Due to the

emotional nature of music, it is often used as an approach to express and contain negative

feelings (Groarke et al., 2020; Hereld, 2019). However, Carlson et al. (2015) found the effects of

music on emotional regulation to be inconclusive and vary widely between individuals. Some

individuals are able to utilize music in a healthy manner that allows them to cultivate hope,

regulate negative emotions, and reduce risky behavior (Hereld, 2019). Other individuals

demonstrate unhealthy uses of music, allowing the music to encourage rumination or distract

them from addressing problems (Carlson et al., 2015). Stewart et al. (2019) found that young

people intending to use music to regulate emotion were not effectively achieving the desired

outcome. Similarly, Garrido and Schubert (2015) found that individuals with a tendency for

depression were more likely to ruminate in music and reported increased sadness when engaging

in music listening.

In comparison with music benefits, music-induced harm is an underresearched topic that

could have an arduous impact on the mental health of individuals. Exploring how music listening

habits can have an effect on young adults’ psychological well-being can result in implications for

its use in the mental health community (Silverman et al., 2020).

1
 Purpose

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between young adults’ music

listening habits and their psychological well-being. The study examined whether or not music

factors and utilization style have an impact on young adults’ psychological well-being.

Research Questions

This study explored the following research questions:

1. Is there a relationship between young adults’ music listening habits and their

psychological well-being?

2. Are there music factors (genre, volume, and lyric content) that promote or impede

psychological well-being?

3. Do different demographic groups (based on gender, race/ethnicity, musician status, and

level of education) have tendencies towards healthy/unhealthy music listening habits?

Defined Terms

Music: sounds combined in a coordinated manner to express emotion in a creative format

(Davies, 2012).

Musician: an individual that engages in the music making process for work, pleasure

and/or socialization (Zhang et al., 2018).

Music listening habits: The nature of an individuals’ music listening activities, including

intention, implementation, and outcomes (Saarikallio et al., 2015).

Psychological well-being: the extent to which an individual displays autonomy,

environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relationships with others, purpose in life, and

self-acceptance (Ryff, 1989).

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 Relevance to Social Work

Music listening is often used as an example of “self-care” when discussing coping

strategies with mental health professionals (Stewart et al., 2019). Because social workers are

often providing information on healthy coping mechanisms, it is important for there to be a more

comprehensive understanding of the role music plays in promoting or inhibiting psychological

well-being. In particular, young adults aged 18-25 are most at risk for mental illness among

adults in the United States (National Institute Mental Health [NIMH], 2017). Understanding how

music may impact the psychological well-being of young adults could lead to implications for

social work practice in mental health settings.

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 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

For many decades, neurologists, psychologists, and musicologists alike have been

investigating the phenomenon of music and its effects on the human brain. Throughout the

late19th century, researchers and philosophers created theories and hypotheses on the brain’s

processing of music. Richard Walascheck, in particular, wrote many groundbreaking essays on

music’s influence on the human brain and is considered one of the first researchers to address

both neurology and psychology within his musicology theories. His work has led to the

formation of a new area of study: the psychology of music (Graziano & Johnson, 2015). Over the

decades, research on the psychology of music has suggested that music plays a unique role in

communicating and inducing emotions (Brattico & Pearce, 2013; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008).

The observation of music’s extraordinary influence on mood and neurology eventually

led to the formal use of music in therapeutic settings early in the 20th century (Vest, 2020).

Musicians, both amateur and professional, around the country began playing music for patients

in hospitals and psychiatric wards. Medical professionals validated the use of music as a benefit

to patients when it was observed that patients demonstrated positive emotional changes after

music listening (American Music Therapy Association, 2020). Since then, mental health

professionals have been recommending and utilizing music listening on the basis of its unique

effect on the brain (Vest, 2020). Evidence suggests that music is able to convey emotions to

listeners with ease and have an influence on the emotions the listener experiences (Eerola &

Vuoskoski, 2013; Thoma et al., 2011).

Increased interest in this topic of music and mood emerged in the 1980s and 1990s

(Graziano & Johnson, 2015). This may be due to the societal concern at the time that heavy

4
metal music encouraged deviance in young people, prompting researchers to determine the

validity of the concern (Sharman & Dingle, 2015). For example, Ballard and Coates (1995)

examined the impact of homicidal, suicidal, and nonviolent heavy metal music on college-aged

men. In this particular study, it was found that heavy metal music had no effect on the

participants’ suicidal ideation, anxiety, or self-esteem (Ballard & Coates, 1995). Although the

concern for potential deviancy prompted the research of heavy metal music’s impact on mood,

these studies were widely inconclusive and produced varied results (Sharman & Dingle, 2015;

Silverman et al., 2020). Overall, this increased interest in the area of music and mood in the late

20th century has since inspired many research studies that examine the relationship between

music, psychology, and neurology (Graziano & Johnson, 2015).

Music and Mood

The literature surrounding this topic of music and mood presents contradicting evidence

for music’s influence on mood and well-being. Although music has been shown to have a

significant effect on mood, it is debatable whether that effect is primarily positive or negative

(McFerran, 2016). Today, music is often encouraged as a coping mechanism for individuals

suffering from a variety of mental health issues, and in some instances has been found to

improve mood (Groarke et al., 2020; Hereld, 2019). In contrast, evidence also suggests that

music can be harmful in regard to mental health. Unfortunately, possible disadvantages of using

music have not been studied as comprehensively as benefits. This leaves little room for making

definitive conclusions on the generalizations of music’s effects on mood (Garrido & Schubert,

2015; Silverman et al., 2020; Stewart et al., 2019).

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Music as a Help Agent

Music can be a vehicle for adaptive emotion regulation (Boothby & Robbins, 2011; Cook

et al., 2017; Karreman et al., 2017). In 2015, young adults identified music as a method for

modifying emotions, specifically by distracting from undesirable thoughts and feelings and

altering arousal levels (Boothby & Robbins, 2011; Papinczak et al., 2015). This was verified in a

study where 63 participants engaged in multiple tests including the Montgomery-Åsbert

Depression Scale, the Big Five Questionnaire, the Hospital Anxiety Scale, music-related affect

regulation, and a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanning session. The study

found that participants who reported increased psychological stress often sought relief through

music listening. By utilizing music as a diversion, participants were able to distract themselves

from psychological distress and improve their mood (Carlson et al., 2015). Cook et al. (2017)

saw similar results with college-aged students experiencing elevated mood when listening to

music. In another study, listening to music for the specific purpose of modifying emotions was

significantly correlated with social well-being (Papinczak et al., 2015).

Karreman et al. (2017) also concluded that music is effective in increasing individuals’

mood. Participants in Karreman et al.’s (2017) study rated their emotions on a Likert scale before

and after listening to a selection of music. Those that engaged in the music listening activity

reported elevated mood at the conclusion of the song, compared to participants that did not

engage in a music listening activity. Interestingly, the piece of music that was utilized in the

study was “Stairway to Heaven” by Led Zeppelin (Karreman et al., 2017). The successful use of

a rock song for emotion regulation contradicts previous beliefs that rock music is detrimental to

mood (Sharman & Dingle, 2015; Susino & Schubert, 2019).

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 Koelsch et al. (2016) found that music listening was associated with more positive moods

following a stressful event. Acute stress was induced in 143 participants, resulting in increased

levels of hormones such as NA, ACTH, and cortisol. Instrumental music of various genres was

introduced to an experimental group of participants, including classical, jazz, Irish folk, South

American, and reggae. Participants in the music group showed increased levels of cortisol,

resulting in elevated mood. This finding indicates that listening to music can help regulate

negative emotions and increase mood when experiencing acute stress (Koelsch et al., 2016).

In a study exploring the use of music as a calming agent, 100 participants were observed

during a 12-min driving simulation. All participants were assigned to 1 of 5 groups with a

different selection of music provided to each, with the exception of the control group. During the

driving simulation participants encountered traffic jams, which has been known to cause anger,

frustration, and stress. Negative emotions were equated to cardiovascular reactivity in this study,

which was measured using blood pressure, heart rate, and cardiovascular impedance. The study

found that participants who listened to low activation music during the driving simulation

demonstrated significantly less negative emotions. In contrast, drivers that were not listening to

any music demonstrated higher blood pressure and a higher heart rate (Fairclough et al., 2014).

Music was also shown to act as a mood enhancement in Boothby and Robbins’ (2011)

study. Individuals that participated in the study were assigned to various groups and instructed to

engage in an art activity for 10 min. Participants that were assigned to music listening groups

demonstrated significantly increased mood compared to control groups (Boothby & Robbins,

2011). This finding is consistent with many research studies that show the efficacy of music as

an effective mood regulator (Cook et al., 2017; Karreman et al., 2017; Koelsch et al., 2016;

Papinczak et al., 2015).

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 Dingle and Fay (2016) designed a curriculum based on this idea that music had the

capability of helping individuals manage their mood. Their program, Tuned In, was piloted with

51 young adults aged 18-25. The Tuned In curriculum consists of four group sessions that teach

emotion regulation skills aided by music listening using self-selected music. To verify the

efficacy of this program a wait-list control group was utilized during the pilot process. Overall,

participants in the program increased emotional awareness and emotion regulation skills at

significantly higher rates than non-program participants. This result suggests that music listening

activities are beneficial in regulating emotions (Dingle & Fay, 2016). Garrido et al. (2017) also

found that there were positive effects from listening to self-selected music when sad, including

increased mood.

Music as an Agent of Harm

In contrast to the literature showing benefits of music listening on mood, there is a

growing body of research that indicates music listening has negative effects on mood. In some

cases, young adults have been found to listen to music that intensifies their emotions, as opposed

to modifying them (Garrido & Schubert, 2011; Papinczak et al., 2015). In fact, Garrido and

Schubert (2011) found that 50% of their study’s participants agreed or strongly agreed that they

enjoyed listening to sad-evoking music. In particular, individuals that demonstrated empathic

concern were found to be more likely to enjoy listening to music that makes them feel sadness or

grief (Garrido et al., 2017). Research suggests that sad-evoking music includes songs in minor-

keys, which induce unpleasant emotions such as “gloomy” and “miserable” (Kawakami et al.,

2013).

When interviewing seven young people aged 19-28 with a tendency for depression,

Stewart et al. (2019) discovered that many participants intended to use music listening as a

8
method of self-care. There were two primary strategies that were utilized: some individuals

selected music that reflected their negative mood, and other individuals selected music that was

the opposite of their negative mood. Neither strategy was more or less effective than the other,

and the intended purpose of music listening did not always produce the desired result (Stewart et

al., 2019).

Similarly, another study suggests that listening to sad music was a maladaptive mood

regulation strategy utilized primarily by ruminators (Garrido & Schubert, 2015). A sample size

of 335 participants rated their mood before and after listening to self-selected sad music. It was

found that participants had significant decreases in mood after listening to sad music but reported

perceived positive effects (Garrido & Schubert, 2015). Garrido et al. (2017) studied the

phenomenon of ruminating in music and found that participants with a tendency for depression

were more likely to listen to music unaccompanied. Individuals that scored high on psychometric

scales for rumination did not expect elevated mood when listening to sad music, but rather

engaged in music listening to not feel alone. This indicates that a perceivable benefit of music

listening is a feeling of social belonging, but does not indicate a benefit to mood (Garrido &

Schubert, 2015).

Research indicates that music’s potential for harm may vary depending on the content of

the music and the characteristics of the listener (Choppin et al., 2015; Garrido et al., 2017;

Moore, 2013; Stewart et al., 2019). Moore (2013) systematically reviewed the neural effects of

music on emotion regulation, and found that some music characteristics were strongly correlated

with emotion dysregulation. In particular, dissonant, complex, and unexpected music excerpts

resulted in undesired activation patterns in the brain (Moore, 2013). In 2015, Choppin et al.

examined the effects of music listening on patients diagnosed with bipolar disorder. While in an

9
euthymic state, participants were exposed to 12 excerpts of instrumental music. Participants with

bipolar disorder were more likely than participants without a diagnosis to experience negative

effects from the music excerpts. Music excerpts that had been classified as inducing joy and

wonder were more likely to induce tension and sadness amongst participants with bipolar

disorder. This indicates that an individual’s mental health may have an effect on their emotional

reactions to music (Choppin et al., 2015).

Mediating Factors for Music Listening

In an effort to determine if music listening had a positive or negative effect on mood,

McFerran (2016) examined 23 research studies. The study’s goal was to draw conclusions on the

relationship between music listening, emotions and well-being. McFerran (2016) found that

across these studies music’s influence on an individual’s mental health varied widely. Therefore,

it was suggested that contextualizing the utilization of music would be more useful than making

generalizations about the merits of music listening.

Stewart et al. (2019) found that participants who demonstrated more self-awareness in

regard to their music listening habits were more likely to have positive outcomes. Although

intention for music listening was not a mediating factor, awareness and insight when selecting

songs was found to be a mediating factor (Rickard, 2012; Stewart et al., 2019). Similarly, another

study concluded that competency in emotion regulation skills was a mediating factor for music

listening and emotional, psychological, social, and subjective well-being. Participants in the

study that scored high on the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire were more likely to have

increased well-being regardless of their music engagement strategies (Chin & Rickard, 2014).

Evidence also suggests that musicianship may play a role in mediating the impacts of

music listening. Studies show that musicians are more likely than non-musicians to be happier

10
and have increased psychological well-being (Kokotsaki & Hallam, 2007; Ros-Morente et al.,

2019). Madsen and Geringer (1990) found that musicians and non-musicians process music

differently. Musicians tend to focus first on melody, then rhythm. In contrast, non-musicians

tend to focus first on volume, then melody. How an individual attends to music listening may be

an indicator for their music use in general (Madsen & Geringer, 1990). For example, a study

indicates that musicians, compared to non-musicians, were less affected by sad music

(Kawakami et al., 2013). Ros-Morente et al. (2019) suggests that musicians are more likely than

non-musicians to utilize music in a way that helps them cope with their emotions.

It is also interesting to note that listening to sad music with peers is more likely to

provide social benefits and lessens depressive tendencies (Garrido et al., 2017). Young people

often use music as a tool for maintaining social relationships with friends, peers, and family

members. The connection fostered within music experiences allows young adults to

communicate their feelings and emotions (Papinczak et al., 2015). In 2017, Garrido et al.

examined social interactions between peers when engaging in music listening. The study aimed

to determine if listening to music with others mediated or enhanced rumination among

individuals with depression. Participants, which numbered 697, completed an online survey that

explored their consumption of music and its effects. Results from the survey showed that

ruminating with sad music in a social setting was predictive of positive mood effects. This

indicates that using music listening as a social activity can mediate the effects of ruminating in

music (Garrido et al., 2017).

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 Young Adults and Music

Young adulthood is characterized by an exploration for identity and establishment of

personality. Due to life transitions and withdrawal from family of origin, individuals are

compelled to gain their own views, values, and beliefs (Murtonen, 2018). Research has indicated

that music culture is particularly influential in the lives of adolescents and young adults

(Kokotsaki & Hallam, 2007; Saarikallio et al., 2015). Young adults are more likely than other

age groups to consume music to a high degree and report music to be an important part of their

lives (Saarikallio & Erkkilä, 2016).

The heightened involvement in music activities during young adulthood can include the

participation in music festivals and concerts (Kokotsaki & Hallam, 2007; Papinczak et al., 2015).

However, young adults aged 18-25 were reported to perceive both negative and positive effects

of “loud music” listening. This remained true across several countries, including India, Iran,

Portugal, the United Kingdom and the United States. The most common perceived positive effect

of listening to loud music was positive emotions or actions. Perceived negative effects included

physical ailment, party and alcohol, and hearing problems (Manchaiah et al., 2017). Papinczak et

al. (2015) found that young adults enjoyed attending live music festivals in order to connect with

others and create shared experiences. However, another study concluded that using music for

social connection was negatively correlated with other aspects of well-being, including

psychological, subjective and eudaimonic (Chin & Rickard, 2014). Although the merits of music

festivals are debatable, hundreds of thousands of young adults attend live music events across the

nation every year (Kokotsaki & Hallam, 2007).

Young adulthood is also a critical time when individuals form their sense of spirituality.

Growing research has suggested that religious institutions may not be influential in young adult’s

12
spiritual development (Murtonen, 2018). Instead, spiritual development is influenced by an

individual’s connection to others, nature, values, morals and sense of purpose (King et al., 2014).

Murtonen (2018) found that music, in particular, helped young adults to enhance their spiritual

connection, nurture their spiritual life, and construct a world view. Music may also assist young

adults in their development of emotional expressivity and communication skills (Kokotsaki &

Hallam, 2007; Ros-Morente et al., 2019).

In the United States, young adults aged 18-25 are more at risk for mental illness than any

other age group (NIMH, 2017). The development of psychopathology in young adulthood

suggests that this stage in life can be particularly stressful, uncertain and discouraging. Young

adults may struggle with mental health problems for years before seeking help, due to

misunderstanding the severity of their symptoms (Bluhm et al., 2014). The vulnerability of this

age group is worth noting when discussing music listening, as they also tend to engage in a large

amount of music activities (Saarikallio & Erkkilä, 2016). Ros-Morente et al. (2019) argue that

participation in music allows young adults to acquire emotional skills. They found that young

adults that engaged in active music-making were more likely to be emotionally aware,

demonstrate emotion regulation skills, and exhibit autonomy and social competence (Ros-

Morente et al., 2019).

Music Listening Habits

McFerran (2016) suggested that music listening as a coping mechanism was neither

inherently good or bad for an individual’s psychological well-being. Because music use varies

from one person to the next, it is more imperative to investigate which music listening habits

have a connection to psychological well-being. Music listening habits include how an individual

engages in music listening and also the type of music that is being consumed (McFerran, 2016).

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Music Engagement

The way in which individuals engage in music listening has an impact on music’s effect

on their mood and psychological well-being. Various research has been conducted to gain an

understanding on what behaviors constitute unhealthy music listening habits and healthy music

listening habits. This literature provided the foundation for the development of the Healthy-

Unhealthy Music Scale (HUMS) and has helped clinicians to recognize instances where music

may cause harm to their clients (Saarikallio et al., 2015; Silverman et al., 2020).

It has been found that unhealthy music behaviors include ruminating in music that

conveys negative emotions and listening to music to distract from confronting issues (Garrido &

Schubert, 2015; Hense et al., 2018; Saarikallio et al., 2015). Rumination is defined as the

“enduring activation of the cognitive component of an emotional response” (Verduyn &

Lavrijsen, 2014, p. 120). Overall, individuals engaging in music listening tend to select music

that reflects their current mood (Thoma et al., 2011). Ruminating habits such as listening to

music that elicits “bad memories” and listening to songs “over and over again” even though it

decreases mood have been positively correlated with depressive symptoms in youth (Saarikallio

et al., 2015). Garrido and Schubert (2015) concluded that individuals with tendencies towards

ruminating behaviors in general were more likely to utilize music for rumination purposes,

resulting in decreased mood. Music-induced harm can occur when the content and duration of

the music and the intention and self-awareness of the listener lend themselves towards

rumination (Silverman et al., 2020).

Saarikallio et al. (2015) found that participants who utilized music to distract from their

issues were also more likely to experience depressive symptoms. Participants that had been

diagnosed with major depressive disorder identified that they “hid” in their music to “block

14
people out,” used music to “escape the real world,” and listened to music to distract from “hard

feelings” (Saarikallio et al., 2015, p. 214). In contrast, participants that did not use music as a

function of distraction were less likely to be experiencing depressive symptoms (Saarikallio et

al., 2015).

Positive music habits include listening to music for relaxation, connection and energy

(Saarikallio et al., 2015). A large body of research exists demonstrating the validity of music in

aiding relaxation (de Niet et al., 2009). Music is widely used as a sleep aid, but particularly

amongst young people. Specifically, music induces a relaxed state that is conducive to sleep and

can also distract from other stimuli that may disrupt sleep (Trahan et al., 2018). It was found that

youth who utilized music for relaxation purposes were less likely to exhibit depressive symptoms

(Saarikallio et al., 2015).

Research suggests that youth are able to find emotional connectedness with others

through music engagement (McFerran et al., 2010). Participants in McFerran et al.’s (2010)

study reported feeling more accepted when engaging in music activities. Loneliness was

identified as an emotion that decreased when listening to music (McFerran et al., 2010). Music as

a means of connecting with others and building a sense of belonging has been associated with

increased mood and heightened psychological well-being (Garrido et al., 2017). Saarikallio et al.

(2015) found that listening to music to connect with others was negatively correlated with

depressive symptoms.

In addition, music is commonly utilized as a tool for increasing energy, motivation, and

stamina. This has been shown to be effective amongst individuals of all ages (Chin & Rickard,

2014; Karageorghis & Priest, 2012). In particular, listening to music for the purpose of

increasing energy was associated with lower levels of depression in youth (Saarikallio et al.,

15
2015). Chin and Rickard (2014) found that utilizing music for physical exercise was positively

correlated with psychological, social and eudaimonic well-being. Music has been found to

enhance affect, reduce perceived exertion, improve energy efficiency, and increased work output

when utilized during high endurance activities (Karageorghis & Priest, 2012).

Music Factors

An individual’s music listening habits can also vary with the type of music that is being

selected. Stewart et al. (2019) found that music factors were more likely to contribute to the

effects of music listening than intention. This includes messages conveyed by lyrics and the

frequency and duration of music listening. It has been suggested that if the lyric content of the

music being consumed is largely positive, music listening will produce positive benefits (Stewart

et al., 2019). Greitemeyer (2009) suggested that individuals that are exposed to lyrics that

promote social activity are more likely to engage in social activities and demonstrate stronger

social skills. This was verified when 38 college students’ behavior was analyzed after listening to

various music selections. Students that listened to prosocial songs demonstrated more empathy

towards others, had more prosocial thoughts, and were more likely to donate money than

students that listened to neutral songs (Greitemeyer, 2009).

The frequency and duration of music listening episodes has also been shown to have an

effect on mood (Stewart et al., 2019). In a study conducted by Papinczak et al. (2015),

participants’ frequency of music listening was positively correlated with relationship building,

modifying cognitions, modifying emotions, and immersing in emotions. This indicates that

listening to music more often may increase its capacity to have an influence on well-being

(Papinczak et al., 2015).

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 Music genre has long been a music factor that has been suggested as an indicator for

emotional well-being. Particular music genres are associated with specific emotions (Cook et al.,

2017; Papinczak et al., 2015; Sharman & Dingle, 2015). For example, heavy metal music is

commonly associated with the emotion “anger” and Western Classical music is commonly

associated with “relaxation” (Susino & Schubert, 2019). In contrast, a popular rock song

“Stairway to Heaven'' by Led Zeppelin, was shown to increase mood amongst study participants

(Karramen et al., 2017). Cook et al. (2017) specifically studied the differences in music listening

outcomes based on genre of music. The study enlisted 794 university students who reported their

preferences for music to be pop, rap, hip hop, soul/funk, and electronic/dance music. In

particular, soul/funk music was shown to be the most effective in assisting participants in

regulating emotions (Cook et al., 2017).

It has also been suggested that elements of music, such as volume, tempo,

instrumentation, and rhythmic complexity can change music’s effectiveness in regulating mood

(McFerran, 2016). Cook et al. (2017) concluded that energetic and rhythmic music was

positively associated with positive emotions. In contrast, songs that were designated as reflective

or complex were associated with both positive and negative mood management. Kawakami et al.

(2013) found that in Western culture, music selections in minor-keys are associated with sad

emotions. In addition, participants that used music for negative mood regulation were more

likely to listen to intense, rebellious, reflective, and complex music (Cook et al., 2017).

Music listening habits vary widely across individuals. Many factors can be examined to

analyze music listening habits, including music engagement style, lyric content, and musical

elements. How an individual engages in music listening, including their intention,

17
implementation, and outcomes, may be an indicator for psychological well-being (Hense et al.,

2018; McFerran, 2016; Saarikallio et al., 2015).

Music and Psychological Well-Being

Evidence suggests that music listening may have an impact on young adults’

psychological well-being (Carlson et al., 2015; Chin & Rickard, 2014; Eerola & Vuoskoski,

2013; Greitemeyer, 2009; Papinczak et al., 2015). Psychological well-being consists of an

individual’s ability to display autonomy, master their environment, grow personally, establish

positive relationships with others, feel a sense of purpose in life and practice self-acceptance

(Ryff, 1989). The role that music can play in an individual’s psychological well-being has been

studied extensively, but with varying results (McFerran, 2016). It has been suggested that music

has the opportunity to be both beneficial in this regard, but also harmful (Silverman et al., 2020).

Although music has been shown to influence psychological well-being, it is also likely

that an individual’s well-being can influence their engagement in music (Garrido & Schubert,

2011; Stewart et al., 2019). As suggested in Garrido and Schubert’s (2015) study, an individual’s

mood may be an indicator for their style of music use. Ruminators and young people with

tendencies for depression, in particular, have been found to utilize music in unhealthy ways

(Garrido et al., 2017; Stewart et al., 2019). In contrast, music listeners that are more reflective

have a tendency to use music in healthy ways. This indicates that personality and mood may

influence how an individual utilizes music, which will reinforce moods they already experience

(Garrido & Schubert, 2015). Therefore, the relationship between music and an individual’s

psychological well-being is not as simple as a cause-effect relationship. The two variables

influence and reinforce each other (Garrido & Schubert, 2015; Karreman et al., 2017; McFerran,

2016; Stewart et al., 2019).

18
 It is hypothesized that there is a direct positive correlation between a young adult’s

psychological well-being and their music listening habits. It is anticipated that young adults that

utilize healthy music listening habits are more likely to have increased psychological well-being,

and young adults that utilize unhealthy music listening habits will have decreased psychological

well-being. In addition, this study hypothesizes that there may be demographic factors that

contribute to an individual’s music listening habits.

Summary

Music listening as a coping skill has been recommended by mental health professionals

on the basis of its unique effect on the brain, particularly with young adults (Groarke et al., 2020;

Hereld, 2019; Saarikallio & Erkkilä, 2016; Vest, 2020). However, McFerran (2016) suggested

that music listening was neither broadly beneficial or detrimental to an individual’s

psychological well-being. In fact, there is evidence to support that there are both positive and

negative effects of music listening for young adults struggling with mental health issues (Eerola

& Vuoskoski, 2013; McFerran, 2016; Silverman et al., 2020; Thoma et al., 2011). Because music

use varies from one person to the next, it is simplistic to suggest that all music is inherently good

or bad. Instead, music behaviors are more indicative of the effects music may have on

psychological well-being (McFerran, 2016; Saarikallio et al., 2015). Behaviors that are

associated with negative effects include ruminating in music that conveys negative emotions and

listening to music to distract from confronting issues (Garrido & Schubert, 2015; Hense et al.,

2018; Saarikallio et al., 2015). In contrast, behaviors that are associated with positive effects

include listening to music for relaxation, connection and energy (Saarikallio et al., 2015). It is

suggested that young adults that engage in healthy music listening habits will also experience

elevated psychological well-being.

19
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

Design

This thesis is a quantitative study exploring a possible relationship between music

listening habits and psychological well-being in young adults. A statistical analysis of the

gathered data was used to determine the presence of a relationship. However, this correlation

does not indicate that music is the cause of higher or lower psychological well-being.

Sample

Participants included young adults between the ages of 18 and 25. A snowball sampling

method was utilized to obtain a sample of the general population. Participants were notified of

the study by email, direct message and social media posts on Facebook and Instagram. A total of

213 responses to the survey were recorded. However, seven responses were removed due to

participants not meeting the age requirement, and 14 responses were removed for not completing

an adequate portion of the survey. The resulting sample consisted of 192 participants between

the ages of 18-25.

Instrument

This study used an online survey to collect data on the participants’ demographic

information, music preferences, music listening habits and psychological well-being. Two

validated scales were utilized to measure the participants’ psychological well-being and music

listening habits.

First, Ryff’s Psychological Well-Being Scale (PWBS), which was developed in 1989,

was utilized to measure participants’ level of psychological well-being in the following areas:

autonomy, positive relationships with others, environmental mastery, purpose in life, personal

20
growth, and self-acceptance (Ryff, 1989). For the purposes of this study, the shortened 18-item

scale was used, which uses a seven-point Likert scale ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly

disagree” (Abbot et al., 2010; Ryff, 1989). A Cronbach’s alpha reliability test was used to verify

the reliability of the 18-item scale (ɑ = .80).

Second, the HUMS, developed in 2015 by Saarikallio, Gold, and McFerran, was used to

measure participants’ uses of music. The survey consists of 13 questions, 5 healthy items and 8

unhealthy items, that address the following: mood when listening to music, intentions for music

listening, and outcomes of music listening (Saarikallio et al., 2015). The HUMS utilizes a 5-point

Likert scale, ranging from “never” to “always,” and has an acceptable internal consistency

reliability (ɑ = .75), as verified by a Cronbach’s alpha reliability test.

Data Collection

This study recruited participants using snowball sampling. The primary investigator

encouraged individuals in her personal network to participate in the study, and asked that they

also invite other individuals to participate. A recruitment message was posted on the primary

investigator's personal facebook page with a link to the survey and directions for participation.

The primary investigator also contacted friends, colleagues, acquaintances, and family members

using email and direct messaging (text message and through messenger app). These messages

included a brief explanation of the study, an invitation to participate and recruit others, and a link

to the survey. Clicking on the survey link directed participants to the Informed Consent page.

After reading the informed consent document, participants were asked if they agree to participate

in the study. By selecting the response "I have read the above information and agree to

participate in this study," participants were directed to the online survey hosted via Qualtrics.

Participants answered questions as prompted until the survey was completed. At the conclusion

21
of the survey resources were provided to the participant for risk management. The survey was

distributed to participants beginning on November 25, 2020 and data collection ended on

December 10, 2020.

Data Analysis

In accordance with the research questions, gathered data was analyzed to explore possible

relationships between music use and psychological well-being. First, descriptive statistics were

used to gain an understanding of the sample’s demographic information. Second, a Pearson

correlation test determined if there was a statistically significant relationship between the

participants’ level of healthy music use (HUMS) and psychological well-being (PWBS). Third,

several independent t-tests were conducted to determine differences in level of psychological

well-being based on genres of music that are consumed. Fourth, ANOVA tests were used to

measure possible relationships between music factors (volume and lyric content) and

psychological well-being. Fifth, independent t-tests and ANOVA tests were utilized to measure

differences between demographic groups (gender, race/ethnicity, musician status, and level of

education) in regard to music use.

Ethical Issues

Potential risk of harm as a result of this study was expected to be minimal. However, it is

possible that participants felt uncomfortable when responding to survey questions that evaluate

psychological well-being and music listening habits. To combat these ethical issues, mental

health resources and information on music and mood were provided to participants at the

conclusion of the survey. Mental health resources given included the National Alliance on

Mental Illness (NAMI) website, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

website, and Mental Health First Aid resources page. Links to informational websites about

22
music and psychology, as well as the American Music Therapy Association (2020) website were

also provided.

In order to maintain the participants’ confidentiality, no personal identifying information

was requested. Preserving confidentiality also encouraged honesty when engaging in the survey

and was likely to result in more accurate data. However, self-reported information is not free

from bias and therefore, can be imprecise.

23
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

Sample

The majority of participants in the study were female (78.6%) and had received a

bachelor’s degree (50.5%). The sample consisted primarily of white/Caucasian individuals

(60.4%), but also included Latinx/Hispanic individuals (25%), Asian/Pacific Islander individuals

(8.9%) and others that include African American and biracial individuals (5.7%). Most

participants identified themselves as non-musicians (57.3%). Frequency tests were used to

describe the sample demographics shown below in Table 1.

TABLE 1. Sample Demographics

Frequency Percentage

Gender Female 151 78.6%

Male 37 19.3%
Nonbinary/Trans 4 2.1%
Race/Ethnicity White/Caucasian 116 60.4%
Latinx/Hispanic 48 25%
Asian/Pacific Islander 17 8.9%
Other/Biracial 11 5.7%
Level of Education High School/GED 47 24.5%
Associate’s Degree 25 13.0%
Bachelor’s Degree 97 50.5%
Post-Graduate Degree 23 12.0%
Musician Status Non-Musician 110 57.3%
Musician 82 42.7%

24
Scales

The shortened 18-item PWBS was utilized to measure the participants’ current level of

psychological well-being. The PWBS scores were calculated by adding together individual item

scores, following the necessary reverse scoring. The minimum score possible for the PWBS is

18, and the maximum score possible is 126, with a higher PWBS score indicating increased

psychological well-being. A Cronbach’s alpha reliability test was used to verify the reliability of

the 18-item scale (ɑ = .80). As can be seen in Table 2, the sample had an average PWBS score of

96.75, which indicates that the participants in this study were overall experiencing relatively high

psychological well-being.

The 13-item HUMS scale was also utilized to measure the participants’ music listening

habits. The HUMS scale has an acceptable internal consistency reliability (ɑ = .75), which was

verified using a Cronbach’s alpha reliability test. In the HUMS scale, a minimum score of 13 can

be achieved, and a maximum score of 65 can be achieved. After the appropriate reverse scoring,

individual item scores are added together to determine the overall HUMS score. A higher HUMS

score indicates healthy music listening habits.

TABLE 2. Scales

Item M SD N

Psychological Well-Being (PWBS) 96.75 11.66 192

Healthy Music Listening Habits (HUMS) 44.02 5.61 192

Music Listening Habits and Psychological Well-Being

A Pearson correlation test was performed to assess the relationship between

psychological well-being and music listening habits. As can be seen in Table 3, there was a

significant correlation between young adults’ music listening habits and psychological well-
25
being. Healthy music listening habits were significantly, positively related to increased

psychological well-being r(192) = .43, p < .01.

TABLE 3. Healthy Music Listening Habits and Psychological Well-Being

Psychological Well-being Healthy Music Listening

Habits

Psychological Well-being 1.0

Healthy Music Listening .43*** 1.0
Habits
*p < .10, **p < .05 , ***p < .01

Music Factors and Psychological Well-Being

A series of independent t-tests were performed to determine any significant differences in

psychological well-being between participants that listen to various genres. As shown in Table 4,

there were some differences approaching significance amongst participants that listen to

pop/electronic, rap/hip hop/R&B, and rock/metal/alternative. Participants that listen to

pop/electronic/dance music were somewhat more likely to have decreased psychological well-

being than those who do not t(190) = -1.77, p < .10, and participants that listen to rap/hip

hop/R&B music were somewhat more likely to have decreased psychological well-being than

those who do not t(190) = -1.78, p < .10. Participants that listen to rock/metal/alternative music

were also somewhat more likely to report decreased levels of psychological well-being compared

to those who do not t(190) = -1.71, p < .10. Most significantly, participants that listen to Latin

music were more likely to have decreased psychological well-being than those who do not t(190)

= -2.27, p < .05.

26
TABLE 4. Music Genre and Psychological Well-Being

Psychological Well-Being

M SD N t

Pop/Electronic/Dance Do Listen 95.54 11.12 115 -1.77*

Do Not Listen 98.56 12.26 77
Rap/Hip Hop/R&B Do Listen 94.95 12.16 78 -1.78*
Do Not Listen 97.98 11.19 114
Rock/Metal/Alternative Do Listen 94.77 11.84 66 -1.71*
Do Not Listen 97.79 11.47 126
Classical/Instrumental Do Listen 97.87 12.63 52 .81
Do Not Listen 96.34 11.30 140
Country/Folk Do Listen 97.15 12.33 62 .32
Do Not Listen 96.56 11.37 130
Latin Do Listen 93.33 12.87 45 -2.27**
Do Not Listen 97.80 11.10 147
Other Do Listen 98.14 10.24 49 .97
Do Not Listen 96.27 12.10 143
*p < .10, **p < .05, ***p < .01

An ANOVA test was performed in order to determine if volume of music was associated

with the listener’s psychological well-being. As shown in Table 5, there were no significant

differences between groups that listen to various volumes of music F(2, 188) = .52, p > .05.

27
TABLE 5. Music Volume and Psychological Well-Being

Psychological Well-Being

M SD N

Quiet 98.81 11.56 16

Medium Volume 96.96 11.15 136
Loud 95.41 13.52 39
*p < .10, **p < .05, ***p < .01

An ANOVA test was also conducted to explore possible differences in psychological

well-being between participants based on the lyric content of the music they most often listened

to. Significant differences were found between groups in regard to the lyric content that was

most frequently listened to F(5, 186) = 4.375, p < .01. Participants that selected

“Sad/Depressing” also scored significantly lower on the PWBS when compared with the

following groups: “Motivating/Positive” (p < .01), “Romantic/Loving” (p < .01), and

“Calming/Comforting” (p < .01).

TABLE 6. Lyric Content and Psychological Well-Being

Psychological Well-Being

M SD N

Motivating/Positive 98.24*** 9.95 82

Sad/Depressing 86.79*** 11.41 24

Romantic/Loving 98.44*** 11.01 43
Sexual/Erotic 98.14 17.77 7
Angry/Vengeful 97.80 13.81 5
Calming/Comforting 96.75*** 11.66 31
*p < .10, **p < .05, ***p < .01
28
Demographics and Music Listening Habits

An independent t-test was performed to determine any differences in listening habits

based on gender, and an ANOVA test was performed to determine any differences based on

race/ethnicity. As can be seen in Table 7, there were no significant differences between males

and females, in regard to music listening habits t(186) = 1.30, p > .05. In addition, there were no

significant differences between Ethnic groups, as shown in Table eight F(3, 188) = 1.15, p > .05.

TABLE 7. Gender Differences and Music Listening Habits

Male Female

M SD N M SD N

Healthy Music 45.16 6.01 35 43.81 5.54 151

Listening Habits
*p < .10, **p < .05, ***p < .01

TABLE 8. Ethnic Differences and Music Listening Habits

Healthy Music Listening Habits

M SD N

Latinx/Hispanic 43.10 5.89 48

White/Caucasian 44.53 5.34 116
Asian/Pacific Islander 44.29 6.50 17
Other/Biracial 42.18 5.69 11
*p < .10, **p < .05, ***p < .01

An independent t-test was used to assess any differences in music listening habits

between individuals of different musician status. It was found that there were no significant

differences between musicians and non-musicians, which can be seen in Table 9 t(190) = 1.01, p

> .05.
29
TABLE 9. Musician Status Differences and Music Listening Habits

Musicians Non-Musicians

M SD N M SD N

Healthy 44.49 5.14 82 43.66 5.94 110

Music
Listening
Habits
*p < .10, **p < .05, ***p < .01

An ANOVA test was performed in order to explore possible differences between

participants’ level of education in regard to music listening habits. As can be seen in Table 10,

there were not any significant differences between groups based on level of education F(3, 188)

= 2.13, p > .05, however, between group differences are approaching significance with a p-value

less than .10. In particular, the difference between the “High School/GED” group and

“Bachelor’s Degree” group is approaching significance with a p-value of .09.

TABLE 10. Level of Education Differences and Music Listening Habits

Healthy Music Listening Habits

M SD N

High School/GED 42.28* 6.06 47

Associate’s Degree 44.64 6.16 25
Bachelor’s Degree 44.70* 5.09 97
Post-Graduate Degree 44.00 5.77 23
*p < .10, **p < .05, ***p < .01

30
 CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION

Music Listening Habits and Psychological Well-Being

This study found that there is a positively correlated relationship between music listening

habits and young adults’ level of psychological well-being. As predicted, young adults who

engaged in positive music listening behaviors reported higher levels of psychological well-being,

and individuals who engaged in negative music listening behaviors reported lower levels of

psychological well-being. According to the HUMS scale, healthy music listening habits include

utilizing music for relaxation, social connection, and energy or motivation. Unhealthy listening

habits include ruminating in music that conveys negative emotions and listening to music as a

distraction from confronting issues or to withdraw/isolate (Saarikallio et al., 2015).

Unhealthy Music Listening Habits

In accordance with previous literature, the results of this study indicate that utilizing

music for rumination is correlated with lower psychological well-being (Garrido & Schubert,

2015; Saarikallio et al., 2015; Silverman, 2020). Behaviors such as listening to music that leads

to getting stuck in “bad memories,” music listening that decreases self-esteem, or listening to

songs repeatedly that make the listener “feel worse” were correlated with decreased levels of

psychological well-being in young adults (Saarikallio et al., 2015, p. 214).

Another unhealthy music listening habit measured in this study was the tendency to

utilize music as a method for withdrawal, isolation, and “escape.” Previously, Saarikallio et al.

(2015) found that adolescents withdrawing in their music demonstrated increased levels of

depression. Similarly, this study found that young adults that reported listening to music in order

to “escape” their issues were more likely to demonstrate lower psychological well-being.

31
Healthy Music Listening Habits

In contrast, this study also demonstrates that music use can also be correlated with

increased psychological well-being. Healthy music habits, such as listening for relaxation, have

been shown to elevate mood and increase psychological well-being (de Niet et al., 2009; Trahan

et al., 2018; Saarikallio et al., 2015). Participants in this study who reported that music “helps me

to relax” were more likely to report higher psychological well-being. As has been reported in the

literature, this study found that young adults who utilize music in order to foster social

connection were more likely to demonstrate increased psychological well-being (Garrido et al.,

2017; McFerran et al., 2010; Saarikallio et al., 2015).

Saarikallio et al. (2015) also determined that music listening for the purpose of gaining

motivation, inspiration, and energy was a healthy music listening habit. In this study, young

adults who specified that music “gives me the energy to get going” demonstrated increased

psychological well-being. These results are comparable to previous studies that have concluded

that music can be a valuable tool in increasing energy and motivation (Chin & Rickard, 2014;

Karageorghis & Priest, 2012).

Music Factors

In addition to the methodology to which music is being utilized, the type of music that is

used was found to have an impact on young adults’ psychological well-being. Music genre, for

example, was shown to be a factor approaching significance. Similar to the results of Susino and

Schubert’s (2019) study, classical/instrumental music was associated with increased

psychological well-being in young adults, and rock/metal/alternative music was associated with

decreased psychological well-being in young adults. Pop and rap/hip hop were also found to be

correlated with decreased psychological well-being, as has been reported by Cook et al. (2017).

32
This study also found that the genre most significantly correlated with decreased psychological

well-being was latin music, which has not been reported in previous research.

Another music factor that has been found to impact the psychological well-being of the

listener is the music’s volume (McFerran, 2016). However, the results of this study do not show

any significant differences in psychological well-being between young adults that primarily

listen to quiet, medium volume, or loud music.

Possibly the least studied music factor, but arguably the most relevant, is the lyric content

found within music selections. Similar to conclusions made by Greitemeyer (2009) and Stewart

et al. (2019), this study’s results indicate that lyric content had a statistically significant impact

on the listener’s psychological well-being. In particular, young adults that primarily listen to

music with sad/depressing lyrics reported lower levels of psychological well-being in

comparison to young adults that listen to motivating/positive, romantic/loving, or

calming/comforting music.

Demographics and Music Listening Habits

This study found that there were no significant differences between gender groups and

ethnic groups. The data suggests that young adults do not engage in music listening behaviors

differently on the basis of gender and race/ethnicity. In addition, this study also found that there

were no significant differences in healthy/unhealthy music listening habits between musicians

and non-musicians. This result is in contradiction to Ros-Morente et al.'s (2019) study that

concluded that musicians are more likely than non-musicians to utilize music listening in a

healthy way.

Another demographic factor that was examined in this study was the participant’s level of

education. Young adults with a high school/GED level education were more likely than young

33
adults with a bachelor’s level education to utilize music in an unhealthy manner. Although this

relationship is approaching significance, it is possible that the relationship is more a result of

chronological age as opposed to level of education.

Limitations

Due to the sampling method utilized in this study, the data gathered may not be

generalizable to the population of the United States. First, the sample size may be considered too

small to make definitive conclusions. Also, the study’s sample demographics do not reflect the

general population of the United States, particularly in regard to gender. According to the U.S.

Census Bureau (2019), only 50% of the U.S. population is female. The majority of participants

in this study (78.6%), however, identified themselves as female. Therefore, this study is more

representative of female young adults.

It could also be argued that this study lacks the ethnic/racial diversity to be applied across

all racial and ethnic groups. Although the participants in this study were overwhelmingly

white/caucasian, this is reflective of the United States population. In July 2019, the U.S. Census

Bureau estimated that 76.3% of the population was white, and this study’s sample was 60.4%

white. The U.S. Census Bureau (2019) also estimates that 18.5% of the population is

Hispanic/Latinx, and this study’s sample was 25% Hispanic/Latinx. This study was unable to

obtain data from an important demographic group, Black/African Americans, who make up

13.4% of the U.S. population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2019). This makes the data gathered

unrepresentative of the entire U.S. population.

Another limitation of this study is the time of year that data gathering occurred. Surveys

were distributed beginning at the end of November 2020 and data collection concluded in early

December 2020. Although this time of year is stereotypically stressful for all U.S. residents, it is

34
particularly stressful for college students. This study’s sample of young adults were likely to be

busy and overwhelmed, which may have had an effect on the data gathered. In addition, this

study was conducted during a global pandemic and divisive political climate, which may have

impacted the psychological well-being of the participants.

Implications

The results from this study suggest that more nuanced discussions about music listening

as a coping skill are needed within the mental health profession. How a young adult utilizes

music listening is an important factor when considering music as either a beneficial coping skill

or agent of harm. Mental health professionals should take music listening behaviors into account

when addressing its use as a coping skill. For example, is the young adult using music to escape

from their issues and withdraw from their social supports? Is the young adult using music to

validate feelings and connect with others who might feel similarly? Is the lyric content of the

music typically depressing and discouraging? Or is the lyric content typically calming and

positive? The intent behind music listening, the habits in which clients engage in, and the type of

music that is being utilized should all be taken into consideration when recommending music as

a coping skill.

Interestingly, music listening habits did not significantly vary between different

demographic groups. Musicians were just as likely as non-musicians to utilize healthy music

listening habits. Men were just as likely to utilize unhealthy music listening habits as women.

This implies that assumptions about a young adult’s music listening habits cannot be made based

on race/ethnicity, gender, musician status, and level of education.

Although a significant positive relationship was found between music listening habits and

psychological well-being, this does not imply that music is the cause of an individual’s level of

35
psychological well-being. Although it has been suggested that music listening influences a young

adult’s psychological well-being, it is also probable that a young adult’s level of psychological

well-being leads them to use music in unhealthy ways. It is more likely that the two factors

reinforce each other, as opposed to one causing the other. In alignment with many other studies,

this study’s findings show that music listening can be associated with both lower and higher

psychological well-being. Therefore, listening to music is not inherently good or bad, but

requires context to understand its effect on young adults’ mental health.

This study presents interesting findings that can be a topic for further research. For

example, more information can be gathered regarding Latin music and its apparent relationship

with decreased psychological well-being. In addition, this study suggests that lyric content is a

stronger indicator for music’s effect on psychological well-being compared to genre and volume.

This influential music factor could be explored further.

36
APPENDICES

37
 APPENDIX A

SURVEY INSTRUMENT

38
 Music Habits and Psychological Well-Being

Is your age 18-25?

o Yes
o No
Skip To: End of Survey If Is your age 18-25? = No
End of Block: Qualifier

Start of Block: Music Background

What genre/s of music do you listen to the most?

▢ Pop, Electronic and/or dance

▢ Rap, Hip Hop and/or R&B

▢ Rock, Metal and/or Alternative

▢ Classical, Instrumental and/or Choral

▢ Country and/or folk

▢ Latin (bachata, cumbia, merengue, rumba, mariachi, reggaeton, salsa, etc.)

▢ Other

39
Which of the following best describes the music you MOST OFTEN listen to?

o Quiet
o Medium Volume
o Loud

Which of the following best describes the lyric content of the music you MOST OFTEN listen
to?

o Motivating / Positive / Uplifting / Hopeful

o Sad / Depressing / Discouraging / Pessimistic
o Romantic / Loving
o Sexual / Erotic
o Angry / Vengeful / Frustrating
o Calming / Comforting

Do you consider yourself a musician? In this case, "musician" refers to an individual that
engages in the music making process for work, pleasure and/or socialization.

o Yes
o No
End of Block: Music Background

Start of Block: Psychological Well-Being

40
 Neither
Strongly Somewha agree Somewha Strongly
Agree Disagree
Agree t agree nor t disagree disagree
disagree
I like most
parts of my
personality
o o o o o o o
When I look
at the story of
my life, I am
pleased with
how things
o o o o o o o
have turned
out so far
Some people
wander
aimlessly
through life, o o o o o o o
but I am not
one of them
The demands
of everyday
life often get o o o o o o o
me down
In many
ways I feel
disappointed
about my o o o o o o o
achievements
in life
Maintaining
close
relationships
has been
difficult and
o o o o o o o
frustrating
for me
I live life one
day at a time
and don't
really think o o o o o o o
about the
future

41
 In general, I
feel I am in
charge of the
situation in
o o o o o o o
which I live
I am good at
managing the
responsibiliti
es of daily
o o o o o o o
life
I sometimes
feel as if I've
done all there
is to do in
o o o o o o o
life
For me, life
has been a
continuous
process of
learning,
o o o o o o o
changing,
and growth
I think it is
important to
have new
experiences
that
challenge
o o o o o o o
how I think
about myself
and the world
People would
describe me
as a giving
person,
willing to o o o o o o o
share my
time with
others
I gave up
trying to
make big
improvement
s or changes
o o o o o o o
in my life a
long time ago

42
 I tend to be
influenced by
people with
strong
o o o o o o o
opinions
I have not
experienced
many warm
and trusting o o o o o o o
relationships
with others
I have
confidence in
my own
opinions,
even if they
are different
o o o o o o o
from the way
most other
people think
I judge
myself by
what I think
is important,
not by the
values of
o o o o o o o
what others
think is
important

End of Block: Psychological Well-Being

Start of Block: Music Listening Habits

43
"When I listen to music I get stuck in bad memories"

o Never
o Rarely
o Sometimes
o Often
o Always

"I hide in my music because no one understands me and it blocks people out"

o Never
o Rarely
o Sometimes
o Often
o Always

"Music helps me to relax"

o Never
o Rarely
o Sometimes
o Often
o Always

44
"When I try to use music to feel better I actually end up feeling worse"

o Never
o Rarely
o Sometimes
o Often
o Always

"I feel happier after playing or listening to music"

o Never
o Rarely
o Sometimes
o Often
o Always

"Music gives me the energy to get going"

o Never
o Rarely
o Sometimes
o Often
o Always

45
"I like to listen to songs over and over even though it makes me feel worse"

o Never
o Rarely
o Sometimes
o Often
o Always

"Music makes me feel bad about who I am"

o Never
o Rarely
o Sometimes
o Often
o Always

"Music helps me to connect with other people who are like me"

o Never
o Rarely
o Sometimes
o Often
o Always

46
"Music gives me an excuse not to face up to the real world"

o Never
o Rarely
o Sometimes
o Often
o Always

"It can be hard to stop listening to music that connects me to bad memories"

o Never
o Rarely
o Sometimes
o Often
o Always

"Music leads me to do things I shouldn't do"

o Never
o Rarely
o Sometimes
o Often
o Always

47
"When I'm feeling tired or tense in my body music helps me to relax"

o Never
o Rarely
o Sometimes
o Often
o Always
End of Block: Music Listening Habits

Start of Block: Demographics

What is your race/ethnicity?

o Latinx/Hispanic
o African American/Black
o White/Caucasian
o Asian Pacific Islander
o Middle Eastern
o Native American
o Biracial
o Other

48
What is your gender?

o Male
o Female
o Transgender Male
o Transgender Female
o Nonbinary
o Other

What is your highest level of education?

o High School Graduate / GED

o Associate's Degree
o Bachelor's Degree
o Master's Degree
o Doctorate Degree
o None
End of Block: Demographics

49
 APPENDIX B

INFORMED CONSENT FORM

50
Approved November 23, 2020 by the CSULB IRB.

Notice of Informed Consent

Project Title: Music Listening Habits and Psychological Well-being
Investigator(s): Laura Torgeson, Brian Lam
Project Contact: [email protected], [email protected]
California State University, Long Beach (CSULB)
Office of Research and Sponsored Programs, CSULB: 1250 Bellflower Blvd., Long Beach, CA 90840

You are being asked to participate in a research study.

The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between young adults’ music listening habits and their
psychological well-being. Participants in the study will include any individuals between the ages of 18 and 25. If
you decide to participate you will be asked to answer questions about your music listening habits, about your
demographic information, and about your general psychological well-being. No personal identifying information
will be collected. The total time of your participation is expected to last a maximum of 10 minutes and you have the
right to withdraw from the study at any time.

The risks possible to participate in this study include discomfort, loss of confidentiality, and coercion. The
investigator will make every attempt to reduce the risk of discomfort by allowing questions in the survey to be
skipped. In addition, the survey will be as brief as possible and resources will be provided at the conclusion of the
survey, including website links as well as the national suicide hotline number. To alleviate the risk of loss of
confidentiality, data collected from the online survey will be stored in an SPSS database located on the primary
investigator's personal computer. The SPSS files are encrypted with passwords. The primary investigator's personal
computer is also password protected. The investigator will also attempt to reduce the risk of coercion by only
including voluntary participation. Choosing not to participate in the study will not affect your relationship with the
researcher.

You may not directly benefit from participating in this study. However, the results of this study may benefit mental
health professionals, by gaining more understanding on the role music plays in young adults’ psychological well-
being.

Any information collected from you in this study will be stored in a secure location and will not be shared with
anyone who does not have appropriate provisions to access the information.
You may contact the Office of Research and Sponsored Programs at [email protected], or by calling
(562) 985-8147, if you have questions about your rights as a research participant. For questions about this particular
study, you may contact Brian Lam at [email protected].

By agreeing to participate in this survey you verify that you have read the above information regarding the study and
you voluntarily agree to participate.

Approved November 23, 2020 by the CSULB IRB.

51
 APPENDIX C

LETTER OF APPROVAL FROM

INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD

52
 CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, LONG
BEACH OFFICE OF RESEARCH & SPONSORED PROGRAMS

DATE: November 23, 2020

TO: Laura Torgeson, BS

FROM: CSULB IRB

PROJECT TITLE: [1656323-2] Music Listening Habits and Psychological Well-Being in Young Adults
REFERENCE #: 21-085
SUBMISSION TYPE: New Project
REVIEW TYPE: Exempt Review

ACTION: APPROVED
APPROVAL DATE: November 23, 2020

This is to advise you that the Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects (IRB) of
California State University, Long Beach, has reviewed your protocol application.

Your application is approved by Exempt Review according to the U.S. Department of Health & Human
Services regulation at 45 CFR 46. 104(d)(2).

Based on CSULB IRB Memo in Response to COVID-19, Phase II, in-person interactions with human
subjects should be halted until further notice; otherwise, submit an appeal to the CSULB IRB via IRBNet
with a strong justification and detailed descriptions on how to mitigate the potential risk of COVID-19
infection.

Approval is effective beginning November 23, 2020 and conditional upon your willingness to carry out your
continuing responsibilities under University policy:

1. You must clearly indicate in the header or footer of each page of your approved Informed Consent Form and
recruitment material as follows: "Approved November 23, 2020 by the CSULB IRB."
2. If you need to make changes/revisions to this approved project, you must submit a Request for Amendment to
an Approved Protocol form in addition to any documents affected by the requested change. Submit these
documents as a subsequent package to your approved project in IRBNet. You are not allowed to implement
any changes to your research activities prior to obtaining final approval of your Amendment from the CSULB
IRB.
3. You are required to inform the Director of Research Integrity and Compliance, Office of Research &
Sponsored Programs, via email at ORSPCompliance within twenty-four hours of any adverse event in the
conduct of research involving human subjects. The report shall include the nature of the adverse event, the
names of the persons affected, the extent of the injury or breach of confidentiality or data security, if any, and
any other information material to the situation.

53
 - 1 - Generated on IRBNet
4. Maintain your research records as detailed in the protocol.

Should you have any questions about the conduct of your research under this protocol, particularly about providing
informed consent and unexpected contingencies, please do not hesitate to call the Office of Research & Sponsored
Programs at (562) 985-8147. We wish you the best of success in your research.

This letter has been electronically signed in accordance with all applicable regulations, and a copy is retained within California State University,
Long Beach Institutional Review Board's records.

1250 Bellflower Blvd., Long Beach, CA 90840

Ph. (562) 985-8147 Fax. (562) 985-8665

54
 APPENDIX D

RECRUITMENT MESSAGES

55
FACEBOOK/INSTAGRAM:

I am conducting a study for my master’s thesis and would appreciate your help! I am looking for
any young adults between the ages of 18-25 to complete this survey about their music listening
habits and psychological well-being. If you could take the survey and pass it along to others in
your social circle, I would really appreciate it!
Approved November 23, 2020 by the CSULB IRB.

https://csulb.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_aVFjhN2kUBCIQfz

EMAIL:

Hello (insert name here),

I am conducting a study for my master’s thesis and would appreciate your assistance. I am
looking for any young adults between the ages of 18-25 to answer some questions about their
music listening habits and psychological well-being. If you could take the survey and pass it
along to others in your social circle, I would really appreciate it.
Approved November 23, 2020 by the CSULB IRB.

https://csulb.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_aVFjhN2kUBCIQfz

Thank you,

-Laura Torgeson

DIRECT MESSAGE:

Hey (insert name here)!

I am conducting a study for my master’s thesis and would appreciate your participation! If you
yourself are between the ages 18-25 please take this survey, and if you know anyone else who
is a young adult send the link along to them!
Approved November 23, 2020 by the CSULB IRB.

https://csulb.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_aVFjhN2kUBCIQfz

56
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57
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